Applied Mechanics and Materials Submitted: 2017-06-05

ISSN: 1662-7482, Vol. 887, pp 459-466 Revised: 2017-08-28

doi:10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMM.887.459 Accepted: 2017-08-28
© 2019 Trans Tech Publications Ltd, Switzerland Online: 2019-01-25

Design of Fire Ventilation System for an Underground Car Park by CFD

Simulations
Miroslava Kmecová1,a*, Peter Buday2,b, Jozef Vojtaššák3,c, Michal Krajčík1,d
1
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of Building
Services, Radlinského 11, 810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
2
Slovak University of Technology in Bratislava, Faculty of Civil Engineering, Department of
Building Structures, Radlinského 11, 810 05 Bratislava, Slovakia
3
Colt International s.r.o., Haanova 12, 851 04 Bratislava, Slovakia
a
miroslava.kmecova@stuba.sk, bpeter.buday@stuba.sk, cjozef.vojtassak@sk.coltgroup.com,
d
michal.krajcik@stuba.sk

Keywords: fire ventilation, CFD simulation, smoke, underground car park

Abstract. The aim of this study is to design a fire ventilation system with impulse jet fans for an
underground car park. With respect to the number of parameters that can affect the flow of smoke
that need to be considered, there is a good chance of miscalculations when computing the overall
fluid flow using conventional plain calculations. To avoid mistakes, visualize the fluid flow and
also to directly compare the different design variants it can be practical to use CFD (Computational
Fluid Dynamics) simulations. By CFD it is possible to better analyse and keep control of the fluid
flow, heat transfer and other related phenomena. In this study, CFD simulations were used to
design, test and compare two alternatives of a fire ventilation system. The two alternatives differed
from each other in the location of the impulse jet fans and exhaust ventilation shafts, and in the
ventilation intensity (10-times per hour versus 15-times per hour). The results have shown that the
first alternative is not suitable as the car park was not sufficiently ventilated after 1500 seconds after
the simulation had begun, whereas in the second alternative the smoke was almost completely
exhausted and the visibility was substantially improved. The simulation results emphasize the
important effect of design and location of the different elements on the functionality and efficiency
of a fire protection system.

Introduction
Big underground car parks typical for large commercial buildings with many occupants and visitors
require installation of mechanical ventilation to ensure fire safety [1]. At present, fire ventilation
with jet fans to move the polluted air to the main ventilation shafts is popular and increasingly
preferred over traditional ducted systems as a means of ventilating pollutants from large spaces
[2,3]. An important advantage of this technical solution is the absence of big ventilation ducts.
Moreover, the system can be used both as health ventilation to remove airborne pollutants as well as
fire ventilation. The task of health ventilation is to remove air polluted by combustion products
originating from cars to prevent health damage to people, while the fire ventilation exhausts the
excessive heat and combustion products originating from the fire and simultaneously supplies fresh
air to the car park to increase the safety of escaping people and of firemen putting out the fire. The
disadvantage of utilizing this system in Slovakia is that no relevant national standards regarding fire
ventilation with jet fans exist. Thus, national standards of some other countries are used for proper
system design.
Regardless of the design standard used, it is very important to verify correctness of the proposed
solution by computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulations [4,5]. The CFD simulations present a
tool to analyse systems involving mass and heat transfer and the related phenomena in a more
thorough and sophisticated way, using computer models and provide a view of the flow fields,
which would be otherwise difficult to predict. The Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) has become a
popular CFD tool to describe the evolution of fire by solving a large eddy simulation form of

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the Navier–Stokes equations appropriate for low-speed, thermally-driven flow [6,7]. The FDS is
often combined with a specific software for creation of the input geometry such as PyroSim and
equipped with Smokeview to read FDS output files and produce animations [3,8,9]. Enright et al.
(2014) [3] point out that FDS is not specifically ‘validated’ for jet vent air flows, however, CFD
models in general are better predictors than empirical models.
The aim of the present study is to design and test functionality and efficiency of a fire ventilation
system with jet fans in an underground car park for two alternatives. The car park is ventilated by a
so-called Smoke clearance effect to remove burning polyurethane producing high heat release and
very toxic fumes. The difference between the two alternatives is in the location of the jet fans and
exhaust shafts, and in the air exchange rate. As calculation of fluid flow taking into account the
complex geometry of the car park including walls, columns, beams and fans is complicated and it
cannot be done by conventional plain calculations, the design is tested by CFD simulations.

Combustion Products Originating from Fire

The combustion products originating from fire belong to the most serious pollutants that can occur
in underground car parks. The knowledge obtained by studying the consequences of fire on humans
imply that combustion products can be more dangerous to human health than other fire related
phenomena. The combustion products can affect human health in two different ways – as smoke
and as toxic gasses. The main cause of death in fires is poisoning by carbon monoxide, the most
dangerous combustion product, whose lower threshold for poisoning is concentration of only 0.01
to 0.02 % vol. At the concentration of carbon monoxide above 1 % vol. humans lose consciousness
and death occurs within three minutes. The combustion products originating from fire diminish the
oxygen content in the air, supress the ability of humans to think clearly, and create preconditions for
panic. Besides direct toxic effects, the combustion products also diminish visibility and orientation
ability of evacuated people [10].
Fire ventilation is not intended to provide fresh air in the car park, but it limits the smoke density
and air temperature during a specified time interval to allow evacuation of people from the car park
to a safe place. It is possible to combine fire, health and eventually also emergency ventilation into
one system, keeping in mind that such a system has to fulfil the requirements imposed on all the
individual ventilation types [11]. This can be accomplished by jet fans, which can be designed and
operated as unidirectional or reversible. In case of fire, the ventilation system is switched up to
higher level. All fans used in a car park ventilation system to exhaust hot gasses have to be tested
and certified as defined in STN EN 12101-3 [12]. With respect to the fact that no standard to design
fire safety systems with jet fans exists in Slovakia, the design process follows the rules as defined in
the British Standard BS 7346-7:2013 [13].

Fire Ventilation Design and Evaluation by CFD Simulation

The potential heat and combustion products generated in the underground car park of a commercial
and entertainment centre are to be exhausted by a so-called Smoke clearance effect. The car park is
ventilated by an underpressure ventilation system, with the pressure difference between the exhaust
and the supply of 20%. The fresh ventilation air is supplied through an access ramp and five grilles.
The difference between the two alternatives is in location of the jet fans and exhaust shafts as well
as in the air change rate. In the first alternative the air change rate was 10-times per hour (Fig. 1),
whereas in the second alternative it was 15-times per hour (Fig. 2).
 Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 887 461

Fig. 1 Scheme of fire ventilation of the underground car park, alternative A1

Fig. 2 Scheme of fire ventilation of the underground car park, alternative A2

Simulation model. The CFD simulation model was created in the software PyroSim FDS 6.4.0
[14], which includes also the Fire Dynamics Simulator. In the present case, the model represents a
controlled fluid flow during fire emergency. The calculation is governed by the Navier-Stokes
equation suitable for heat induced flows with low velocity in order to exhaust smoke and heat from
the site, using the Dynamic Smagorinsky model [15,16]. The software Smokeview 6.3.6 [17] was
used for visualisation of the fluid flow during fire emergency. The mesh size was x = 0.5 m, y = 0.5
m and z = 0.25 m. Simple models of beams, columns, and cars were included. There were 393 000
cells in the grid and the simulation run length was about 1500 s.
462 12th Envibuild – Buildings and Environment – From Research to Application

Fire parameters. The source of heat and pollution was represented by burning polyurethane foam.
Polyurethane is a typical, widely used material used in buildings mainly as a thermal insulation. It
has enhanced flammability and on combustion it produces high heat release rates and toxic fumes
containing a number of toxic products such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide and others [18].
For this model, a very sooty fire that represents burning of Polyurethane GM27 was used [19]. The
soot yield is 0.10 which results in a large amount of smoke. The fire has a surface area of 9 m2 with
a peak heat release rate per unit area of 500 kW.m-2, giving a total peak heat release rate of 4500
kW. Details on the fire parameters are shown in Table 1.

Table 1 Fire parameters

Polyurethane GM 27
Heat release rate 500 kW.m-2
Dimensions of fire 3x3m
Location 0.5 m
Parameters of fire
Carbon atoms 1
Hydrogen atoms 0.17
Oxygen atoms 0.3
Nitrogen atoms 0.08
CO yield 0.042
Soot yield 0.1
Fraction of hydrogen 0.1

The fire developed from 0 s until 300 s according to the standardized curve shown in Fig. 3. The
specified mass loss rate of fuel during fire is shown in Fig. 4. After 300 s the fire was fully
developed for 600 s, when the fire started to die away. In time 725 s the fire was put out and fire
emergency was terminated.
5000
4500
4000
Heat Release Rate [kW]

3500
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Fig. 3 Specified heat release rate of fire
 Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 887 463

0.250

0.200
Mass loss rate [kg.s-1]

0.150

0.100

0.050

0.000
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600
Time [s]
Fig. 4 Specified mass loss rate of fuel

Results and Discussion

In the first alternative A1 the space of the car park was divided into two imaginary parts and
exhaust shafts were located in both of them. The jet fans were directed to the corresponding shafts.
The air exchange rate was 10-times per hour. During the fire, the combustion products were
spreading throughout the whole car park. After 300 s the car park was completely polluted by
combustion products (Fig. 5a) and the visibility in escape routes was about 10 to 15 m (Fig. 5b).
After the fire had been put out, the car park was being ventilated, however, with a negative result. In
time 1300 s, i.e. 575 s after the fire had been put out, the whole car park was still full of smoke (Fig.
6a) and average visibility was maximum 6 m (Fig. 6b). The results for alternative A1 reveal
deficiencies in the ventilation system design. The low fire ventilation efficiency is caused by
inappropriate location of exhaust shafts, as one of the shafts is located close to the access ramp.
Consequently, the supply ventilation air is not distributed properly throughout the car park, but a
large amount of it is exhausted to the ventilation shaft instead.

Fig. 5 Alternative A1 in time 300 s a) distribution of combustion products, b) visibility at 1.75 m above the
floor level
464 12th Envibuild – Buildings and Environment – From Research to Application

Fig. 6 Alternative A1 in time 1300 s a) distribution of combustion products, b) visibility at 1.75 m above the
floor level

In the second alternative the exhaust shafts were located on the side opposite to the main air
supply (access ramp). Such location of shafts and ramp resulted in a massive fresh air intake,
spreading through the whole car park. In this alternative the air exchange rate was 15-times per
hour. During the fire, the car park was flooded by combustion products (Fig. 7a), but the escape
routes remained visible enough to allow safe evacuation of people, when the visibility in escape
routes was about 25 m in time 300 s (Fig. 7b). As the time passed, the visibility in escape routes
diminished only by a small amount. After the fire had been put out, the space was massively
ventilated and in time 1000 s the smoke pollution level was very low. In time 1300 s, i.e. 575 s after
the fire had been put out, the car park was fully ventilated (Fig. 8).

Fig. 7 Alternative A2 in time 300 s a) distribution of combustion products, b) visibility at 1.75 m above the
floor level

Fig. 8 Alternative A2 in time 1300 s a) distribution of combustion products, b) visibility at 1.75 m above the
floor level

The computer simulations indicate that the second alternative is a preferable solution that can
ensure a relatively safe evacuation of people from the car park. One of the parameters varied was
the amount of fresh air intake. This parameter affects the speed of heat and smoke removal from the
car park, but it has only small effect on the ventilation system efficiency. Had the air exchange rate
of 10-times per hour (as in the first alternative) been used in both alternatives, the efficiency of fire
ventilation in the second alternative would remain very high, only the time interval to ventilate the
car park would have been slightly longer. On the other hand, had the air exchange rate of 15-times
 Applied Mechanics and Materials Vol. 887 465

per hour (as in the second alternative) been used in both alternatives, the ventilation system in the
first alternative would still not be able to ventilate the car park on a satisfactory level. Therefore,
location of the fresh air supply and exhaust and suitable positioning of the jet fans are crucial for
high efficiency of a fire ventilation system.

Conclusion
The results have shown that in the first alternative (A1) the system is not able to efficiently ventilate
the parking lot, as even 1300 s after the simulation had been started the parking lot was
considerably polluted. In the second alternative (A2) the parking lot was well ventilated, the escape
routes were clear of smoke, and the pollution was reasonably exhausted up to 600 second after the
simulated fire had been put out, which would significantly contribute to safe evacuation of people.
Based on the simulation results, only the second alternative can be recommended as it presents
suitable solution for heat and airborne pollutants exhaust. The simulations have proven that proper
location of the ventilation system elements is crucial for the overall efficiency and functionality of
fire ventilation.

Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under the contract No.
DS-2016-0030 and by Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport grant VEGA 1/0807/17.

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