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Historical Connections in Mathematics
Historical Connections in Mathematics
IN MATHEMATICS
Volume I
CHAPTER 1
Portrait of Pythagoras...........................................................................................................9
Pythagoras: The Master Teacher.........................................................................................10
Activities:
Number Shapes........................................................................................................12
Square, Oblong, and Triangular Numbers.................................................................13
Pythagorean Discoveries..........................................................................................14
Figurate Families......................................................................................................15
The Spider and the Fly.............................................................................................16
A Pythagorean Puzzle...............................................................................................17
Pyramid Puzzles........................................................................................................18
CHAPTER 2
Portrait of Archimedes........................................................................................................19
Archimedes: The Greek Streaker........................................................................................20
Activities:
Archimedes' Mobiles................................................................................................22
A Teeter-Totter Discovery.........................................................................................23
A Balancing Act.......................................................................................................24
Counting Kernels......................................................................................................25
Predicting Float Lines...............................................................................................26
The King's Crown: A Skit..........................................................................................27
CHAPTER 3
Portrait of Napier................................................................................................................29
Napier: The 16th Century Mathemagician..........................................................................30
Activities:
Lattice Multiplication................................................................................................32
Napier's Rods...........................................................................................................33
Russian Peasant Method of Multiplication.................................................................34
Earthquake Mathematics..........................................................................................35
The Magic Rooster: A Skit........................................................................................36
Napier's Magic: A Crossword Puzzle.........................................................................38
CHAPTER 4
Portrait of Galileo................................................................................................................39
Galileo: The Father of the Scientific Method........................................................................40
Activities:
Galileo Drops The Ball..............................................................................................42
Have Gravity: Must Travel.........................................................................................43
How High Can You Throw?.......................................................................................44
How Fast Can You Throw?........................................................................................45
Heartbeats and Pendulums.......................................................................................46
CHAPTER 5
Portrait of Fermat...............................................................................................................47
Fermat: The Marginal Mathematician.................................................................................48
Activities:
Primes and Squares..................................................................................................50
Prime Number "Machines"........................................................................................51
Number Tricks..........................................................................................................52
CHAPTER 6
Portrait of Pascal................................................................................................................55
Pascal: Launcher of the Computer Age...............................................................................56
Pascal's Triangle.................................................................................................................58
Activities:
Summing up Pascal..................................................................................................59
Pascal Magic............................................................................................................60
MATHEMATICS........................................................................................................61
Pascal's Perimeter....................................................................................................62
A Birthday Surprise..................................................................................................63
CHAPTER 7
Portrait of Newton...............................................................................................................65
Newton: Small But Mighty..................................................................................................66
Activities:
A Tower of Powers of 2.............................................................................................68
Chain Letter Madness...............................................................................................69
A Series Surprise......................................................................................................70
The Binomial Theorem.............................................................................................71
The Short Giant: A Skit............................................................................................72
CHAPTER 8
Portrait of Euler..................................................................................................................75
Euler: The Bridge to Topology............................................................................................76
Activities:
Vertices, Regions, and Arcs......................................................................................78
Traveling Networks...................................................................................................79
Faces, Vertices, and Edges.......................................................................................80
Knight's Move on the Chessboard.............................................................................81
Inside or Outside?.....................................................................................................82
CHAPTER 9
Portrait of Germain.............................................................................................................83
Germain: Mathematics in a Man's World.............................................................................84
Activities:
Four Fours...............................................................................................................86
$1.00 Words.............................................................................................................87
Palindromes.............................................................................................................88
Counting Divisors.....................................................................................................89
Happy Numbers.......................................................................................................90
Midnight Math: A Crossword Puzzle..........................................................................91
CHAPTER 10
Portrait of Gauss.................................................................................................................93
Gauss: The Prince of Mathematicians.................................................................................94
Activities:
Gauss's Challenge....................................................................................................96
Summing Odds........................................................................................................97
Last Digits................................................................................................................98
Average Ability.........................................................................................................99
What's for Lunch?...................................................................................................100
RESOURCES...................................................................................................................101
SUGGESTIONS AND SOLUTIONS.................................................................................103
Our goal in this book is to provide a collection of resources to make it easy for
teachers to integrate the history of mathematics into their teaching. While mathematics
history textbooks abound, there are not many sources which combine concise bio-
graphical information with activities to use in the classroom. We hope that the problem
solving experiences, the portraits, and the anecdotal stories will facilitate a broad,
natural linkage of human elements and mathematical concepts.
The value of using history in teaching mathematics is currently gaining emphasis.
Providing a personal and cultural context for mathematics helps students sense the
larger meaning and scope of their studies. When they learn how persons have discov-
ered and developed mathematics, they begin to understand that posing and solving
problems is a distinctly human activity.
Using history in the mathematics classroom is often a successful motiva-
tional tool. Especially when combined with manipulatives, illustrations, and relevant
applications, historical elements have the power to make mathematics “come alive”
as never before. By viewing mathematics from a historical perspective, students learn
that the process of problem solving is as important as the solution.
This book can be used in many ways. The teacher may choose to read or share
biographical information and anecdotes as an introduction to one or more of the
activities in a particular section. Portraits may be posted or distributed, and puzzles or
skits may be used independently. It may be most effective, however, to focus on one
mathematician at a time. A wide range of activities may be incorporated into a unit on
a specific mathematician, allowing the teacher to make cross-disciplinary connections
with social studies, language arts, and science.
Mathematicians may be selected for emphasis according to the concepts being
introduced in the mathematics curriculum or may be used at random for enrichment.
While some of the activities do not replicate the exact problems the mathematicians
worked on, they represent the areas of interest of those mathematicians.
Activities have been chosen to appeal to a wide range of interests and ability levels.
Complete solutions and suggestions for use are included in the back of this book.
Wilbert Reimer
Luetta Reimer
Quotations by Pythagoras:
“Number rules the universe.”
+
=
The even number 10 An even number plus an odd number is an
odd number.
An odd number is the number of pebbles in
a rectangle having two rows with one extra
pebble.
+
=
An even number plus an even number is an
even number.
The odd number 11
+
=
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 12 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
SQUARE OBLONG TRIANGULAR
NUMBERS NUMBERS NUMBERS
Square numbers are numbers which can be Oblong numbers are numbers which can be Triangular numbers are numbers which can be
represented by dots in a square array. The represented by dots in a rectangle having one represented by dots in a triangular array. The
first four square numbers are pictured below. dimension one unit longer than the other. The first four triangular numbers are pictured
first four oblong numbers are pictured below. below.
• • • •
• • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • •
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1st 2nd 3rd 4th • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
•• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •
1st 2nd 3rd 4th • • • • • • • • • •
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
13
1st 1 1st 2 1st 1
2nd 4 2nd 6 2nd 3
3rd _______ 3rd _______ 3rd _______
4th _______ 4th _______ 4th _______
5th _______ 5th _______ 5th _______
6th _______ 6th _______ 6th _______
50th _______ 50th _______ 50th _______
nth _______ nth _______ nth _______
Complete the table to find the number of Complete the table to find the number of Complete the table to find the number of
dots in the nth square number. dots in the nth oblong number. dots in the nth triangular number.
Square 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64
Oblong 2 6 12 20 30 42 56 72
1. The sum of two consecutive triangular numbers is a(n)
__________ number.
•
••
•••
A triangular number is the number of dots in a triangular array.
A•••
••• square number is the number of dots in a square array.
•••
••••
•••• An oblong number is the number of dots in a rectangular array having one more
•••• column than rows.
Complete the table below. Note the many horizontal and vertical
relationships. Take advantage of these patterns as you work.
Triangular 1 3 6 10
Square 1 4 9
Pentagonal 1 5 12
Family
Hexagonal 1 6
Heptagonal 1
Octagonal
Sidewall
Ceiling
30ft
12ft 12ft
A room is 30 feet long, 12 feet wide, and 12
feet high. At one end of the room, 1 foot from
the floor, and midway from the sides, is a fly.
At the other end, 11 feet from the floor, and
midway from the sides, is a spider. Determine
the shortest path by way of the floor, ends,
sides, and ceiling, the spider can take to
capture the fly. How long, in feet, is this path?
In the puzzle shown, notice that the two squares on the legs of the
right triangle are made up of five pieces.
Cut out the puzzle and arrange the five pieces to make one square on
the hypotenuse. This illustrates the Pythagorean theorem!
PUZZLE NO. 1
+ + +
=
+ +
PUZZLE NO. 2
Quotation by Archimedes:
“Give me a spot where I can stand, and I
shall move the earth!” (on the law of the lever)
Archimedes’ Screw
One of the most practical of Archimedes’
inventions was the Archimedean screw, or
cochlias. This water-removing device was a tube,
open at each end, enclosing a rod. When the
lower end was immersed in water at an angle
and the upper end was rotated, the screw worked
like a straw, drawing the water up and out the
top. This was used in Egypt to get water out of
the Nile for irrigation, in Spain to pump water
from silver mines, and at sea to bail water out
of leaking ships. It continues to be used in many Death of a Genius
countries today. One day during the Roman attack on Sicily,
the Greeks relaxed their vigilance at the wall to
The Sand Reckoner celebrate the festival of Artemis, their goddess
In his best known book, The Sand Reckoner, of the moon. The Romans saw their opportunity
Archimedes describes the process he used to and seized the capital city of Syracuse.
measure the universe—in terms of how much Archimedes was not at the party. Rather, he
sand it would take to fill it! First, he counted was busy working on a geometry problem in the
how much sand it would take to make up a sand when a Roman soldier approached him.
poppy seed. Then he counted how many poppy Without even looking up, Archimedes barked
seeds would equal the size of a man’s finger. at the soldier to get out of
Next he calculated how many fingers it would his light; his work on circles
take to fill a stadium. He continued this process should not be interrupted.
until he came up with his answer: 1063 grains Although his commander had
of sand. This number was the largest number forbidden anyone to harm
ever imagined. Although Archimedes greatly Archimedes, the irate soldier
underestimated the size of the universe, he thrust his spear through the
introduced the use of exponents to write large mathematician, thus ending
numbers. the life of the greatest creative
genius of the Greek era.
Creative Defense
When the Romans attacked Sicily,
Archimedes was summoned to apply his cre-
ative energy to the defense. He designed an
incredible collection of weaponry to hold off the
To help you answer this question, examine the table below and discover one of the properties
Archimedes discovered about levers. The values in the table cause a lever to be in balance.
D1 W1 D2 W2
(Distance child 1 is from (Weight of child 1) (Distance child 2 is from (Weight of child 2)
the fulcrum) the fulcrum)
3 ft 80 lbs 4 ft 60 lbs
4 ft 75 lbs 6 ft 50 lbs
4 ft 55 lbs 5 ft
5 ft 6 ft 125 lbs
60 lbs 3 ft 40 lbs
Select a small box and fill it with kernels. How many kernels fill the
box? __________
What is the approximate number of popcorn kernels which would fill your
classroom? __________
Use the density of each wood block to predict its float line. Remember,
water has the density of 1 gram/cm3. Anything with less density will
float. By computing the density of each block, you can find the portion
that will be submerged. For example, if the density is 1 4
g/cm 3
, then 1
4
of the block will be submerged.
Place a rubber band around each block where you predict the water line
will be.
Now place the blocks in a container of water. How close were your
predictions?
Characters: Props:
Narrator Crown (paper or cardboard will do)
Archimedes Cloth or handkerchief to cover crown
King Hieron Bath tub (such as a large cardboard box)
Two stage hands Robe for King (optional)
Narrator: Archimedes was the greatest mathematician of ancient times. He made many
important contributions to mathematics. Along with his discoveries and inven-
tions, Archimedes was a reliable problem solver for the King. One story which
is especially interesting is the story of the King’s crown!
(Enter King Hieron and Archimedes. King holds crown with handkerchief over it.)
King Hieron: Well, you see, I just had this new crown made for me. (Takes handkerchief off crown.)
King Hieron: Oh, I love the way it looks, but I’m not sure about its quality. I took the necessary
amount of gold to the goldsmith for the making of the crown, but now I wonder
if he put some silver inside the crown, and kept some of the gold for himself!
Archimedes: (Scratching his head in thought) Hmm....Have you weighed the crown to see if
it weighs the same as the gold you took him?
King Hieron: I sure have, and it weighs the same. I hope you can solve this problem, Archimedes.
(Exit King Hieron with his crown. Archimedes begins to walk around, thinking.)
Narrator: Archimedes told the King he would think about it as he wandered off. As he
walked, he was thinking so hard about the King’s problem that he bumped into
things and forgot where he was going.
(Exit Archimedes. Stage hands bring out bath tub. Enter Archimedes, who climbs into the
bath tub.)
Archimedes: Hurray, I have found it! I noticed that when I sat down in the bath tub, the water
rose. If an object with a large volume is placed in water, a large amount of water
will rise. And if an object with a small volume but the same weight is placed
in water, a smaller amount of water will rise. I can’t wait to tell the King my
discovery!
(Exit Archimedes. Bath tub is left on the stage. Enter Archimedes with King Hieron.)
Narrator: Archimedes went to the King with his discovery. (Archimedes and King bend over
bath tub as if putting things in it.) Archimedes put the gold under the water and
measured how much the water rose. Then he did the same thing with the crown,
and the water rose higher. This proved that the crown could not be pure gold.
Archimedes: Well, your Highness, a lot can be learned from taking a bath!
Contributions:
Napier was the inventor of logarithms, which The Drunk Pigeons
made numerical calculations faster and more Napier was tired of his neighbor’s pigeons,
accurate. He also developed another method who were always pecking the seeds and grain
for simplifying calculation, known as Napier’s out of his fields. He had warned the neighbor
Rods, usually made of bones or ivory. He was that he was going to do something drastic, but
the first mathematician to standardize the use it had not done any good. One day, in exaspera-
of the decimal point. Napier also invested his tion, he sent a message threatening to catch and
time in agricultural experimentation, military keep the birds the next time they flew over his
science, and religious and political causes. fields.
“Mr. Napier,” laughed the neighbor, “if you
Quotation by Napier: can catch them, you can have them!”
“There is nothing so troublesome to The next morning, Napier’s servants arrived
mathematical practice than multiplications, at work to find their master busily picking up
divisions, square and cubical extractions of pigeons and tossing them into a sack. They had
great numbers...I began therefore to consider never seen anything like it, but they weren’t
how I might remove those hindrances.” surprised.
Napier had a reputation for finding practical
Anecdotes: solutions to everyday problems, even though
Marvelous Merchiston his ideas were often unorthodox. His neighbors
At home on his estate, found out later that Napier had soaked some
Napier was always busy peas in brandy, and scattered them in the yard
working on a new inven- to attract the pigeons. After they had had their
tion or writing about a fill of the peas, he was able to pick them up by
new idea. He developed hand and toss them into the sack. The pigeons
the use of salt as fertilizer. were drunk!
5 4 8 1 5 1
4 6 6
6 8 2 4 8
4 8 4 0 8
76 x 98 = 7448 293 x 56 = 16408
Use lattice multiplication to solve these problems.
4 6
3
X
18 25
Cross out all the rows which have
9 50 an even number on the left, then
add up all the remaining numbers
4 100 on the right.
2 200
1 400
450
1) 20 x 25 ___________ 3) 12 x 25 ___________
2) 16 x 30 ___________ 4) 22 x 75 ___________
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 34 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
EARTHQUAKE MATHEMATICS
When Napier (1550-1617) invented logarithms, he
had no idea they would someday be used to measure
earthquakes! The Richter scale measures the magnitude
of earthquakes using logarithms, which are exponents.
The Richter value is only part of the number describing
an earthquake's strength. It is the exponent using
10 as the base. If an earthquake has a
Richter value of 6, the magnitude of this
earthquake is 106.
To compare the magnitude of two
earthquakes, divide the larger by the
smaller. For example, to see how
much stronger an earthquake with
a Richter value of 7.8 is than one
with a value of 4.6, divide 107.8 by
104.6. The answer: approximately
1585 times stronger.
EARTHQUAKE QUESTIONS:
1. Many people think that an earthquake with a Richter value of 8 is
twice as strong as one with a value of 4. How do the two actually
compare in intensity?
2. Using the map above and a calculator, compare the following pairs
of earthquakes. Approximately how much stronger is the first
earthquake than the second?
(a) San Francisco, 1906 vs Loma Prieta, 1989
(b) Tehachapi, 1952 vs Mammoth Lakes, 1980
(c) Landers, 1992 vs Coalinga, 1983
(d) Eureka, 1980 vs San Fernando, 1971
Props:
Several tools (garden or kitchen)
A dirty “rooster” such as a chalk eraser filled with dark chalk dust.
A screen or table to represent the shed.
Group may decide if it would be effective for the audience to view actual rooster petting
scene.
Narrator: The great mathematician, John Napier, made many discoveries in his lifetime. His
problem-solving techniques were so incredible he was sometimes accused of using
magic. In this story, Napier used that notion to solve a very practical problem. It’s
the story of the magic rooster!
(Enter Napier, talking to himself. Thief may quietly rummage around behind him, collecting
a few miscellaneous tools under his coat)
Napier: I just don’t understand. Ever since I hired these new workers, things have mysteri-
ously disappeared from my house! At first, I didn’t really notice, since only a tool
or two were missing, but now even the cook has complained about things missing
from the kitchen! I have to put a stop to this. What can I do? The thief would never
admit to stealing my things. I must think of a plan...
Narrator: Napier thought and thought, trying to think of a clever way to discover which of the
new workers was the thief. Suddenly, he had an idea. He called all the workers for
a meeting.
Napier: Someone has been stealing from me. Since no one has confessed, I have found a
sure way to catch the thief. In this shed is my black rooster, the magical one that
can tell the truth from lies. (Workers look at each other nervously.) Now, I want
each one of you to go into the dark shed, one at a time, and pet the rooster on the
back. The rooster will then tell me which one of you is guilty.
(One by one, the workers enter shed and pet the rooster. Just before his turn, the Thief steps
aside and whispers to the audience.)
Narrator: So the thief entered the shed, stayed away from the rooster, and then came out to
stand in line with the others.
Napier: Very good. Now, let me see who the rooster has declared as the thief. Let me see
your hands.
Narrator: The workers held out their hands to Napier, palms up. He walked slowly past
them all and looked at the big, black smudges on their hands. All of the workers’
hands were dirty, except for the thief’s. Napier stopped in front of the man with
the clean hands.
Napier: You are the guilty one. Look at your hands—they’re clean. All of the other work-
ers knew they were innocent so they touched the rooster, but you were scared
since you were guilty. Because you refused to pet the rooster, I know you are the
thief!
Thief: Are you going to believe a stupid rooster? How can it know whether or not I’ve
been stealing?—even if it is magical!
Napier: You silly worker. The rooster is not magical. (Napier turns to all workers) Know-
ing that the guilty man would not touch the rooster, I covered it with greasy black
soot, collected after the oil lamps were cleaned. This way I would be able to tell
which man was too scared to touch the rooster. The thief would be the only one
with clean hands. (Napier turns to Thief) You may think it was only a “stupid
rooster,” but it definitely outsmarted you!
ACROSS DOWN
3 Napier’s home country. 1 Someone who performs tricks or illusions.
6 The color of the innocent workers’ hands. 2 The century in which Napier lived.
7 A family mansion such as Napier lived in. 4 A receptacle for drinking liquids.
8 The “secret” ingredient fed to the pigeons. 5 These reduced multiplication and division to
9 The inside of your hands. addition and subtraction.
11 One of Napier’s workers was this. 6 Another name for Napier’s rods.
13 An examination. 10 What Napier did for relaxation and fun.
14 What Napier tossed to the birds. 12 Something we all enjoy.
15 The owner of the birds Napier captured. 14 The answer to a multiplication problem.
20 The point Napier made popular. 16 What mathematics was for Napier.
21 The answer to an addition problem. 17 What Napier’s rods could do.
22 A gorilla. 18 The birds which were eating Napier’s
23 Napier had one with something to “crow” seeds.
about. 19 Napier designed weapons for this time.
3 96
REMEMBER...
An object gains speed when dropped. 4 128
(Assume no air resistance.)
5 160
6
QUESTON:
A penny dropped from the top of 7
the Empire State Building hits the
ground after about 10 seconds. 8
With what velocity does it strike
the ground? T
6
QUESTION:
A boy drops a rock from a bridge 7
to the water below. If it takes 9
seconds for the rock to hit the 8
water, how high above the water is
the bridge? T
Here is a table showing the total time a ball is in the air and the
maximum height it reaches when thrown vertically.
Complete the table and discover the formula expressing the relationship
between H (height) and T (time).
2 16
3 36
4 64
5 100
6
Find out how high you can throw a
7 ball by using this formula.
Suppose a ball is thrown vertically up. Here is a table showing the total
time a ball is in the air and the velocity, in miles per hour, that it was
thrown.
2 22
3 33
4 44
5 55
Find out how fast you can throw a
6 ball by using this formula.
7
A friend with a stopwatch can
8 help you determine the total
time the ball is in the air.
T
Remember to throw the ball as
vertically as possible.
16 4.44
25 5.55
QUESTION: 36
Jason swings on a giant rope
over the lake near his home. 49
If the rope is 100 feet long,
how much time does it take to 64
complete one swing?
L
43
1. 5077
2. 2819 47
3. 8081
4. 4003 53
2. n2 - n + 41 is a remarkable formula. It
generates primes for all counting numbers
from 1 to 40. Verify that primes are produced
for several values of n.
More than 100 years later, Euler showed that the number
5
22 + 1 = 232 + 1 = 4,294,967,297
KEY: The last two digits are your age. The rest is the house number.
TRICK 2
1. Choose any number.
2. Add 5.
3. Double the result.
4. Subtract 4.
5. Divide by 2.
6. Subtract the original number.
TRICK 3
1. Choose any number.
2. Add 3.
3. Multiply by 2.
4. Add 4.
5. Divide by 2.
6. Subtract the original number.
1 1 72 74
1 2 36 39
What is the fewest number of coconuts the sailors must have collected
originally so that there would be a whole number of coconuts left after
all this?
1
1 1
58
1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
1 11 55 165 330 462 462 330 165 55 11 1
1 1
1 (1 Row)
2 3
3 7
1 (2 Rows)
4
1 1
5
1 6
1 1 (3 Rows)
1 2 1 7
8
1
1 1 (4 Rows) 50
1 2 1
1 3 3 1 n
Find the sum of all the numbers contained in each parallelogram and
relate the sum to one of the numbers found outside the parallelogram.
Find the sum of all the numbers contained in the parallelogram below.
Use the short cut discovered above to find your answer in less than
3 seconds!
Pascal triangles with 2 rows, 3 rows, 4 rows, and 5 rows are provided
below. The sum of the numbers on the perimeter of each triangle is
shown in the table.
1
1 1 Number of Perimeter
Rows Sum
2 Rows
2 3
1
1 1
1 2 1
3 7
3 Rows
1
1 1 4 13
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
5 23
4 Rows
1
1 1 6
1 2 1
1 3 3 1
1 4 6 4 1
n
5 Rows
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 62 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
A BIRTHDAY SURPRISE
Blaise Pascal (1623 - 1662) was one of the founders of
probability theory. A fascinating problem from probability deals
with birthdays.
Guess! ________
Suppose this is done 50 times. How high will the stack be?
Guess! __________
Complete the table to help you discover the pattern and solve
this problem.
Number of Number of
Tears Pieces
1 2
2 4
3 8
50
Hint: Write the numbers in the second column as powers of two.
Use a scientific calculator to express your answer in feet or miles.
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 68 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
CHAIN LETTER
MADNESS
One day Jennifer received this letter in the mail:
Dear Jennifer,
This is your lucky day! If you follow the instructions in this letter you will receive
thousands of dollars in the mail!
Here’s what you do:
First, send $1.00 to the person at the top of the list of names below. Take his/
her name off and move all the other names up one spot, adding yours in the number 4
position. Then make twenty copies of this new letter and send them to twenty of your
best friends.
1. Jim Smith
2. Allison Hunter
3. George Anderson
4. Sharon Barker
P.S. Don’t be a bad sport and break the chain, and don’t tell the Postal Service
about this letter (it’s illegal)!
How much would Jennifer get if the chain were not broken? $160,000.
This opportunity sounded too good to be true, and it was! Why?
Complete the table to find how many people would be needed to keep this letter going
through only 8 cycles. How does your result compare with the current world’s population
of about 7 billion?
Total Number
Number of People
Cycle Number of People Needed
Needed for Cycle
from Beginning
1 20 20
2 400 420
3 8000 8420
99
QUESTIONS:
1. What does the sum of the series get closer to as the number of terms increases?
2. Finding the sum of the first n terms in a series is an important process. In calculus, this is
called the “nth partial sum.” What is the sum of the first n terms in this series?
3. Find the sum of the first 50 terms and the first n terms for the series
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 +…
1•3 3•5 5•7 7•9 9•11
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 70 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM
The binomial theorem, a short cut for expanding a binomial without
doing a lot of tedious work, is an important mathematical tool. Isaac
Newton contributed to our understanding of this theorem. Many results
in mathematics have been proven using the binomial theorem.
1
Look at the various powers of a binomial and 1 1
discover what pattern emerges. 1 2 1
1 3 3 1
(a + b)0 = 1 1 4 6 4 1
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(a + b)1 = 1a + 1b 1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
What is the pattern with respect to the letters and their exponents?
(a + b)5 = ___ a5 + ___ a4b + ___ a3b2 + ___ a2b3 + ___ ab4 + ___ b5
(Matthew and James are standing in the city square, craning their necks as if looking for someone in the
crowd.)
James: Where? I can’t see him! There are too many people and he’s too short. Where is he?
Matthew: Right there! Come on. Let’s go talk to him! (He winds his way through an imaginary crowd.)
James: Excuse me...pardon me...excuse me...I’m sorry, Ma’am. Will you slow down, Matthew!
Matthew: I can’t! We have to find out what his secret of discovery is. Otherwise, you and I will never
pass our mathematics course this year.
(They get to where Newton is standing with Mrs. Waterby and Mrs. Baker)
James: Sir Isaac Newton, it is a privilege to meet you. My name is James, and this is my friend, Matthew.
Newton: The pleasure is mine. What can I do for you two today?
Newton: Secret? Well boys, I’m no different from anyone else. I don’t have any secret!
Newton: (Laughing) No, I don’t have a magic lamp or a rabbit’s foot for luck. I don’t even have a
golden hen.
Newton: (Scratching his chin) Well, I guess I do have a couple secret tools. They’re called hard work and
concentration. When I’m working on something, I am always thinking about it.
Mrs. Waterby: My name is Mrs. Waterby, boys. I’m a friend of Mr. Newton, and let me tell you, around him
there’s never a dull moment. Why, every time Mrs. Baker, my friend here, and I think about
what happened at his dinner party last month, we just can’t control...(She bursts into laughter
and cannot go on.)
(Mr. Newton smiles and rolls his eyes; Matthew and James wait for the story)
Mrs. Baker: Well, you see, Mr. Newton had invited half a dozen of us over for dinner, but when we got
there, he wasn’t home. His housemaid invited us in and served appetizers while we waited for
Mrs. Waterby: Just hold on young man, we’ll get there. It was a marvelous dinner, served in grand style.
We had roast chicken, cornbread dressing, baby peas, and a delicious pudding for dessert.
We all took turns guessing what had happened to Mr. Newton. Mr. Baker thought maybe
someone had stopped him on the street with a problem.
Mrs. Baker: Yes, but Mrs. Walker was sure he had gone to the library. Mr. Waterby laughed and said he
might even be napping in his own bedroom down the hall.
Mrs. Baker: Remember. He just told you that when he’s working on a problem, that’s all he thinks about.
Mrs. Waterby: Oh sure, he did, long after we had finished dinner. But we got even with him. (She winks at
Newton) We persuaded the kitchen help to go along with a little joke. After we left the table,
it was reset as if we had never eaten. When Mr. Newton came home and saw us there, he
remembered his dinner plans and apologized for keeping us waiting so long.
Mrs. Baker: (Interrupting) “Let’s eat right away,” he said. He led the way to the dining room. We all tried
not to smile too big, but when he picked up the cover from the chicken platter and saw noth-
ing but the bones, we almost choked. Can you imagine what he said?
Mrs. Waterby: He said, “Oh, my, am I getting absent-minded! I forgot we had already eaten!”
Mrs. Baker: We laughed so hard we all got indigestion! But Mr. Newton never even noticed that he was
still hungry!
Newton: (Chuckling) All right ladies, that’s enough. I admit I am quite forgetful when an idea enters
my mind. Once, I was leading my horse up a hill and didn’t realize it had run away until I
tried to jump into the saddle!
Matthew: Sir, I’ve been wondering. Why don’t you publish more of these amazing findings that make
you forget all about your dinner guests? I’m sure other students, like James and me, would
be very interested.
James: Oh, but we would, sir. Matthew and I were reading about your theories of motion, especially
concerning gravity. That was fascinating.
Matthew: And your work with light. You know, when you showed with a prism how white light could be
broken down into colors. You’ve even built telescopes! You must be the greatest mathemati-
cian that has ever lived!
Newton: Now, now. Don’t get carried away. I may have made a few discoveries, but without the think-
ers before me, I wouldn’t have been able to accomplish much. If I have seen farther than
others, it is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants.
James: I think every mathematician and scientist to come has just discovered a new giant—Sir Isaac
Newton.
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 73 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
KEEP GOING
Leonhard Euler
1707 - 1783
Figure # 1 4 1 4
Figure # 3
Figure # 4
Figure # 4 Figure # 5
Figure # 5
Figure # 6
Figure # 7
Figure # 6 Figure # 7
Figure # 8
Figure # 9
Figure # 8
Figure # 10
EXERCISES:
1. Write a formula relating V, R, and A.
2. Make up two figures of your own and enter the results in the table
for figure #9 and Figure # 10.
Do your results agree with your formula?
4. 5.
6.
Try to travel (trace) these networks without taking your pencil off the
paper and without retracing any arc (path connecting two vertices).
Place a blank sheet of paper over the networks and try several.
Discover the rule Euler discovered by completing the table below.
Hint: Networks can only be traveled if they have fewer than a certain number of
odd vertices. An odd vertex has an odd number of arcs drawn from it;
an even vertex has an even number of arcs drawn from it.
Network Total No. of No. of Even No. of Odd Can it be
Vertices Vertices Vertices Traveled?
1 9 9 0 Yes
Draw some networks of your own and decide if they can be “traveled.”
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 79 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
FACES, VERTICES, and EDGES
Euler (1707 - 1783) discovered a formula giving the relationship between
the number of faces, vertices, and edges for polyhedrons. ←Vertex
Examine the polyhedrons below and complete the table to ←Face
help you discover Euler’s formula.
Cube 6 8 12
Tetrahedron Tetrahedron
Square Pyramid
Triangular Prism
Square Pyramid
5-Prism
Chopped-Off Cube
5-Pyramid
Soccer ball
Write Euler's
Formula
5-Prism
See how many squares you can visit using the knight’s move!
4 2
Discover the method and then determine which of the points A, B, and
C are inside and which are outside the curve.
Draw some simple closed curves of your own and determine whether
selected points are inside or outside.
Contributions:
Sometimes referred to as “the Hypatia of the
19th century,” Germain made notable discover-
ies in number theory, acoustics and the theory
of elasticity. She is one of the few women whose
work is recorded in early mathematics history.
Quotation by Germain:
“Algebra is but written geometry and geom-
etry is but figured algebra.” Determined Disobedience
Although Germain’s parents provided her
Quotation about Germain: with a good education, they became alarmed
“When a person of the sex which, according when she preferred doing mathematics instead
to our customs and prejudices, must encounter of more traditionally feminine pursuits like cook-
infinitely more difficulties than men to familiarize ing and dancing. They agreed with the popular
herself with these thorny researches, succeeds theory that “brain work” could be a dangerous
nevertheless in surmounting these obstacles and strain on young girls. Germain often stayed up
penetrating the most obscure parts of them, then most of the night reading mathematics books
without doubt she must have the noblest cour- and trying to solve problems. To keep her from
age, quite extraordinary talents and a superior this, Germain’s parents devised a plan: they
genius.” –Carl Gauss would extinguish the heat in her room and re-
move all sources of light. The child would have
Anecdotes: no alternative but to crawl under the covers and
Inspired by Archimedes go to sleep.
One day while reading in her father’s fine The plan backfired, however, as Germain
library, Germain stumbled upon the story of smuggled candles into her room, hiding them
Archimedes’ death. In her imagination, the words in her shoes until the others in the household
painted a vivid picture. There was Archimedes, were sound asleep. Then she would sneak out
working on a problem in the sand. Above him of bed, wrap a comforter around her, and do
a Roman soldier stood poised, ready to run his mathematics by candlelight.
0 =
1 =
2 =
3 =
4 =
5 =
6 =
7 =
8 =
9 =
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 86 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
$1.00 WORDS
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
26¢ 25¢ 24¢ 23¢ 22¢ 21¢ 20¢ 19¢ 18¢ 17¢ 16¢ 15¢ 14¢
N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
CHALLENGES:
5. Find as many words as you can that are worth exactly $1.00.
EXERCISES
1. Determine how many steps are required to convert each of the following
into palindromes.
3. Consider a digital clock where the displayed time changes every minute.
a) In a 12-hour period, how many of the shown times are palindromes?
b) How many minutes are there in 12 hours?
c) What percentage of the time in a 12-hour period does a digital
clock display palindromes?
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 88 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
COUNTING DIVISORS
Sophie Germain (1776-1831) was a French woman who
made significant discoveries in number theory. In this
activity, you will make a number theory discovery dealing
with divisors.
2 21 2
3 31 2
5,000
3. Find four numbers, each with exactly 6
divisors.
1,000,000
Every number that is not happy will enter this repeating cycle of eight numbers. When a
number enters this cycle, it cannot be a happy number because it will never end in 1.
EXERCISES:
1. Twenty of the first 100 counting numbers are happy numbers. Find them; use any
shortcuts you discover.
2. Is a happy number plus another happy number always a happy number?
3. Is the product of two happy numbers always a happy number?
4. Is 1776 a happy number year?
5. Find the point in the cycle at which each of these numbers enters.
(a) 33 (b) 15 (c) 154 (d) 80 (e) 38
ACROSS DOWN
2 Germain’s native country. 1 Famous mathematician who inspired
5 Germain’s first name. Germain.
7 One source of light. 3 These were not allowed in the university.
8 Germain often studied at this hour. 4 The part of your body that does the
11 Germain used a false _______. thinking.
12 Someone who gives money or blood. 6 Germain first studied in her father’s
13 What Germain wrote to other _______.
mathematicians. 9 Many people thought it was _________
15 Noise made by lions. for girls to study math; hazardous.
16 Germain used this to write. 10 In mathematics, a proven statement.
18 City where Germain lived. 13 What you need for studying in the dark.
14 To reason; use one’s mind.
17 Paris is famous for its many ___ galleries.
1 = 1
7
1+2=3
100
1+2+3=?
1+2+3+4=? n
1 = 1 4
1 + 3= 4 5
1+3+5=?
6
1+3+5+7=?
7
50
Now try your skill at finding the sum of the first 50 even numbers.
2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 … + 100 = ?
92 = 81 1 9
93 = 729
2 1
94 = _____
3 9
9 = _____
5
96 = _____ 4
ADDITIONAL CHALLENGES:
6
1. What is the last digit of 42325?
12,317
2. What is the last digit of 6 5678
?
2+4+6+8 = ?
50
4
n
M E N U PLANNER
Modular arithmetic (the arithmetic of
remainders), developed by Gauss, can Main Dish Vegetable Dessert
help us determine the menu for any
given school day. Pizza Corn Brownies
3. What will the complete lunch menu be on the 56th day of school?
4. What will the complete lunch menu be on the 85th day of school?
Beckman, Petr
A HISTORY OF PI
New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1971
Readable, interesting source which reveals the events and personalities associated with the
development of pi.
Bell, E.T.
MEN OF MATHEMATICS
New York: Simon & Schuster, 1965
The classic work in mathematics history. Includes lots of detailed, useful information.
Dunham, William
JOURNEY THROUGH GENIUS: THE GREAT THEOREMS OF MATHEMATICS
New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1990
This work explores some of the most significant and enduring ideas in mathematics, emphasizing
the humanity of the great mathematicians.
Eves, Howard W.
AN INTRODUCTION TO THE HISTORY OF MATHEMATICS
Fifth Edition
New York: Saunders College Publishing, 1983
The most popular text for history of math classes. Eves traces the development of mathematics
with good humor and informative detail.
Eves, Howard W.
IN MATHEMATICAL CIRCLES (VOL 1 & 2)
Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt, Inc., 1969
These popular books contain chronologically arranged anecdotes about mathematicians and their
discoveries. Delightful, short bits of information.
Hollingdale, Stuart.
MAKERS OF MATHEMATICS
London: Penguin Books, 1989
Chapters on mathematicians from Pythagoras to Einstein provide useful biographical information,
accompanied by a solid review of the mathematics these persons worked with.
Ipsen, D.C.
ARCHIMEDES: GREATEST SCIENTIST OF THE ANCIENT WORLD
Hillside, N.J.: Enslow Publishers, 1988
This book, written for young people, traces the life and discoveries of the Greek mathematician,
scientist, and inventor.
Ipsen, D.C.
ISAAC NEWTON: RELUCTANT GENIUS
Hillside, N.J.: Enslow Publishers, 1985
A biography of the 17th century English scientist who developed the theory of gravity, discovered
the secret of light and color, and formulated the system of calculus. Written for juvenile readers, the
book includes many helpful drawings and illustrations.
HISTORICAL CONNECTIONS IN MATHEMATICS 101 © 2012 AIMS Education Foundation
Mitchell, Merle
MATHEMATICAL HISTORY: ACTIVITIES, PUZZLES, STORIES, AND GAMES
Reston, Virginia: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1978
This is a collection of enrichment resources for use in the upper elementary grades. Activities may
be photocopied for classroom use.
Pappas, Theoni
THE JOY OF MATHEMATICS
San Carlos, CA: Wide World Publishing/Tetra, 1989
This book unveils the inseparable relationship of mathematics to the world in which we live. In one or
two page “glimpses,” the reader enjoys games, puzzles, interesting facts, and historic background.
Pappas, Theoni
MORE JOY OF MATHEMATICS
San Carlos, CA: Wide World Publishing/Tetra, 1991
Like Pappas’ first book, this collection also provides brief but fascinating information on how math-
ematics can be seen in nature, science, music, architecture, literature, and history.
Perl, Teri
MATH EQUALS—BIOGRAPHIES OF WOMEN MATHEMATICIANS
Menlo Park, CA: Addison-Wesley, 1978
This is a readable collection about the lives and work of nine women, including activities which relate
to their work.
Rosen, Sidney
GALILEO AND THE MAGIC NUMBERS
Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1958
This biography, written for young people, relates the important discoveries of Galileo in both math-
ematics and science.
Schaaf, William
MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCE: AN ADVENTURE IN POSTAGE STAMPS
Reston, Virginia: National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 1978
This book traces, through illustration and historical insight, the way postage stamps mirror the
impact of mathematics and science on society.
Through writing:
Many options for writing projects may arise from mathematics history. Students may re-
search the life of a particular mathematician and write a report. They might read a biography
or a historical novel about a mathematician and write a book review. Or they may be asked to
write an imaginary interview, a newspaper story, a screenplay, or a poem about an individual
from math history.
Other possibilities include writing about the origin of a particular concept or symbol, such
as the = sign or π. Some might wish to write about how mathematics was understood in a
particular period or a particular place.
Through skits:
Choose a mathematician for special focus. Read to the class a brief biographical sketch or
a collection of anecdotes about the mathematician being studied. We suggest the information
in Mathematicians Are People, Too (Dale Seymour, 1990, 1995) or Historical Connections in
Mathematics. Older children may read and research on their own. Then divide the class into
small groups of four or five and challenge them to create a skit depicting one incident in the
life of this mathematician or highlighting one contribution of this mathematician. Each group
could keep its project secret until the announced day for class presentations. A skit session
provides an ideal opportunity to review and discuss the accomplishments of the individual
mathematician being studied. Productions may be tailored depending on time, materials avail-
able, age of class, etc. Some might simply write a script for oral reading while others might
build or collect props, memorize parts, and wear costumes.
Hint: Note that oblong numbers are twice triangular A Pythagorean Puzzle:
numbers.
Pythagorean Discoveries:
1. square 5. triangular
2. oblong 6. square
3. square 7. triangular
4. triangular
Figurate Families:
Lattice Multiplication:
To use this process, place one of the two numbers
to be multiplied on the top of the grid and the other to
the right. Then, in each square, write the product of
the number in that column and that row, placing the
tens digit in the upper triangle of the square and the
units digit in the lower triangle.
Add all numbers between each pair of diagonal
lines, beginning in the lower right hand corner. The
product is found taking in order the digits down the
left side and across the bottom.
A Teeter-Totter Discovery:
Formula: D1 X W1 = D2 X W2
A Balancing Act:
The triangles on this activity sheet may be enlarged
and duplicated on card stock for students to cut out
and balance. They may create additional triangles of Napier’s Rods:
their own to test this principle. Napier’s rods were actually an outgrowth of lattice
multiplication. Many teachers have found that working
Counting Kernels: with Napier’s rods is an activity which interests and
The solution to this activity depends on the size of motivates students.
the kernels used as well as the size of the room being
“filled.” Suppose it takes 160 kernels to fill a 1 cubic How to make a set of rods:
inch box and the room is 20' by 30' by 8'. The room is 1) For students, use the master in the activity
4800 cubic feet, or 8,294,400 cubic inches, requiring section to photocopy rods onto 8 1/2 x 11 inch
1,327,104,000 kernels to fill it. lightweight card stock or paper. Then cut them
This activity presents an ideal occasion to use the into strips and they are ready to use. Sets of
pocket calculator and scientific notation. strips can be kept in envelopes for future use.
2) For the chalkboard, mark a large sheet of poster
Predicting Float Lines: paper. Cut into strips and set them on the chalk
This activity may be used by the teacher as a tray for demonstration.
demonstration or the class may be divided into small 3) For the overhead projector, prepare a transpar-
groups to predict the float levels of various kinds of ency using the master supplied. Cut the strips
wood. Remind students to place the bottom portion out and project them on the screen or board.
of the wood block in the water.
Earthquake Mathematics:
108 = 10,000; therefore an earthquake with a Richter
(1)
104
value of 8 is 10,000 times as strong as one with
the value of 4.
(2) (a) Approximately 16 times stronger.
7 x 836 is given in row 7. Add the numbers shown (b) Approximately 25 times stronger.
between the diagonal lines. Read the answer from left (c) 10 times stronger.
to right. (d) Approximately 4 times stronger.
Let students discover how the rods can be used to
multiply three and four digit numbers.
(1) 20 X 25 (2) 16 X 30
10 50 8 60
5 100 4 120
2 200 2 240
1 400 1 480
500 480
3. n n2 - 79n + 1601
4 1301
11 853
39 41
77 1447
n
4. n 22 + 1
0 3
1 5
2 17
3 257
4 65,537
1 2 36 39
Pascal Magic:
The sum of the numbers in the parallelogram is
always one less than the number the bottom corner
points to. On the activity sheet, the sums are 14, 5,
and 461.
MATHEMATICS:
“MATHEMATICS” may be spelled using 252 down-
ward paths. When the “MATHEMATICS” array of letters
is placed on Pascal’s triangle, the bottom “S” will fall
in the center of the 11th row, on the number 252.
Pascal’s Perimeter:
Suspicious Sailors:
The fewest number of coconuts collected originally
is 25. In the morning, 6 would be left.
This problem may be approached in a variety of
ways, including algebraically or by simple trial and error.
Chapter Six: Pascal Some students may need a hint to solve this problem.
Suggest that the perimeter sums may be broken into
Summing Up Pascal: a power of two and an odd. Note that the sum of any
row in Pascal’s triangle is always a power of two.
A Birthday Surprise:
The result of this activity surprises almost everyone!
The average number of names on a list, theoretically, is
23. For classes of 30 or more, results should be close
to this average.
Answers to Questions:
1. 1
2. n/(n+1)
Having students guess how high the stack will be 3. #of terms sum
is an important part of this activity. Such a commit- 1 1/3
ment on the student’s part draws her or him into the 2 2/5
problem. Typical guesses range from half an inch to 3 3/7
two or three feet. While no one should be embarrassed 4 4/9
by such guesses, the class will probably not believe 50 50/101
the correct answer of 17,769,885 miles. n n/(2n+1)
A simple scientific calculator makes it easy to ex-
press the answer in miles. To change the number of The “surprise” in this activity is how easy it is to
pieces to inches, divide by 1000, since there are 1000 add the fractions once the pattern is observed.
pieces per inch. Then change inches to feet by divid-
ing by 12, and divide feet by 5,280 to find the number The Binomial Theorem:
of miles. This activity allows students to make several dis-
coveries about the Binomial Theorem. The coefficients
Chain Letter Madness: are found in the rows of Pascal’s triangle. The expo-
nents of the “a”s decrease by one each time, and the
exponents of the “b”s increase by one.
Traveling Networks:
Four Fours:
Each problem may have several solutions. Here
are some sample solutions.
0 = 4-4+4-4
1 = (4 ÷ 4) ÷ (4 ÷ 4)
2 = (4 ÷ 4) + (4 ÷ 4)
3 = (4 + 4 + 4) ÷ 4
4 = (4 - 4) x 4 + 4
5 = (4 x 4 + 4) ÷ 4
6 = [(4 + 4) ÷ 4] + 4
7 = 4 + 4 - (4 ÷ 4)
8 = 4 x 4 - (4 + 4)
9 = 4 + 4 + (4 ÷ 4)
$1.00 Words:
Answers:
1. Thursday This activity is an interesting application of factor-
2. Dodge ing. The pattern which students must identify is this:
3. China Increase each exponent by one; then multiply these
4. (a) blocks values to discover how many divisors a number has.
(b) action Exercises: Note: Many answers are possible. These
(c) forever are only examples.
Palindromes: 2. 2999,999
Answers to Exercises: 2999 X 3999
1. a) 3 steps
b) 4 steps 29 X 39 X 59 X 79 X 119 X 139
c) 5 steps
d) 3 steps
e) 6 steps 3. 25 = 32
f) 2 steps 22 X 31 = 12
g) 4 steps
h) 3 steps 21 X 32 = 18
2. 2112
3. a) 57 32 X 51 = 45
b) 60 X 12 = 720 35 = 243
c) 57/720 = 7.9%
52 X 71 = 175
32 X 111 = 99
4. An infinite number.
Average Ability:
Solutions:
1. Carrots (27 divided by 4 results in a remainder of 3).
2. Cookies (64 divided by 5 results in a remainder of 4).
3. Hamburgers, Green Beans, Brownies.
4. Pizza, Corn, Jello.
5. 3rd, 9th, 15th, 21st, 27th, 33rd, 39th, 45th.
Upon completing the table, students should discover 6. 4th, 8th, 12th, 16th, 20th, 24th, 28th, 32nd, 36th,
that the final digit for powers of 9 is 40th, 44th, 48th.
9 when the power is odd, and 7. No. The school day spaghetti is served is always
1 when the power is even. an odd number, whereas the school day for green
beans is always an even numbered school day.
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