CONTENT

1. Extremes of intelligence MENTAL RETARDATION AND GIFFTEDNESS

2. Intelligence and psychological testing
3. THEORIES of motivation that explain increase in productivity
4. Motivation and culture
5. Emotions biological and physiological changes during emotion
6. theories of emotions
7. CHILD DEVELOPMENT JEAN Piaget cognitive development
8.
 Intellectual Disabilities
An intellectual disability is a significant limitation in an individual's cognitive functioning and daily
adaptive behaviors.
An intellectual disability is a significant limitation in an individual's cognitive functioning and daily  adaptive
behaviors. Disabilities can manifest themselves as limited language, impaired speech, or difficulty performing
academically. For many centuries, intellectual disabilities was poorly understood, and so diagnosis and treatment were
negligible; until the 2013 release of the DSM-5 (the currently accepted resource for the diagnosis of mental illness), the
term "mental retardation" was still in use rather than "intellectual disability." 

Individuals are diagnosed with an intellectual disability if they score below 70 on a measure of intelligence such as
the IQ test, which has a mean score of 100. The standard deviation on an IQ test is 15 points, which means that a score
of 70 is two standard deviations below the mean, or in the bottom 2.2% of the population. An individual must also
display deficits in adaptive functioning; have impairments in at least two areas of functioning, such as self-care, social
skills, or living skills; and experience the onset of symptoms before the age of 18 in order to be diagnosed as having an
intellectual disability.

Types of Intellectual Disability

Intellectual disabilities are categorized by their severity:

 Mild: Approximately 85% of individuals with an intellectual disability fit into this category. These individuals are
often able to acquire sixth-grade level academic skills. They also often have the skills necessary to live independently
and hold a job, but may need assistance if under unusual stress.
 Moderate: About 10% of people with intellectual disabilities fit into this category. These individuals benefit from
social skills and vocational training. They can often learn to travel from place to place independently and hold an
unskilled job with supervision.
 Severe: Only 3%-4% of individuals are in this category. They may be able to perform some work with supervision and
can often function in a community, living in a group home or with their family.
 Profound: Approximately 1% are in this category. These individuals have fundamental mental impairments and need
optimal care, which requires a structured environment with one-to-one supervision by a caregiver.

Causes of Intellectual Disability

Among the common causes of intellectual disabilities are fetal alcohol syndrome and Down syndrome; other
contributing factors include certain genetic disorders and exposures to environmental toxins. In every population
there is a small percentage of individuals whose intellectual disability has no known cause.

Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders

This spectrum of disorders (FASD) is a group of conditions that can occur in a person whose mother ingested alcohol
during pregnancy. Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) is the most severe disorder on this spectrum, and it is the leading
cause of intellectual disability. This syndrome is caused when alcohol crosses the barrier of the placenta in a pregnant
woman and damages the developing brain of the fetus. Alcohol exposure presents a risk of fetal brain damage at any
point during a pregnancy, since brain development is ongoing throughout pregnancy. FASD is estimated to affect
between 2% and 5% of people in the United States and Western Europe. FAS is believed to occur in between 0.2 and 9
per 1000 live births in the United States.

Down Syndrome
Down syndrome, also known as trisomy 21, is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of a full or partial third copy
of chromosome 21. It is typically associated with physical growth delays, a particular set of facial characteristics and a
severe degree of intellectual disability. Down syndrome is one of the most common chromosome abnormalities in
humans, occurring in about one per 1000 babies born each year. The average full-scale IQ of young adults with Down
syndrome is around 50.
Down Syndrome

Down Syndrome is a genetic disorder caused by the presence of all or part of a third copy of chromosome 21.

Education and proper care have been shown to improve quality of life for individuals with Down Syndrome.
Some children with Down syndrome are educated in typical school classes, while others require more specialized
education. Some individuals with Down syndrome graduate from high school and a few go on to post-secondary
education.

Challenges Caused by Intellectual Disability

Individuals living with intellectual disabilities face both personal and external challenges in life. A child with an
intellectual disability may learn to sit up, crawl, walk, and talk later than other children. Individuals with
intellectual disabilities may experience difficulty learning social rules, deficits in memory, difficulty
with problem solving, and delays in adaptive behaviors (such as self-help or self-care skills). They may also lack
social inhibitors. Everyday tasks that most people take for granted, such as getting dressed or eating a meal, may
be possible, but they may also take more time and effort than usual. Health and safety can also be a concern; for
example, knowing whether it is safe to cross a street could pose a problem for someone with an intellectual
disability. The exact combination of challenges varies from one person to another, but it typically involves
limitations in both intellectual and daily functioning.
Society itself also poses challenges. People with intellectual disabilities are often discriminated against and
devalued by society. This has improved over the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, but many individuals with
disabilities still face being stigmatized in everday life. Person-centered planning seeks to address this problem by
encouraging a focus on the person with intellectual disabilities as someone with capacities and gifts as well as
support needs. The self-advocacy movement promotes the right of individuals with intellectual disabilities to
make decisions about their own lives.

The Intellectually Gifted

Educators face many challenges when identifying gifted students and deciding how best to
educate them.

Defining "Gifted"
A child whose cognitive abilities are markedly more advanced than those of his or her peers is considered intellectually
gifted. At one time, giftedness was defined based solely upon an individual's IQ (intelligence quotient) score. Since that
time, the definition for giftedness has become complex, with no consensus on a single definition. A variety of criteria
are used to define giftedness, including measures of intelligence, creativity, and achievement, as well as interviews
with parents and teachers. Often, the decision of how to identify gifted individuals is left up to school districts.

Intelligence Testing

The Definition of Intelligence Testing

Humans have been interested in studying intelligence for decades. Researchers want to know exactly what
it is and how to measure it. While there is no definitive answer to those questions, psychologists have
developed different methods for understanding and evaluating intelligence.
The word intelligence simply means to understand. Intelligence is more than what knowledge you possess.
It is about what kinds of knowledge you thoroughly understand and excel at applying. In psychology,
intelligence involves three different abilities:
1. Problem-solving
2. Gaining knowledge through experience
3. Adjusting to new situations
Intelligence means having the capability to solve problems, learn through experience, and use
understanding to adapt to new circumstances.
Intelligence testing is the measurement of an individual’s intelligence. These tests can be provided on
paper or electronically and use different techniques to measure intelligence based on a person's
circumstances and ability. Intelligence testing can be used in gathering data and conducting research. You
have probably taken an intelligence test without even realizing it!
What is the Aim of Intelligence Testing?
Intelligence testing is the practice of measuring a person's performance on various diagnostic measures,
i.e. intelligence tests to predict future behaviour, for interventions and on some occasions for the
diagnoses of some illnesses, such as developmental disorders.
Types of Intelligence Tests
Most people will encounter two primary intelligence tests: achievement tests and aptitude tests.
Achievement tests are typically offered in schools, but aptitude tests are offered to both students and
adults.
Achievement Tests
Achievement tests are used to assess what you already know about a particular topic, school subject, or
combination of subjects. This type of test is common in schools because they help educators measure if
students learn and understand the topics presented in class.
Although achievement tests usually focus on a specific subject and contain material that someone has
already learned or been taught, scores still differ significantly from one person to another. This is partly
because people learn at different paces and demonstrate what they have learned in different ways. Some
people perform well on written tests, and others perform well when asked verbal questions.
Achievement tests show us what areas need improvement, but they should never be used to compare
scores between test-takers. If a general score comparison is required, the average score can be used to
evaluate if a single score is below or above the mean score. This is how scores are analyzed and evaluated
in research studies. How well did you do on the test compared to the rest of your classmates?

Aptitude Tests
Unlike achievement tests, aptitude tests gauge an individual’s potential. These tests are designed to
demonstrate your abilities and predict success in the future.
Colleges in America use ACT/SAT scores to evaluate if students are prepared for college academics. Those
who want to join their college’s nursing program must take an entrance exam to evaluate if they are ready
to participate. People wanting to join a computer programming company take a coding test to show the
hiring manager how well they can perform on the job.
Intelligence Testing in Psychology
In psychology, there are multiple tests available to assess intelligence. We will focus on two different tests
that are considered foundational to intelligence testing: the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale and
the Weschler Intelligence Scale. These tests are the foundation of the current IQ test.
Definition
An intelligence quotient (IQ) is a number that represents an individual’s mental age in comparison to their
actual age.
Formal to compute IQ:

MA/CA*100=IQ,

where MA is mental age and CA is chronological age.

The Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale

The first IQ test is the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale, and it was named after the psychologists Alfred Binet
and Theodore Simon. This test was created in France in 1904 when the French government asked Binet to
create a way to determine which school children would face the most challenges in their academics. So,
with the help of his colleague Theodore Simon, Binet began his research by focusing on areas like memory,
attention, and critical thinking skills.

Binet and Simon focused on these areas because they believed that all three play important roles in how
everyone learns. They created a 30-question test designed to test memory, attention, and critical-thinking
skills. They included many different kinds of questions or tasks on the test. They might ask questions about
the difference between two words (like the difference between hyper and excited) or ask the student to
visually follow a moving object to test eyesight ability.
When the children took these tests, Binet observed that some would answer more advanced questions
than he expected. Binet theorized that people have a mental age that may differ from their actual age. An
individual’s mental age is based on how a person performs intellectually. In other words, Binet reasoned
that although someone was 10 years old, they may perform at the cognitive level of a typical 15-year-old.
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale

The second major IQ test is called the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. It was developed at Stanford
University by psychologist Lewis Terman. In this IQ test, Termon took Binet’s test and translated it into
English so that it could be used with Americans. Terman updated some of the terms and included more
questions to fit American education standards. Also, Terman used Binet’s theory of mental ages as the
basis for coining the term Intelligence Quotient (IQ).

Example_Annie is 8 years old. After taking an intelligence test, she was told that her mental age is 14. Her
IQ would be 175.

MA/CA*100=IQ,

IQ = (14 / 8) * 100 = 175

The Weschler Adult Intelligence Scales

Inspired by Binet’s theory of mental age but underwhelmed by Terman’s intelligence test, David Weschler
decided to create his own version of an intelligence test - the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS;
1955). This test differs from both Binet’s and Terman’s versions because it was created for adolescents and
adults and only contains questions (not tasks).

Weschler disagreed with the use of tasks in intelligence testing since they may discriminate against those
who lack that capability. He believed that by only using questions the test would be more accessible,
accurate, fair, and easier to administer. The test currently in use to test IQ is the fourth edition of the
Weschler Adult Intelligence Scales (WAIS-IV). This test is not typically required, but it is available for use to
assess IQ.

Weschler also produced two intelligence scales for children. Those tests are known as:

 The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

 The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence (WPPSI).

The Advantages and Disadvantages of Intelligence Testing

Along with using intelligence testing as a measuring tool for mental capacity, it can also be used to assess
low and high extremes. There are different score categories for IQ tests, but the low extreme refers
to scores below 70. If someone scores below 70 on an IQ test, this is a sign of a possible intellectual
disability. Intellectual disabilities can vary, but they typically include learning and communication
difficulties and struggling with certain tasks. IQ tests can help screen for intellectual disabilities and identify
those who need treatment and support.
The other end of IQ scores (the high extreme) is above the normal range. Extremely high scores indicate
someone who may be gifted. Parents are not always able to realize that their child is gifted and that the
child lacks the academic enrichment that they need. By assessing their child's intellectual capabilities,
parents can provide the level of education their child needs.
While there are advantages to using IQ tests, one disadvantage is that IQ tests are costly. Depending on
where you are located and how much information you want to receive, professional and accurate IQ tests
can cost anywhere from $300 to $600. High prices like these discourage people from taking the test due to
affordability.
Another disadvantage is that IQ tests do not account for test anxiety. Part of an IQTHE score is determined
by mental processing speed. Some test-takers need more time time to perform well due to anxiety or
other factors, and the test doesn't accommodate those needs. Many researchers question the validity or
accuracy of IQ tests. IQ tests are only used for certain purposes, like screening for intellectual disabilities,
but this is still problematic if the tests are not accurate. IQ tests can also be interpreted in different ways;
scores can vary based on who gave you the test and who scored it!

Here are 5 popular theories of motivation that can help you increase workplace productivity…
1. Hertzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
The Two-Factor Theory of motivation (otherwise known as dual-factor theory or motivation-hygiene
theory) was developed by psychologist Frederick Herzberg in the 1950s.
Analysing the responses of 200 accountants and engineers who were asked about their positive and
negative feelings about their work, Herzberg found 2 factors that influence employee motivation and
satisfaction…
1. Motivator factors – Simply put, these are factors that lead to satisfaction and motivate employees to
work harder. Examples might include enjoying your work, feeling recognised and career progression.
2. Hygiene factors – These factors can lead to dissatisfaction and a lack of motivation if they are absent.
Examples include salary, company policies, benefits, relationships with managers and co-workers.
According to Herzberg’s findings, while motivator and hygiene factors both influenced motivation, they
appeared to work completely independently of each other…
While motivator factors increased employee satisfaction and motivation, the absence of these factors
didn’t necessarily cause dissatisfaction. Likewise, the presence of hygiene factors didn’t appear to increase
satisfaction and motivation but their absence caused an increase in dissatisfaction.

2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

The Hierarchy of Needs theory was coined by psychologist Abraham Maslow in his 1943 paper “A Theory of
Human Motivation”.
The crux of the theory is that individuals’ most basic needs must be met before they become motivated to
achieve higher level needs.
The hierarchy is made up of 5 levels:
1. Physiological – these needs must be met in order for a person to survive, such as food, water and
shelter.
2. Safety – including personal and financial security and health and wellbeing.
3. Love/belonging – the need for friendships, relationships and family.
4. Esteem – the need to feel confident and be respected by others.
5. Self-actualisation – the desire to achieve everything you possibly can and become the most that you can
be.
According to the hierarchy of needs, you must be in good health, safe and secure with meaningful
relationships and confidence before you are able to be the most that you can be.
3. Hawthorne Effect

The Hawthorne Effect was first described by Henry A. Landsberger in 1950 who noticed a tendency for
some people to work harder and perform better when they were being observed by researchers.
The Hawthorne Effect is named after a series of social experiments on the influence of physical conditions
on productivity at Western Electric’s factory at Hawthorne, Chicago in the 1920s and 30s.
The researchers changed a number of physical conditions over the course of the experiments including
lighting, working hours and breaks. In all cases, employee productivity increased when a change was made.
The researchers concluded that employees became motivated to work harder as a response to the
attention being paid to them, rather than the actual physical changes themselves.

4. Expectancy Theory
Expectancy Theory proposes that people will choose how to behave depending on the outcomes they
expect as a result of their behaviour. In other words, we decide what to do based on what we expect the
outcome to be. At work, it might be that we work longer hours because we expect a pay rise.
However, Expectancy Theory also suggests that the process by which we decide our behaviours is also
influenced by how likely we perceive those rewards to be. In this instance, workers may be more likely to
work harder if they had been promised a pay rise (and thus perceived that outcome as very likely) than if
they had only assumed they might get one (and perceived the outcome as possible but not likely)
Expectancy Theory is based on three elements:
1. Expectancy – the belief that your effort will result in your desired goal. This is based on your past
experience, your self confidence and how difficult you think the goal is to achieve.
2. Instrumentality – the belief that you will receive a reward if you meet performance expectations.
3. Valence – the value you place on the reward.
Therefore, according to Expectancy Theory, people are most motivated if they believe that they will
receive a desired reward if they hit an achievable target. They are least motivated if they don’t want the
reward or they don’t believe that their efforts will result in the reward.
5. Three-Dimensional Theory of Attribution
Attribution Theory explains how we attach meaning to our own, and other people’s, behaviour. There are a
number of theories about attribution.
Bernard Weiner’s Three-Dimensional theory of attribution assumes that people try to determine why we
do what we do. According to Weiner, the reasons we attribute to our behaviour can influence how we
behave in the future.
For example, a student who fails an exam could attribute their failure to a number of factors and it’s this
attribution that will affect their motivation in the future.
Weiner theorised that specific attributions (e.g. bad luck, not studying hard enough) were less important
than the characteristics of that attribution. According to Weiner, there are three main characteristics of
attributions that can affect future motivation.
1. Stability – how stable is the attribution? For example, if the student believes they failed the exam
because they weren’t smart enough, this is a stable factor. An unstable factor is less permanent, such as
being ill.
According to Weiner, stable attributions for successful achievements, such as passing exams, can lead to
positive expectations, and thus higher motivation, for success in the future.
However, in negative situations, such as failing the exam, stable attributions can lead to lower expectations
in the future.
2. Locus of control – was the event caused by an internal or an external factor?
For example, if the student believes it’s their own fault they failed the exam, because they are innately not
smart enough (an internal cause), they may be less motivated in the future. If they believed an external
factor was to blame, such as poor teaching, they may not experience such a drop in motivation.
4. Controllability – how controllable was the situation? If an individual believes they could have
performed better, they may be less motivated to try again in the future than someone who believes
they failed because of factors outside of their control.

Motivation in Different Cultures

Geert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, professor at Maastricht University in the Netherlands and a former IBM employee,
conducted some pioneering research on cross-cultural groups in organizations, which led to his cultural dimensions theory.
In this theory, Hofstede defines culture as the unique way in which people are collectively taught in their environments. He looks
to compare and understand the collective mindset of these groups of people and how they differ. His conclusions were that
cultural differences showed themselves in six significant buckets. Hofstede created an “index” for each category to show where
individual cultures fell along the spectrum:
 Power Distance: this is an index that describes the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations accept
and expect that power is distributed unequally. A higher index number suggests that hierarchy is clearly established and
executed in society, while a lower index would indicate that people question authority in that culture. (Latin, Asian, and
Arab countries score on the high side, while Anglo and Germanic countries score low. The US is in the middle.)
 Individualism: this measures the degree to which people in a society are integrated into groups. The United States
scores very high in this category.
 Uncertainty avoidance: this is defined as a “society’s tolerance for ambiguity.” Cultures scoring high in this area opt for
very defined codes of behavior and laws, while cultures scoring lower are more accepting of different thoughts and
ideas. Belgium and Germany score high while countries like Sweden and Denmark score lower.
 Masculinity vs femininity: in more masculine societies, women and men are more competitive, while in feminine
societies, they share caring views equally with men. Anglo countries like the UK and the US tend to lean toward
masculinity in their cultures, while Scandinavian countries tend toward femininity.
 Long-term Orientation vs. Short-term Orientation: this measures the degree to which a society honors tradition. A
lower score indicates traditions are kept, while a higher score indicates the society views adaptation and problem-
solving as a necessary component of their culture. Asian cultures have strong long-term orientation, while Anglo
countries, Africa and Latin America have shorter-term orientation.
 Indulgence vs. restraint: this is a measurement of happiness if simple joys are fulfilled. Indulgent societies believe
themselves to be in control of their lives, while restrained societies believe that external forces dictate their lives. There
is less data about this particular dimension, but we do know that Latin America, the Anglo countries and Nordic Europe
score high on indulgence, while Muslim countries and East Asia tend to score high on restraint.
Hofstede’s cultural dimension highlights the importance cultures place on different needs. These
dimensions can be used to determine differences in individual needs based on their cultural teachings and
beliefs.
Now that we’ve discussed this in some detail, it’s important to understand that not all motivational drivers
are culture-bound. For example, the desire for interesting work appears to be important to all workers
everywhere. Growth, achievement and responsibility were also highly rated across various cultures. The
manager of an international team doesn’t have to approach everything differently. But keeping in mind
that cultural differences drive individuals’ needs will help a manager create motivating circumstances for
all his workers.

EMOTIONS
Biological/Physiological Factors
Emotion is complex, and the term has no single universally accepted definition. Emotion is, however, closely related to
motivation and can sometimes provide motivation (as, for example, a student's fear of failing provides motivation for studying).
Psychologists do agree that emotions are reaction patterns that include
physiological changes
responses or goal‐oriented behaviors
affective experiences (feelings)
Theorists differ on the order of appearance of the reaction patterns.
The autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) has two components, the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS) and the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS). When activated, the SNS prepares the body for emergency actions; it
controls glands of the neuroendocrine system (thyroid, pituitary, and adrenal glands). Activation of the SNS causes the
production of epinephrine (adrenaline) from the adrenal glands, increased blood flow to the muscles, increased heart rate, and
other readiness reactions. Conversely, the PNS functions when the body is relaxed or at rest and helps the body store energy for
future use. PNS effects include increased stomach activity and decreased blood flow to the muscles.
The reticular activating system. The reticular activating system (RAS) is a network of neurons that runs through the core of the
hind‐brain and into the midbrain and forebrain. It has been demonstrated that electrical stimulation of the RAS causes changes
in the electrical activity of the cortex (as measured by an electroencephalogram) that are indistinguishable from changes in
electrical activity seen when external stimuli (such as loud sounds) are present. The RAS is believed to first arouse the cortex and
then to stimulate its wakefulness so that it may more effectively interpret sensory information.
The limbic system. The limbic system includes the anterior thalamus, the amygdala, the septal area, the hippocampus,
the cingulate gyrus, and structures that are parts of the hypothalamus (Figure ). The word limbic means “border” and describes
this system because its structures seem to form a rough border along the inner edge of the cerebrum. Studies have associated
the limbic system with such emotions as fear and aggression as well with as drives, including those for food and sex.
Figure 1

The Limbic System

Lie detectors (polygraphs). Lie detectors, or polygraphs, rely upon the physiological arousal of the emotions. Concomitant
measurements are taken of the heart rate, blood pressure, respiration rate, and galvanic skin response (GSR). (The GSR is a
measure of the skin's electrical conductivity, which changes as the sweat glands increase their activity.) Polygraph recordings are
used to see if a person is not telling the truth (lying), which usually creates emotional arousal. Because of polygraphs' high error
rates, however, their findings are generally not accepted as evidence in the courts.

Theories of Emotion in Psychology

Emotion is a complex, subjective experience accompanied by biological and behavioral changes. Emotion
involves feeling, thinking, activation of the nervous system, physiological changes, and behavioral changes
such as facial expressions.
Different theories exist regarding how and why people experience emotion. These include evolutionary
theories, the James-Lange Theory, the Cannon-Bard Theory, Schacter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory,
and Cognitive Appraisal.

Emotion is a complex psychophysiological experience that we experience as a result of our interactions

with our environment. There are positive emotions and negative emotions, and these emotions can be
related to an object, an event, social emotions, self-appraisal emotions, etc.

Some emotions are innate. For example: love, care, joy, surprise, anger and fear. These are known as
primary emotions. Secondary emotions are those that we learn through our experience. For example:
pride, rage, shame, neglect, sympathy and horror.
Here are some common theories of emotion in psychology.
Evolutionary Theories
More than a century ago, in the 1870s, Charles Darwin proposed that emotions evolved because they had
adaptive value. For example, fear evolved because it helped people to act in ways that enhanced their
chances of survival. Darwin believed that facial expressions of emotion are innate (hard-wired). He pointed
out that facial expressions allow people to quickly judge someone’s hostility or friendliness and to
communicate intentions to others.

Evolutionary theorists believe that all human cultures share several primary emotions, including happiness,
contempt, surprise, disgust, anger, fear, and sadness. They believe that all other emotions result from
blends and different intensities of these primary emotions. For example, terror is a more intense form of
the primary emotion of fear.
James-Lange Theory
In the 1880s, two theorists, psychologist William James and physiologist Carl Lange, independently
proposed an idea that challenged commonsense beliefs about emotion. This idea, which came to be known
as the James-Lange Theory, is that people experience emotion because they perceive their bodies’
physiological responses to external events. According to this theory, people don’t cry because they feel
sad. Rather, people feel sad because they cry, and, likewise, they feel happy because they smile. This
theory suggests that different physiological states correspond to different experiences of emotion.
The Cannon-Bard Theory
The physiologist Walter Cannon disagreed with the James-Lange theory, posing three main arguments
against it:
1. People can experience physiological arousal without experiencing emotion, such as when they have
been running. (The racing heart in this case is not an indication of fear.)
2. Physiological reactions happen too slowly to cause experiences of emotion, which occur very
rapidly. For example, when someone is in a dark alley alone, a sudden sound usually provokes an
immediate experience of fear, while the physical “symptoms” of fear generally follow that feeling.
3. People can experience very different emotions even when they have the same pattern of
physiological arousal. For example, a person may have a racing heart and rapid breathing both
when he is angry and when he is afraid.
Cannon proposed his own theory of emotion in the 1920s, which was extended by another
physiologist, Philip Bard, in the 1930s. The resulting Cannon-Bard Theory states that the experience of
emotion happens at the same time that physiological arousal happens. Neither one causes the other. The
brain gets a message that causes the experience of emotion at the same time that the autonomic nervous
system gets a message that causes physiological arousal.
Schachter and Singer’s Two-Factor Theory
In the 1960s, Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer proposed a different theory to explain emotion. They
said that people’s experience of emotion depends on two factors: physiological arousal and the cognitive
interpretation of that arousal. When people perceive physiological symptoms of arousal, they look for an
environmental explanation of this arousal. The label people give an emotion depends on what they find in
their environment.
Example: If a person finds herself near an angry mob of people when she is physiologically aroused, she
might label that arousal “anger.” On the other hand, if she experiences the same pattern of physiological
arousal at a music concert, she might label the arousal “excitement.”
Schachter and Singer agree with the James-Lange theory that people infer emotions when they experience
physiological arousal. But they also agree with the Cannon-Bard theory that the same pattern of
physiological arousal can give rise to different emotions.
Cognitive Appraisal
The psychologist Richard Lazarus’s research has shown that people’s experience of
emotion depends on the way they appraise or evaluate the events around them.
Example: If Tracy is driving on a winding road by the edge of a high cliff, she may be concerned about the
danger of the road. Her passenger, on the other hand, thinks about the beauty of the view. Tracy will
probably feel frightened, while her passenger may feel exhilarated.
Arousal theory. 
Many researchers propose that behavior changes as a function of arousal. The curve (called an inverted U function) shown in
Figure illustrates that performance increases as arousal increases up to a point but then decreases if arousal is increased beyond
that point. This arousal‐performance phenomenon is known as the Yerkes‐Dodson law. It is well known that while a certain
amount of anxiety can enhance performance (for example, by promoting thorough preparation), too much can impair it (as
could, for example, severe stage fright). Research evidence has not totally supported the inverted U relationship for all types of
tasks, particularly those that are complex.
Figure 1 The Inverted U Function

CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Theories of cognitive development
The Jean Piaget Stages of Cognitive Development
Cognition refers to thinking and memory processes, and cognitive development refers to long-term changes in these processes.
One of the most widely known perspectives about cognitive development is the cognitive stage theory of a Swiss psychologist
named Jean Piaget. Piaget created and studied an account of how children and youth gradually become able to think logically
and scientifically.
Piaget believed that learning proceeded by the interplay of assimilation (adjusting new experiences to fit prior concepts) and
accommodation (adjusting concepts to fit new experiences). The to-and-fro of these two processes leads not only to short-term
learning, but also to long-term developmental change. The long-term developments are really the main focus of Piaget’s
cognitive theory.
After observing children closely, Piaget proposed that cognition developed through distinct stages from birth through the end of
adolescence. By “stages” he meant a sequence of thinking patterns with four key features:
1. The stages always happen in the same order.
2. No stage is ever skipped.
3. Each stage is a significant transformation of the stage before it.
4. Each later stage incorporated the earlier stages into itself.
Basically, this is a “staircase” model of development. Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development,
 Sensorimotor stage: Birth to 2 years old
 Preoperational stage: 2-7 years old
 Concrete operational stage: 7-11 years old
 Formal operations stage: 11 years old and older

Each stage is correlated with an age period of childhood, but only approximately.

According to Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory, children are not capable of performing certain tasks or understanding
certain concepts until they reach a particular Piaget stage.
In addition, Piaget believed that children move from one stage to the next after extensive exposure to relevant stimuli and
experiences. With these experiences, both physical and cognitive, they are ready to master new skills, which are essential for
children to move through the Piaget stages.

Sensorimotor Stage
Age Range: Birth to 2 years old
According to Piaget’s theory, children like to explore at the sensorimotor stage. They learn about their environment by
sensation: watching, grasping, sucking and manipulating objects they can get their eyes and hands on. At this stage, they
generally don’t think about what these objects do.
As infants become toddlers, children enjoy their rapidly improving abilities to move around and take in new experiences. They
focus on making sense of the world by linking their experiences to their actions.
During the late sensorimotor stage, children begin to learn the concept of object permanence. In other words, they know that
an object will continue to exist even if they can no longer see it. This is considered the milestone of this stage.
The practical knowledge developed during the sensorimotor stage will form the basis for children’s ability to form mental
representations of objects in later Piaget stages.

Preoperational Stage
Age Range: 2-7 years old
During the second Piaget stage of cognitive development, children:
 Learn how to think abstractly
 Understand symbolic concepts
 Use language in more sophisticated ways
Now that children can express themselves better, they become insatiably curious and begin to ask questions about everything
they see. They can imagine people or objects that don’t exist (such as a lizard with wings) more readily than younger children,
and they like to make up their own games.

Piaget’s theory suggests that at this stage, children are so engrossed in egocentric thoughts that they believe their view of the
world is shared by everyone else. They can’t understand that there are other ways of looking at the world and interpreting
information. For example, a child in a game of hide and seek may simply close his eyes and believe that others can’t see him
(since he can’t see others).
At the preoperational stage, children show the tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation or one dimension of a shape. This
is known as centration. They don’t get the concept of conservation. They don’t understand that changing an object’s
appearance doesn’t change its property or quantity.

Concrete Operational Stage

Age Range: 7-11 years old
By the time they reach the third Piaget stage, children can understand much more complex abstract concepts, such as time,
space, and quantity. They also begin to understand the concept of conservation.
Piaget pointed out that at the concrete operational stage, children’s ideas about time and space are sometimes inconsistent.
They can learn rules fairly easily, but they may have trouble understanding the logical implications of those rules in unusual
situations.
In addition, children are able to use inductive logic – the type of reasoning that starts from a specific idea and leads to a
generalization. For example, a child understands that his golden retriever is a dog, which is an animal.
Children at the concrete operational stage are also less egocentric. They begin to see things from other people’s point of view.
Another important child development milestone at this stage is the idea of reversibility. Children understand that some objects
can be altered and then shaped back to their original shape. For example, a deflated balloon can be filled with air again to
become an inflated balloon.

Formal Operational Stage

Age Range: 11 years old and older
At the final stage of the Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, children are capable of more abstract, hypothetical, and
theoretical reasoning. They are no longer bound to observable and physical events. They can approach and solve problems
systematically by formulating hypotheses and methodically testing them out.
According to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, children can now apply their reasoning to a variety of situations including
counterfactual “if-then” situations. For example, “if dogs were reptiles, they would have cold blood.” They can accept this as
valid reasoning, even though the premise is obviously false.
As children grow older, formal logic becomes possible and verbal explanations of concepts are usually sufficient without
demonstration. They can consider possible outcomes and consequences of their actions without actually performing them.
Moreover, strategy-based games become more enjoyable for them, whereas rote games like “chutes-and-ladders” become too
repetitive and boring.

Criticism of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

The Piaget stages have been the subject of some criticism over the years. Some cross-cultural psychologists question whether
the stages are unique to Western children, while others question about the age ranges of these stages.
Some psychologists, such as Vygotsky, proposed that cognitive development occurs through social interactions, and is a
continuous process.
Regardless of the criticism, the Piaget theory has proven to be invaluable and formed the basis for a number of other famous
psychological ideas, including Kohlberg’s theory of moral development.