Purposive Communication School of Liberal Arts Divine Word College of Calapan Week 2 Grammar

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION
SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS

DIVINE WORD COLLEGE OF CALAPAN
WEEK 2
GRAMMAR
Introduction
This unit presents ways in which grammatical structures convey different meanings in written
compositions. It contains activities for practice in using simple, compound and complex sentences,
sequencing of ideas in paragraphs through relative clauses and pronouns, use of grammatical
connectors like conjunctions, and descriptive categories such as adjectives, to improve composition.
Unit outcomes
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
 explore different ways in which English grammar can be used for better writing,
 give your students practice in expressing themselves appropriately by helping them focus on the
use of appropriate grammatical structure, and
 motivate your students to play grammar games to improve their language skills.
NOUNS
Types of Nouns
Nouns form a large proportion of English vocabulary and they come in a wide variety of types.
Nouns can name a person:
Albert Einstein
the president
my mother
a girl
Nouns can also name a place:
Mount Vesuvius
Disneyland
my bedroom
Nouns can also name things, although sometimes they might be intangible things, such as
concepts, activities, or processes. Some might even be hypothetical or imaginary things.
faucet
freedom
The Elder Wand
basketball
Proper Nouns vs. Common Nouns
One important distinction to be made is whether a noun is a proper noun or a common noun. A
proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is always capitalized.
Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

Tina is the name of a specific person.
I would like to visit Old Faithful.
Old Faithful is the specific name of a geological phenomenon.
The opposite of a proper noun is a common noun, sometimes known as a generic noun. A
common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and is not capitalized unless
appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in a title.
The girl crossed the river.
Girl is a common noun; we do not learn the identity of the girl by reading this sentence, though we
know the action she takes. River is also a common noun in this sentence.
Types of Common Nouns
Common or generic nouns can be broken down into three subtypes: concrete nouns, abstract
nouns, and collective nouns.
A concrete noun is something that is perceived by the senses; something that is physical or real.
I heard the doorbell.

My keyboard is sticky.
Doorbell and keyboard are real things that can be sensed.
Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the senses.
We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.
Courage is an abstract noun. Courage can’t be seen, heard, or sensed in any other way, but we
know it exists.
A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.
That pack of lies is disgraceful.
Pack of lies as used here is a collective noun. Collective nouns take a singular verb as if they are
one entity – in this case, the singular verb is.
A pride of lions roamed the savanna.
Pride of lions is also a collective noun.
Nouns as Subjects
Every sentence must have a subject, and that subject will always be a noun. The subject of a
sentence is the person, place, or thing that is doing or being the verb in that sentence.
Maria is happy.
Maria is the subject of this sentence and the corresponding verb is a form of to be (is).
Nouns as Objects
Nouns can also be objects of a verb in a sentence. An object can be either a direct object (a noun
that receives the action performed by the subject) or an indirect object (a noun that is the
recipient of a direct object).
Give the books to her.
Books is a direct object (what is being given) and her is the indirect object (who the books are
being given to).
Nouns as Subject and Object Complements
Another type of noun use is called a subject complement. In this example, the noun teacher is
used as a subject complement.
Mary is a teacher.
Subject complements normally follow linking verbs like to be, become, or seem. A teacher is what
Mary is.
A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.
I now pronounce you husband and wife.
Husband and wife are nouns used as object complements in this sentence. Verbs that denote
making, naming, or creating are often followed by object complements.
Appositive Nouns and Nouns as Modifiers
An appositive noun is a noun which immediately follows another noun in order to further define
or identify it.
My brother, Michael, is six years old.
Michael is an appositive here, further identifying the subject of the sentence, my brother.
Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.
He is a speed demon.
Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify demon.
Plural Nouns
Plural nouns, unlike collective nouns, require plural verbs. Many English plural nouns can be
formed by adding -s or -es to the singular form, although there are many exceptions.
cat—cats
These two cats are both black.
* Note the plural verb are.
Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns
Countable nouns are nouns which can be counted, even if the number might be extraordinarily
high (like counting all the people in the world). Countable nouns can be used with a/an, the, some,
any, a few, and many.
Here is a cat.
Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.
Here are a few cats.
Here are some cats.
Uncountable nouns are nouns that come in a state or quantity which is impossible to count;
liquids are uncountable, as are things that act like liquids (sand, air). They are always considered
to be singular, and can be used with some, any, a little, and much.
An I.Q. test measures intelligence.
Intelligence is an uncountable noun.
Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.
This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so homework is an

uncountable noun.
Possessive Nouns
Possessive nouns are nouns which possess something; i.e., they have something. You can identify
a possessive noun by the apostrophe; most nouns show the possessive with an apostrophe and an
s.
The cat’s toy was missing.
The cat possesses the toy, and we denote this by use of -’s at the end of cat.
*When a singular noun ends in the letter s or z, the same format often applies. This is a matter of
style, however, and some style guides suggest leaving off the extra s.
I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.
Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.
*Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.
My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.
PRONOUNS
Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing characteristic of pronouns is

that they can be substituted for other nouns. For instance, if you’re telling a story about your sister
Sarah, the story will begin to sound repetitive if you keep repeating “Sarah” over and over again.
Sarah has always loved fashion. Sarah announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.
*You could try to mix it up by sometimes referring to Sarah as “my sister,” but then it sounds like
you’re referring to two different people.
Sarah has always loved fashion. My sister announced that Sarah wants to go to fashion school.
*Instead, you can use the pronouns she and her to refer to Sarah.
Sarah has always loved fashion. She announced that she wants to go to fashion school.
Personal Pronouns
There are a few different types of pronouns, and some pronouns belong to more than one
category. She and her are known as personal pronouns. The other personal pronouns are I and me,
you, he and him, it, we and us, and they and them. If you learned about pronouns in school, these
are probably the words your teacher focused on. We’ll get to the other types of pronouns in a
moment.
Antecedents
Pronouns are versatile. The pronoun it can refer to just about anything: a bike, a tree, a movie, a
feeling. That’s why you need an antecedent. An antecedent is a noun or noun phrase that you
mention at the beginning of a sentence or story and later replace with a pronoun. In the examples
below, the antecedent is highlighted and the pronoun that replaces it is bolded.
My family drives me nuts, but I love them. The sign was too far away for Henry to read it. Sarah
said she is almost finished with the application.
*In some cases, the antecedent doesn’t need to be mentioned explicitly, as long as the context is
totally clear. It’s usually clear who the pronouns I, me, and you refer to based on who is speaking.
Relative Pronouns
Relative pronouns make up another class of pronouns. They are used to connect relative clauses
to independent clauses. Often, they introduce additional information about something mentioned
in the sentence. Relative pronouns include that, what, which, who, and whom. Traditionally, who
refers to people, and which and that refer to animals or things.
The woman who called earlier didn’t leave a message. All the dogs that got adopted today will be
loved. My car , which is nearly twenty years old, still runs well.
Whether you need commas with who, which, and that depends on whether the clause is restrictive
or nonrestrictive.
Who vs. Whom—Subject and Object Pronouns
Now that we’ve talked about relative pronouns, let’s tackle the one that causes the most confusion:
who vs. whom. Who is a subject pronoun, like I, he, she, we, and they. Whom is an object pronoun,
like me, him, her, us and them. When the pronoun is the object of a verb or preposition, the object
form is the one you want. Most people don’t have much trouble with the objective case of personal
pronouns because they usually come immediately after the verb or preposition that modifies it.
Please mail it to I.
Please mail it to me.
Ms. Higgins caught they passing notes.
Ms. Higgins caught them passing notes.
Is this cake for we?
Is this cake for us?
*Whom is trickier, though, because it usually comes before the verb or preposition that modifies it.
Whom did you speak to earlier?
A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking about you.
Whom should I say is calling?
*One way to test whether you need who or whom is to try substituting a personal pronoun. Find the
place where the personal pronoun would normally go and see whether the subject or object form
makes more sense.
Who/whom did you speak to earlier? Did you speak to he/him earlier?
A man, whom I have never seen before, was asking about you. Have I seen he/him before?
Whom should I say is calling? Should I say she/her is calling?
*If the object pronoun (him or her) sounds right, use whom. If the subject pronoun (he or she)
sounds right, use who.
Before we move on, there’s one more case where the choice between subject and object pronouns
can be confusing. Can you spot the problem in the sentences below?
Henry is meeting Sarah and I this afternoon. There are no secrets between you and I. It doesn’t
matter to him or I.
*In each of the sentences above, the pronoun I should be me. If you remove the other name or
pronoun from the sentence, it becomes obvious.
Henry is meeting I this afternoon. No one keeps secrets from I. It doesn’t matter to I.
Demonstrative Pronouns
That, this, these and those are demonstrative pronouns. They take the place of a noun or noun
phrase that has already been mentioned.
This is used for singular items that are nearby. These is used for multiple items that are nearby.
The distance can be physical or metaphorical.
Here is a letter with no return address. Who could have sent this? What a fantastic idea! This is the
best thing I’ve heard all day. If you think gardenias smell nice, try smelling these.
That is used for singular items that are far away. Those is used for multiple items that are far
away. Again, the distance can be physical or metaphorical.
A house like that would be a nice place to live. Some new flavors of soda came in last week. Why
don’t you try some of those? Those aren’t swans, they’re geese.
Indefinite Pronouns
Indefinite pronouns are used when you need to refer to a person or thing that doesn’t need to be
specifically identified. Some common indefinite pronouns are one, other, none, some, anybody,
everybody, and no one.
Everybody was late to work because of the traffic jam. It matters more to some than others. Nobody
knows the trouble I’ve seen.
*When indefinite pronouns function as subjects of a sentence or clause, they usually take singular
verbs.
Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns
Reflexive pronouns end in -self or -selves: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
Use a reflexive pronoun when both the subject and object of a verb refer to the same person or
thing.
Henry cursed himself for his poor eyesight. They booked themselves a room at the resort. I told
myself it was nothing.
Intensive pronouns look the same as reflexive pronouns, but their purpose is different. Intensive
pronouns add emphasis.
I built this house myself. Did you yourself see Loretta spill the coffee?
“I built this house” and “I built this house myself” mean almost the same thing. But “myself”
emphasizes that I personally built the house—I didn’t hire someone else to do it for me. Likewise,
“Did you see Loretta spill the coffee?” and “Did you yourself see Loretta spill the coffee?” have
similar meanings. But “yourself” makes it clear that the person asking wants to know whether you
actually witnessed the incident or whether you only heard it described by someone else.
*Occasionally, people are tempted to use myself where they should use me because it sounds a
little fancier. Don’t fall into that trap! If you use a -self form of a pronoun, make sure it matches one
of the uses above.
Please call Sarah or myself if you are going to be late. Loretta, Henry, and myself are pleased to
welcome you to the neighborhood.
Possessive Pronouns
Possessive pronouns come in two flavors: limiting and absolute. My, your, its, his, her, our, their
and whose are used to show that something belongs to an antecedent.
Sarah is working on her application. Just put me back on my bike. The students practiced their
presentation after school.
The absolute possessive pronouns are mine, yours, his, hers, ours, and theirs. The absolute
forms can be substituted for the thing that belongs to the antecedent.
Are you finished with your application? Sarah already finished hers. The blue bike is mine. I
practiced my speech and the students practiced theirs.
*Some possessive pronouns are easy to mix up with similar-looking contractions. Remember,
possessive personal pronouns don’t include apostrophes.
Interrogative Pronouns
Interrogative pronouns are used in questions. The interrogative pronouns are who, what,
which, and whose.
Who wants a bag of jelly beans? What is your name? Which movie do you want to watch? Whose
jacket is this?
Module 2
Week 3
Verb Usage
Introduction
In this section, you learn how to use verbs to indicate when an action occurred. First is the
explanation the different tenses and how they are used. The focus here is on regular verbs (the nice
cooperative ones) and irregular verbs (the ones that need bran cereal). There's even a special
section on lie/lay, the verb duo that reduces even linebackers and mothers-in-law to quivering
masses of jelly.
Discussion
USES OF VERBS
Verbs tell you what’s actually happening in the sentence, what the subject is doing or having done
to it. Of course, when you think about all the things that can happen, and all the things that subjects
are capable of doing, you can see the astonishing potential range of “actions”.
There are two specific uses for verbs. The first is to put a motionless noun into motion, or to change
its motion.
Annie went to the market.
Went gets Annie moving out the door and doing the shopping.
Annie went to the market, and then she stopped in at the bookstore.
First Annie does the shopping, and then she goes to do more interesting errands.
Mark lifted the rock.
We washed the car.

The girls played games all day.
These kinds of verbs are called action verbs. If you can do it, it’s an action verb.
The second use for a noun is to link the subject of the sentence to something which describes the
subject. If you can’t do it, it’s probably a linking verb.
I am tired.
It’s difficult to “am”, so this is likely a linking verb. It’s connecting the subject I to the state of being
tired.
TENSES
Present
Present tense is used, in principle, to refer to circumstances that exist at the present time (or over a
period that includes the present time). However the same forms are quite often also used to refer to
future circumstances, as in "He's coming tomorrow" (hence this tense is sometimes referred to as
present-future or nonpast). It is also possible for the present tense to be used when referring to no
particular real time (as when telling a story), or when recounting past events (the historical present.
The
The present tense has two moods, indicative and subjunctive; when no mood is specified, it is often
the indicative that is meant. In a present indicative construction, the finite verb appears in its base
form, or in its -s form if its subject is third-person singular. (The verb be has the forms am, is, are,
while the modal verbs do not add -s for third-person singular.)
Past
Past tense forms express circumstances existing at some time in the past, although they also have
certain uses in referring to hypothetical. Certain uses of the past tense may be referred to as
subjunctives; however the only distinction in verb conjugation between the past indicative and past
subjunctive is the possible use of were in the subjunctive in place of was.
Future
English is sometimes described as having a future tense, although since future time is not
specifically expressed by verb inflection, some grammarians identify only two tenses (present or
present-future, and past). The English "future" usually refers to a periphrastic form involving the
auxiliary verb will (or sometimes shall when used with a first-person subject. There also exist other
ways of referring to future circumstances, including the going to construction, and the use of
present tense forms
Future-in-the-past
A "future-in-the-past" tense (or form) is sometimes referred to. This takes essentially the same
form as the conditional, that is, it is made using the auxiliary would (or sometimes should in the first
person).
This form has a future-in-the-past meaning in sentences such as She knew that she would win the
game. Here the sentence as a whole refers to some particular past time, but would win refers to a
time in the future relative to that past time.
ASPECTS
Simple
"Simple" forms of verbs are those appearing in constructions not marked for either progressive or
perfect aspect (I go, I don't go, I went, I will go, etc., but not I'm going or I have gone).
Simple constructions normally denote a single action (perfective aspect), as in Brutus killed Caesar,
a repeated action (habitual aspect), as in I go to school, or a relatively permanent state, as in We live
in Dallas. They may also denote a temporary state (imperfective aspect), in the case of stative verbs
that do not use progressive forms (see below).
Progressive
The progressive or continuous aspect is used to denote a temporary action or state that began at a
previous time and continues into the present time (or other time of reference). It is expressed using
a form of the auxiliary verb to be (conjugated appropriately for tense etc.) together with the present
participle (-ing form) of the main verb: I am reading; Were you shouting?; He will be sitting over
there.
Perfect
The perfect aspect is used to denote the circumstance of an action's being complete at a certain
time. It is expressed using a form of the auxiliary verb have (appropriately conjugated for tense etc.)
together with the past participle of the main verb: She has eaten it; We had left; When will you
have finished?
Perfect forms can also be used to refer to states or habitual actions, even if not complete, if the focus
is on the time period before the point of reference (We had lived there for five years). If such a
circumstance is temporary, the perfect is often combined with progressive aspect (see the following
section).
The implications of the present perfect (that something occurred prior to the present moment) are
similar to those of the simple past, although the two forms are generally not used interchangeably –
the simple past is used when the time frame of reference is in the past, while the present perfect is
used when it extends to the present.
By using nonfinite forms of the auxiliary have, perfect aspect can also be marked on infinitives (as
in should have left and expect to have finished working), and on participles and gerunds (as in
having seen the doctor
Note that while all of the constructions referred to here are commonly referred to as perfect (based
on their grammatical form), some of them, particularly nonpresent and nonfinite instances, might
not be considered truly expressive of the perfect aspect.This applies particularly when the perfect
infinitive is used together with modal verbs: for example, he could not have been a genius might be
considered (based on its meaning) to be a past tense of he cannot/could not be a genius; such forms
are considered true perfect forms by some linguists but not others.
Perfect progressive
The perfect and progressive (continuous) aspects can be combined, usually in referring to the
completed portion of a continuing action or temporary state: I have been working for eight hours.
Here a form of the verb have (denoting the perfect) is used together with been (the past participle of
be, denoting the progressive) and the present participle of the main verb.
In the case of the stative verbs, which do not use progressive aspect (see the above section on the
progressive), the plain perfect form is normally used in place of the perfect progressive: I've been
here for half an hour (not *I've been being here...).
MOODS
Indicative
Indicative mood, in English, refers to finite verb forms that are not marked as subjunctive and are
not imperatives or conditionals. They are the verbs typically found in the main clauses of
declarative sentences and questions formed from them, as well as in most dependent clauses
(except for those that use the subjunctive). The information that a form is indicative is often
omitted when referring to it: the simple present indicative is usually referred to as just the simple
present, etc. (unless some contrast of moods, such as between indicative and subjunctive, is
pertinent to the topic).
Subjunctive
Certain types of clause, mostly dependent clauses, use a verb form identified with the subjunctive
mood. The present subjunctive takes a form identical to the bare infinitive, as in It is necessary that
he be restrained. There is also a past subjunctive, distinct from the indicative only in the possible
use of were in place of was in certain situations: If I were you, ...
Imperative
An independent clause in the imperative mood uses the base form of the verb, usually with no
subject (although the subject you can be added for emphasis). Negation uses do-support (i.e. do not
or don't). For example:
Now eat your dinner.
You go and stand over there!
Don't ever say that word again.
Sentences of this type are used to give an instruction or order. When they are used to make
requests, the word please (or other linguistic device) is often added for politeness:
Please pass the salt.
First person imperatives (cohortatives) can be formed with let us (usually contracted to let's), as in
"Let's go". Third person imperatives (jussives) are sometimes formed similarly, with let, as in "Let
him be released".
Conditional
The status of the conditional mood in English is similar to that of the future tense: it may be
considered to exist provided the category of mood is not required to be marked morphologically.
The English conditional is expressed periphrastically with verb forms governed by the auxiliary
verb would (or sometimes should with a first-person singular subject; see shall and will). The modal
verb could is also sometimes used as a conditional (of can).
In certain uses, the conditional construction with would/should may also be described as "future-in-
the-past".
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
The active voice (where the verb's subject is understood to denote the doer, or agent, of the
denoted action) is the unmarked voice in English. To form the passive voice (where the subject
denotes the undergoer, or patient, of the action), a periphrastic construction is used. In the
canonical form of the passive, a form of the auxiliary verb be (or sometimes get) is used, together
with the past participle of the lexical verb.
Passive voice can be expressed in combination together with tenses, aspects and moods, by means
of appropriate marking of the auxiliary (which for this purpose is not a stative verb, i.e. it has
progressive forms available). For example:
This room is tidied regularly. (simple present passive)

It had already been accepted. (past perfect passive)
Dinner is being cooked right now. (present progressive passive)
The uses of these various passive forms are analogous to those of the corresponding tense–aspect–
mood combinations in the active voice.
The passive forms of certain of the combinations involving the progressive aspect are quite rare;
these include the present perfect progressive (it has been being written), past perfect progressive (it
had been being written), future progressive (it will be being written), future perfect progressive (it
will have been being written), conditional progressive (it would be being written) and conditional
perfect progressive (it would have been being written). Because of the awkwardness of these
constructions, they may be paraphrased, for example using the expression in the process of (it has
been in the process of being written, it will be in the process of being written, and similar)..
NEGATION AND QUESTIONS
Negation of verbs usually takes place with the addition of the particle not (or its shortened form n't)
to an auxiliary or copular verb, with do-support being used if there is otherwise no auxiliary.
However if a sentence already contains a negative word (never, nothing, etc.), then there is not
usually any additional not.
Questions (interrogative constructions) are generally formed using subject–auxiliary inversion,

again using do-support if there is otherwise no auxiliary. In negative questions, it is possible to
invert with just the auxiliary (should we not help?) or with the contracted negation (shouldn't we
help?).
USES OF VERB COMBINATION TYPES
Simple past
The simple past or past simple, sometimes also called the preterite, consists of the bare past tense of
the verb (ending in -ed for regular verbs, and formed in various ways for irregular ones.
The simple past is used for a single event in the past, for past habitual action, or for a past state:
He took the money and ran.
I visited them every day for a year.
I knew how to fight even as a child.

However for action that was ongoing at the time referred to, the past progressive is generally used
instead.
The simple past is often close in meaning to the present perfect. The simple past is used when the
event is conceived as occurring at a particular time in the past, or during a period that ended in the
past (i.e. it does not last up until the present time). This time frame may be explicitly stated, or
implicit in the context (for example the past tense is often used when describing a sequence of past
events).
I was born in 1980.
We turned the oven off two minutes ago.
She placed the letter on the table, sighed, and left the house.
Various compound constructions exist for denoting past habitual action. The sentence When I was
young, I played football every Saturday might alternatively be phrased using used to (... I used to
play ...) or using would (... I would play...).
The past simple is also used without past reference in some instances: in condition clauses and
some other dependent clauses referring to hypothetical circumstances.
Past progressive
The past progressive or past continuous construction combines progressive aspect with past tense,
and is formed using the past tense of be (was or were) with the present participle of the main verb.
It indicates an action that was ongoing at the past time being considered:
At three o'clock yesterday, I was working in the garden.
For stative verbs that do not use the progressive aspect, the simple past is used instead ( At three
o'clock yesterday we were in the garden).
The past progressive is often used to denote an action that was interrupted by an event, [5][6] or for
two actions taking place in parallel:
While I was washing the dishes, I heard a loud noise.
While you were washing the dishes, Sue was walking the dog.
(Interrupted actions in the past can also sometimes be denoted using the past perfect progressive,
as described below.)
The past progressive can also be used to refer to past action that occurred over a range of time and
is viewed as an ongoing situation:
I was working in the garden all day yesterday.
That could also be expressed using the simple past, as I worked..., which implies that the action is
viewed as a unitary event (although the effective meaning is not very different)..
Past perfect
The past perfect, sometimes called the pluperfect, combines past tense with perfect aspect; it is
formed by combining had (the past tense of the auxiliary have) with the past participle of the main
verb. It is used when referring to an event that took place prior to the time frame being considered.
This time frame may be stated explicitly, as a stated time or the time of another past action:
We had finished the job by 2 o'clock.
He had already left when we arrived.
The time frame may also be understood implicitly from the previous or later context:
I was eating ... I had invited Jim to the meal but he was unable to attend. (i.e. I invited him
before I started eating)
I had lost my way. (i.e. this happened prior to the time of the past events I am describing or
am about to describe)
Compare He had left when we arrived (where his leaving preceded our arrival), with the form with
the simple past, He left when we arrived (where his leaving was concurrent with or shortly after our
arrival).
Note that unlike the present perfect, the past perfect can readily be used with an adverb specifying
a past time frame for the occurrence. For example, while it is incorrect to say *I have done it last
Friday (the use of last Friday, specifying the past time, would require the simple past rather than the
present perfect), there is no such objection to a sentence like "I had done it the previous Friday".
The past perfect can also be used for states or repeated occurrences pertaining over a period up to
a time in the past, particularly in stating "for how long" or since when". However, if the state is
temporary and the verb can be used in the progressive aspect, the past perfect progressive would
normally be used instead. Some examples with the plain past perfect:
I had lived in that house for 10 years.
The children had been in their room since lunchtime.
Past perfect progressive

The past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous (also known as the pluperfect progressive or
pluperfect continuous) combines perfect progressive aspect with past tense. It is formed by
combining had (the past tense of auxiliary have), been (the past participle of be), and the present
participle of the main verb.
Uses of the past perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive,
except that the point of reference is in the past. For example:
I was tired because I had been running.
By yesterday morning they had already been working for twelve hours.
Among the witnesses was John Smith, who had been staying at the hotel since July 10.
This form is sometimes used for actions in the past that were interrupted by some event (compare
the use of the past progressive as given above). For example:
I had been working on my novel when she entered the room to talk to me.
This implies that I stopped working when she came in (or had already stopped a short time before);
the plain past progressive (I was working...) would not necessarily carry this implication.
If the verb in question does not use the progressive aspect, then the plain past perfect is used
instead.
The past perfect progressive may also have additional specific uses similar to those of the plain past
perfect.
Simple present
The simple present or present simple is a form that combines present tense with "simple" (neither
perfect nor progressive) aspect. In the indicative mood it consists of the base form of the verb, or
the -s form when the subject is third-person singular (the verb be uses the forms am, is, are).
However with non-auxiliary verbs it also has a periphrastic form consisting of do (or third-person
singular does) with the bare infinitive of the main verb — this form is used in questions (and other
clauses requiring inversion) and negations, and sometimes for emphasis.
The principal uses of the simple present are given below.
To refer to an action or event that takes place habitually. Such uses are often accompanied by
frequency adverbs and adverbial phrases such as always, often, from time to time and never.
Examples:
I always take a shower.

He writes for a living.
This contrasts with the present progressive, which is used for actions taking place at the
present moment.
 With stative verbs in senses that do not use progressive aspect, to refer to a present or
general state, whether temporary, permanent or habitual. (In senses that do use
progressive aspect, the present simple is used when the state is permanent or habitual.)
You are happy.

I know what to do.
Denmark lies to the north of Germany.
 When quoting someone or something, even if the words were spoken in the (usually very
recent) past:
The label says "External use only".

Mary says she's ready.
 To refer to a single completed action, as in recounting the events of a story in the present
tense (see historical present), and in such contexts as newspaper headlines, where it
replaces the present perfect:
In Hamlet, Ophelia drowns in a stream.

40-year-old wins gold medal.
 Sometimes to refer to an arranged future event, usually with a reference to time:
We leave for Berlin tomorrow at 1 pm.
 In providing a commentary on events as they occur, or in describing some theoretical

sequence of events:
I chop the chives and add them to the mixture.

According to the manager's new idea, I welcome the guests and you give the presentation.
 In many dependent clauses referring to the future, particularly condition clauses, clauses
expressing place and time, and many relative clauses.
If he finds your sweets, he will eat them.

We will report as soon as we receive any information.
 In certain situations in a temporal adverbial clause, rather than the present progressive:
We can see the light improving as we speak.

In colloquial English it is common to use can see, can hear for the present tense of see, hear, etc., and
have got for the present tense of have (denoting possession).
Present progressive
The present progressive or present continuous form combines present tense with progressive aspect.
It thus refers to an action or event conceived of as having limited duration, taking place at the
present time. It consists of a form of the simple present of be together with the present participle of
the main verb.
We are cooking dinner now.
This often contrasts with the simple present, which expresses repeated or habitual action ( We cook
dinner every day). However sometimes the present continuous is used with always, generally to
express annoyance about a habitual action:
You are always making a mess in the study.
The present progressive can be used to refer to a planned future event:
We are tidying the attic tomorrow.
It also appears with future reference in many condition and time clauses and other dependent
clauses (see Dependent clauses below):
If he's sleeping when you arrive, wake him up.
I will finish the job while the children are playing.
It can also refer to something taking place not necessarily at the time of speaking, but at the time
currently under consideration, in the case of a story or narrative being told in the present tense (as
mentioned above under present simple):
The king and queen are conversing when Hamlet enters..
Present perfect
The present perfect (traditionally called simply the perfect) combines present tense with perfect
aspect, denoting the present state of an action's being completed, that is, that the action took place
before the present time. (It is thus often close in meaning to the simple past tense, although the two
are not usually interchangeable.) It is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary have (namely
have or has) and the past participle of the main verb.
The choice of present perfect or past tense depends on the frame of reference (period or point in
time) in which the event is conceived as occurring. If the frame of reference extends to the present
time, the present perfect is used. For example:
I have written a letter this morning. (if it is still the morning)
He has produced ten plays. (if he is still alive and professionally active)
They have never traveled abroad. (if they are still alive and considered capable of
traveling)
If the frame of reference is a time in the past, or a period that ended in the past, the past tense is
used instead. For example: I wrote a letter this morning (it is now afternoon);
He produced ten plays (he is now dead or his career is considered over, or a particular past time
period is being referred to);
They never traveled abroad (similarly).
The simple past is generally used when the occurrence has a specific past time frame – either
explicitly stated (I wrote a book in 1995; the water boiled a minute ago), or implied by the context
(for example, in the narration of a sequence of events). It is therefore normally incorrect to write a
sentence like *I have written a novel yesterday; the present perfect cannot be used with an
expression of past time such as yesterday.
With already or yet, traditional usage calls for the present perfect: Have you eaten yet? Yes, I've
already eaten. However, current informal American speech tends to use the simple past: Did you eat
yet? Yes, I ate already.
Use of the present perfect often draws attention to the present consequences of the past action or
event, as opposed to its actual occurrence. The sentence she has come probably means she is here
now, while the simple past she came does not. The sentence, “Have you been to the fair?” suggests
that the fair is still going on, while the sentence, “Did you go to the fair?” could mean that the fair is
over. (See also been and gone below.) Some more examples:
I have eaten. (implies that I'm no longer hungry)
We have made the dinner. (implies that the dinner is now ready to eat)
The weather has gotten cloudier. (implies that it is now more cloudy than previously)
It may also refer to an ongoing state or habitual action, particularly in saying for how long, or since
when, something is the case. For example
I have lived in Paris for five years.
He has held the record since he won his Olympic gold.
We have eaten breakfast together every morning since our honeymoon.
This implies that I still live in Paris, that he still holds the record and that we still eat together every
morning (although the first sentence may also refer to some unspecified past period of five years).
When the circumstance is temporary, the present perfect progressive is often appropriate in such
sentences (see below); however, if the verb is one that does not use the progressive aspect, the
basic present perfect is used in that case too:
Amy has been on the swing for ten minutes.
The present perfect may refer to a habitual circumstance, or a circumstance being part of a
theoretical or story narrative being given in the present tense (provided the circumstance is of an
event's having taken place previously):
Whenever I get home, John has usually already arrived.
According to the plan, the speeches have already been given when the cake is brought out.
The present perfect may also be used with future reference, instead of the future perfect, in those
dependent clauses where future occurrence is denoted by present tense. For example:
When you have written it, show it to me.
Present perfect progressive
The present perfect progressive (or present perfect continuous) construction combines some of this
perfect progressive aspect with present tense. It is formed with the present tense of have (have or
has), the past participle of be (been), and the present participle of the main verb.
This construction is used for ongoing action in the past that continues right up to the present or has
recently finished:
I have been writing this paper all morning.
Why are his eyes red? He has been crying.
It is frequently used when stating for how long, or since when, something is the case:
She has been working here since 1997.
How long have you been sitting there?
They have been arguing about it for two weeks.
In these sentences the actions are still continuing, but it is the past portion of them that is being
considered, and so the perfect aspect is used. (A sentence without perfect aspect, such as I am
sitting here for three hours, implies an intention to perform the action for that length of time.) With
stative verbs that are not used in the progressive, and for situations that are considered permanent,
the present perfect (nonprogressive) is used instead.
Simple future
The term simple future or future simple, as applied to English, generally refers to the combination of
the modal auxiliary verb will with the bare infinitive of the main verb. Sometimes (particularly in
more formal or old-fashioned English) shall is preferred to will when the subject is first person (I or
we); see shall and will for details. The auxiliary is often contracted to 'll;
This construction can be used to indicate what the speaker views as facts about the future,
including confident predictions:
The sun will rise tomorrow at 6:14.
It will rain later this week.
It may be used to describe future circumstances that are subject to some condition.
He will go there if he can.
However English also has other ways of referring to future circumstances. For planned or
scheduled actions the present progressive or simple present may be used (see those sections for
examples). There is also a going-to future, common in colloquial English, which is often used to
express intentions or predictions (I am going to write a book some day; I think that it is going to
rain). Use of the will/shall construction when expressing intention often indicates a spontaneous
decision:
I know! I'll use this book as a door stop.
Compare I'm going to use..., which implies that the intention to do so has existed for some time.
The modal verbs will and shall also have other uses besides indicating future time reference. For
example:
I will pass this exam. (often expresses determination in addition to futurity)
You will obey me! (insistence)
I will not do it! (negative insistence, refusal)
At this moment I will tolerate no dissent. (strong volition)
He hasn't eaten all day; he will be hungry now. (confident speculation about the present)
One of his faults is that he will make trouble unnecessarily. (habit)
Shall we get to work? (suggestion)
Future progressive
The future progressive or future continuous combines progressive aspect with future time reference;
it is formed with the auxiliary will (or shall in the first person; see shall and will), the bare infinitive
be, and the present participle of the main verb. It is used mainly to indicate that an event will be in
progress at a particular point in the future:
This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.
I imagine we will already be eating when you arrive.
Future perfect
The future perfect combines perfect aspect with future time reference. It consists of the auxiliary
will (or sometimes shall in the first person, as above), the bare infinitive have, and the past
participle of the main verb. It indicates an action that is to be completed sometime prior to a future
time of perspective, or an ongoing action continuing up to a future time of perspective (compare
uses of the present perfect above).
I shall have finished my essay by Thursday.
When I finally search him he will have disposed of the evidence.
By next year we will have lived in this house for half a century.
The same construction may occur when will or shall is given one of its other meanings; for example:
He will have had his tea by now. (confident speculation about the present)
You will have completed this task by the time I return, is that understood? (giving
instruction)
Future perfect progressive
The future perfect progressive or future perfect continuous combines perfect progressive aspect with
future time reference. It is formed by combining the auxiliary will (or sometimes shall, as above),
the bare infinitive have, the past participle been, and the present participle of the main verb.
Uses of the future perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive,
except that the point of reference is in the future. For example:
He will be very tired because he will have been working all morning.
By 6 o'clock we will have been drinking for ten hours.
The same construction may occur when the auxiliary (usually will) has one of its other meanings,
particularly expressing a confident assumption about the present:
No chance of finding him sober now; he‍ 'll have been drinking all day.
WEEK 4
VERBALS
A verbal is a verb form that does not function as a verb. Verbals function as nouns,
adjectives, or adverbs. There are three types of verbals:
1. Participles (past participles and present participles).

2. Gerunds
3. Infinitives
Verbals (Participles)
A participle is a verb form that functions as an adjective.
There are two types of participles: the present participle (ending "ing") and the past participle
(usually ending "-ed,"" -d,"" -t,"" -en," or "-n").
Here are some participles being used as adjectives:
The Verb The Present Participle The Past Participle
To bake the baking bread the baked bread
To print the printing document the printed document
To lower the lowering prices the lowered prices
Here are some real-life examples:
A stirring dwarf we do allowance give before a sleeping giant. (Playwright William Shakespeare)
(Two present participles)
Food is an important part of a balanced diet. (Author Fran Lebowitz)
(A past participle)
Often, a participle will head up a participle phrase that functions as an adjective. In the examples
below, all participles are in bold and the participle phrases are shaded.
Drooling saliva over the day's mail, the barking boxer quickly singled out the parcel from the bills
and junk mail.
(This example has two present participles. The first heads up a participle phrase that describes "the
barking boxer." The second modifies "boxer" in the normal way.)
Baked in the oven for over six hours, the roast looked ruined.
(This example has two past participles. The first heads up a participle phrase that describes "the
roast." The second describes the roast as a subject complement.)
Verbals (Gerunds)
Even though gerunds look like present participles (i.e., they also end "-ing"), a gerund is a noun,
not an adjective. Here are some examples of gerunds (bold):
You don't stop laughing because you grow old. You grow old because you stop laughing.
(Comedian Michael Pritchard)
Discovery consists of seeing what everybody has seen and thinking what nobody has thought.
(Biochemist Albert Szent-Gyorgyi)
I have never taken any exercise except sleeping and resting. (Author Mark Twain)
*A gerund will often appear in a gerund phrase. A gerund phrase consists of a gerund, its object,
and all modifiers. For example (gerunds in bold with the gerund phrases italicized):
Singing the words out loud helped him with his stammer.
I started by photographing birds in my garden.
Verbals (Infinitives)
An infinitive is a verb form (often preceded by "to," e.g., "to dance," "to sing") that can function as
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. For example:
An infinitive as a noun:
To win was everything.
(The infinitive is the subject of "was.")
Compare it to this:
Winning was everything.
*(This proves that the infinitive "to win" is being used a noun.)
An infinitive as an adjective:
It is an appropriate saving to propose.
*(The infinitive modifies "saving." This means it is functioning as an adjective.)
Compare it to this:
It is an appropriate saving that he proposed.
(The clause "that he proposed" is an adjective clause. This proves that the infinitive "to propose" is
being used an adjective.)
An infinitive as an adverb:
The man paid to watch.
(The infinitive modifies the verb "paid." This means it is functioning as an adverb.)
Compare it to this:
The man paid so he could watch.

(The clause "so he could watch" is an adverbial clause. This proves that the infinitive "to watch" is
being used an adverb.)
An infinitive will often appear in a infinitive phrase. An infinitive phrase consists of the infinitive and
any objects and modifiers. For example (infinitives in bold with the infinitive phrases italicized):
She needed to find a lot of money quickly.
(The infinitive phrase is being used as a noun.)
I showed her the best way to make a Yorkshire pudding.
(The infinitive phrase is being used as an adjective.)
He set the camera to film whatever was eating his chickens.
(The infinitive phrase is being used as an adverb.)
More about Verbals
We said at the start that verbals do not function as verbs. This is not strictly true because
participles are used to form verb tenses. More specifically, present participles are used to form the
progressive (or continuous) tenses, and past participles are used to form the perfect (or completed)
tenses. However, participles cannot function as verbs by themselves. They require the help of the
finite verbs "to be" or "to have." For example: #
He is eating his dinner.
(The present participle "eating" is part of the verb phrase "is eating." The verb phrase is functioning
as a verb, but the verbal (i.e., "eating") cannot do this alone. It needs the help of "is" (i.e., the verb
"to be"). This is an example of the present progressive tense.)
He has eaten his dinner.
(The past participle "eaten" is part of the verb phrase "has eaten." The verb phrase is functioning as
a verb, but the verbal (i.e., "eaten") cannot do this alone. It needs the help of "has" (i.e., the verb "to
have"). This is an example of the present perfect tense.)
Why Should I Care about Verbals?
Native English speakers can use verbals without hitting any snags. Nevertheless, here are three
good reasons to give verbals a little more thought.
(Reason 1) Participle phrases let you say two things efficiently.

Participle phrases are useful for saying two or more things about the subject, not only efficiently
but also in a way that adds that variety to your sentence structures. In these examples, the
participle phrases are shaded, and the participles are in bold.
Always willing to entertain others' ideas, Simon has a proven ability to build trust through regular
and honest communication.
Showing utmost diligence in everything she does, Jill is adept managing disagreements.
This sentence structure (i.e., with a fronted participle phrase) is particularly useful when writing
personal appraisals.
(Reason 2) Gerunds can reduce your word count and improve reading flow.
Sentences with lots of nouns (i.e., normal nouns, not gerunds) need to include the prepositions (e.g.,
"of," "with") and the articles ("a," "an," "the") required to make those nouns work. As a result, such
sentences usually sound jolty and are unnecessarily long. For example (normal nouns in bold):
The development of the U-bend assisted with the removal of smells.
(This 11-word sentence has way too many nouns, prepositions, and articles. It's long and stuffy, and
it doesn't flow naturally.)
As a rule, a well-placed verb is the best way to fix a jolty, noun-filled sentence, but gerunds (being a
bit verb-like themselves) are also good for reducing your word count and creating better-flowing
sentences. For example (gerunds highlighted):
Developing the U-bend assisted with removing smells.
(This 7-word version features two gerunds. It flows far better than the 11-word version above.)
Overusing nouns is common in business writing because staff members believe that noun chains
make their writing sound more corporate.
(Reason 3) An infinitive can usually replace "in order to."
To reduce your word count, you can often replace "in order to" with "to" without any loss of
meaning.
Attempt the impossible in order to improve your work. (Actress Bette Davis)
(Here, the infinitive "to improve" has replaced "in order to improve," saving two words.)
Be careful when replacing "in order to" with just "to." Using "in order to" makes it clear that the text
that follows is the reason for performing the action. Also, sometimes, using the full "in order to" is
useful for removing ambiguity. So, remove "in order" to save two words, but then check your
sentence still reads okay.
VERBAL PHRASES
Verbal phrases are verbals and any of the verb form's modifiers, objects, or complements. The three
types of verbal phrases are participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases.
Participial Phrases
Participial Phrases are present participles or past participles and any modifiers, objects, or
complements. Participial phrases contain verbs which act as adjectives in a sentence.
Examples:
Singing very softly, the boy lulled his baby brother to sleep. (the participial phrase works as an
adjective, modifying "boy")
The girls, frightened by the police car's headlights, quickly came down from the school's roof. (the
participial phrase works as an adjective, modifying "girls")
Gerund Phrases
Gerund Phrases contain verbs ending in -ing and any modifiers, objects, or complements. Gerund
phrases act as nouns in a sentence. They can act as the subject or object of a verb, as a predicate
nominative, and as the object of a preposition.
Examples:
Waiting for his grades drove him crazy. (the gerund phrase works as the subject of the verb
"drove")
The woman denied knowing her own husband. (the gerund phrase works as the object of the verb
"denied")
He thought he could escape from his problems by running away. (the gerund phrase works as the
object of the preposition "by")
Making many acquaintances is cultivating future friendships. (the gerund phrases work as the
subject and as the predicate nominative)
Infinitive Phrases
Infinitive Phrases contain verbals consisting of "to" followed by a verb and any modifiers, objects,
or complements. Infinitive phrases usually act as nouns, but they can also act as adjectives and
adverbs.
Examples:
To live in Boston eventually is his main goal in life. (the infinitive phrase works as the subject of
the sentence)
Quentin Tarentino loves to babble during interviews. (the infinitive phrase works as the object of
the verb "loves")
Do you have any clothes to donate to the homeless shelter? (the infinitive phrase works as an
adjective, modifying "clothes")
She went home to visit her family. (the infinitive phrase works as an adverb, modifying "went")
WEEK 6
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
Sentences with two essential parts: a subject and a predicate as in A boy

Simple ate the mangoes where a boy is the subject and ate the mangoes is the
sentences: predicate.
These are sentences usually formed by combining two simple sentences

Compound with conjunctions such as and or but, as in The man can beat the drum and
sentences: his wife can sing.
Terminolog These are commonly formed by sentences with a main clause and a
y Complex subordinate clause as in I saw her (main clause) when she was running away
sentences: (subordinate clause).
Compound- These are commonly formed by a combination of simple, compound and

complex complex sentences with a series of subordinate clauses as in The woman
was clapping her hands (simple sentence) and her children were dancing
sentences:
beautifully (compound sentence) because they were very happy (complex
sentence).
Verbs with no subject, tense or number. They are participial verbs (i.e.,
verbs that end in –ing or –ed but are not denoting past/present/future
Non-finite verbs: tense) and do not use auxiliary verbs (“be” verbs or modals) to complete
their meaning. For example: Turning the handle, she opened the door.
These are words used for joining other words or group of words in
Conjunctions: sentences (e.g., and, but, or, neither… nor, either… or, and so on).
These are words that link sentences together (e.g., therefore, consequently,
Sentence linkers: furthermore, firstly, secondly and so on).
These are words and expressions that are used to describe a noun in a
Descriptive sentence. They can appear before the noun (attributive adjectives) — as in

adjectives: a handsome boy, a beautiful girl — or after it (predicative adjectives) —
as in The boy is handsome.
Connected Any piece of written text that is at least a paragraph long, and expresses an

writing: idea or a group of related ideas.
WEEK 6
RULES OF THE SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT
Discussions
NOTE
We will use the standard of underlining subjects once and verbs twice.
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of subject-verb agreement.
Basic Rule. A singular subject (she, Bill, car) takes a singular verb (is, goes, shines), whereas a plural
subject takes a plural verb.
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.

If you know that list is the subject, then you will choose is for the verb.
Rule 1
A subject will come before a phrase beginning with of. This is a key rule for understanding
subjects. The word of is the culprit in many, perhaps most, subject-verb mistakes.
Hasty writers, speakers, readers, and listeners might miss the all-too-common mistake in the
following sentence:a
Incorrect: A bouquet of yellow roses lend color and fragrance to the room.
Correct: A bouquet of yellow roses lends . . . (bouquet lends, not roses lend
Rule 2
Two singular subjects connected by or, either/or, or neither/nor require a singular verb.
Examples:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Neither Juan nor Carmen is available.
Either Kiana or Casey is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3
The verb in an or, either/or, or neither/nor sentence agrees with the noun or pronoun closest
to it.
Examples:
Neither the plates nor the serving bowl goes on that shelf.
Neither the serving bowl nor the plates go on that shelf.
This rule can lead to bumps in the road. For example, if I is one of two (or more) subjects, it could
lead to this odd sentence:
Awkward: Neither she, my friends, nor I am going to the festival.
If possible, it's best to reword such grammatically correct but awkward sentences.
Better:
Neither she, I, nor my friends are going to the festival.
OR
She, my friends, and I are not going to the festival.
Rule 4
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected by
and.
Example: A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
But note these exceptions:

Exceptions:
Breaking and entering is against the law.
The bed and breakfast was charming.
In those sentences, breaking and entering and bed and breakfast are compound nouns.
Rule 5. Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by such words as along with, as well as,
besides, not, etc. These words and phrases are not part of the subject. Ignore them and use a
singular verb when the subject is singular.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 5
With words that indicate portions—a lot, a majority, some, all, etc.—Rule 1 given earlier is
reversed, and we are guided by the noun after of. If the noun after of is singular, use a
singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
A lot of the pie has disappeared.
A lot of the pies have disappeared.
A third of the city is unemployed.
A third of the people are unemployed.
All of the pies are gone.

Some of the pie is missing.
Some of the pies are missing.
NOTE
In recent years, we have considered none to be strictly singular. However, according to

Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of English Usage: "Clearly none has been both singular and
plural since Old English and still is. The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown
origin that appears to have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to
you, use a singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable
beyond serious criticism." When none is clearly intended to mean "not one," it is followed by
a singular verb.
Rule 6
In sentences beginning with here or there, the true subject follows the verb.
Examples:
There are four hurdles to jump.
There is a high hurdle to jump.
Here are the keys.
NOTE
The word there's, a contraction of there is, leads to bad habits in informal sentences like
There's a lot of people here today, because it's easier to say "there's" than "there are." Take
care never to use there's with a plural subject.
Rule 7
Use a singular verb with distances, periods of time, sums of money, etc., when considered as
a unit.
Examples:
Three miles is too far to walk.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Ten dollars is a high price to pay.
BUT
Ten dollars (i.e., dollar bills) were scattered on the floor.
Rule 8
Some collective nouns, such as family, couple, staff, audience, etc., may take either a singular
or a plural verb, depending on their use in the sentence.
Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit.
The couple disagree about disciplining their child.
The couple refers to two people who are acting as individuals.
NOTE
Anyone who uses a plural verb with a collective noun must take care to be accurate—and
also consistent. It must not be done carelessly. The following is the sort of flawed sentence
one sees and hears a lot these days:
The staff is deciding how they want to vote.

Careful speakers and writers would avoid assigning the singular is and the plural they to staff in the
same sentence.
Consistent: The staff are deciding how they want to vote.
Rewriting such sentences is recommended whenever possible. The preceding sentence would read
even better as:
The staff members are deciding how they want to vote.

Rule 9
The word were replaces was in sentences that express a wish or are contrary to fact:
Example: If Joe were here, you'd be sorry.
Shouldn't Joe be followed by was, not were, given that Joe is singular? But Joe isn't actually here, so
we say were, not was. The sentence demonstrates the subjunctive mood, which is used to express
things that are hypothetical, wishful, imaginary, or factually contradictory. The subjunctive mood
pairs singular subjects with what we usually think of as plural verbs.
Examples:
I wish it were Friday.
She requested that he raise his hand.
In the first example, a wishful statement, not a fact, is being expressed; therefore, were, which we
usually think of as a plural verb, is used with the singular subject I.
Normally, he raise would sound terrible to us. However, in the second example, where a request
is being expressed, the subjunctive mood is correct.
Note: The subjunctive mood is losing ground in spoken English but should still be used in formal
speech and writing.
Exceptions to the Rules
There are a few exceptions to the subject verb agreement rules. For example:
 Anyone, everyone, someone, no one, and nobody always require singular verbs.
 Neither and either require singular verbs even though they seem to be referring to two
separate things.
 Sums of money or periods of time require a singular verb.
 When a sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and only one is plural, the
verb should agree with the positive subject.
 Words that indicate portions of a whole, such as percent, fraction, some, all, none, and
remainder require a singular verb only if the object of the preposition is singular.
 Who, that, and which are singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them.
 Typically, you should use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are connected
by and.
 There and here are never considered to be subjects. In sentences beginning with here or
there, the subject follows the verb.
 As well as and along with do not function the same as and. The phrase introduced by as well
as or along with modifies the earlier word, but does not compound the subjects.
 If a sentence includes modifiers between the subject and verb, this does not affect whether
the verb is singular or plural.
 Just because a word ends in –s does not automatically make it plural. Consider the word is as
an example of this rule.
 A collective noun such as team or staff can be either singular or plural depending upon the
rest of the sentence.
WEEK 8
SPEAKING ACCURATELY/ EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION
Introduction
This unit focuses on accuracy in pronunciation. In English, sometimes a difference in pronunciation

can lead to a difference in meaning. Our pronunciation of the sounds of a second language (here,
English) is often influenced by similar sounds in our home language. When people speak a language
in a context, slight differences in pronunciation do not matter, because the context or situation
makes the meaning clear. However, sometimes ambiguity (the possibility of more than one
meaning) can arise, leading to misunderstanding or even embarrassment. The activities in this unit
address pronunciation problems arising from different vowels, word stress and words containing
silent letters.
Unit outcomes
Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:
Outcomes  make your students aware of the correct pronunciation of some commonly mispronounced
English vowel sounds in words;
 help your students practice pronouncing words accurately;
 teach your students that letters of the English alphabet have different pronunciations in
different words;
 help your students pronounce words with silent letters correctly; and
 make your students aware of some conventions of English word stress.
Terminology
Monophthong: A single vowel sound, such as /e/, /i:/ or /u/.
Also called a vowel glide, a diphthong is a vowel that begins in one sound
Terminolog Diphthong:
but glides to another at the end, such as /ei/, /au/ or /eǝ/.
y
The unstressed forms of structure/function words like auxiliary verbs,
Weak forms:
pronouns and articles in an English utterance. (See Module 1, Unit 1.)
Connected
Speech that comprises utterances and not isolated sounds or words.
speech:
Activities
Activity 1: Pronouncing diphthongs accurately
Resource 1a: Identifying diphthong
In the list below there are pairs of words, one containing a single vowel sound (monophthong)
and the other containing a vowel glide (diphthong). Can you hear the difference in their
pronunciation? Listen as your teacher reads out one word from each pair, and circle the word that
you hear.
1. bet bait
2. fare fair
3. lord load
Resource 4. man main
1a 5. wet weight
6. red ride
7. shut shout
8. hat hate
9. bread braid
10. let late
11. bird beard
12. get gate
Resource 2: Silent letters in English words (worksheet)
island muscle thumb pneumonia soften hymn
honour calf mnemonic knowledge reign sandwich
Silent
Word 1st Word 2nd Word 3rd Word
No. letter
1. island S
2. muscle C
3. thumb B
Resource 4. pneumonia P
2
5. soften T
6. hymn N
7. honour H
8. calf L
9. mnemonic M
10. knowledge K
11. reign G
12. sandwich D
Listening is the conscious processing of the auditory stimuli that have been perceived through
hearing.
Listening differs from obeying. Parents may commonly conflate the two, by telling a disobedient
child that he "didn't listen to me". However, a person who receives and understands information or
an instruction, and then chooses not to comply with it or to agree to it, has listened to the speaker,
even though the result is not what the speaker wanted.
The 10 Principles of Listening
A good listener will listen not only to what is being said, but also to what is left unsaid or only
partially said.
Effective listening involves observing body language and noticing inconsistencies between verbal
and non-verbal messages.
For example, if someone tells you that they are happy with their life but through gritted teeth or
with tears filling their eyes, you should consider that the verbal and non-verbal messages are in
conflict, they maybe don't mean what they say.
1. Stop Talking
“If we were supposed to talk more than we listen, we would have two tongues and one ear. ” Mark
Twain.
Don't talk, listen. When somebody else is talking listen to what they are saying, do not interrupt,
talk over them or finish their sentences for them. Stop, just listen. When the other person has
finished talking you may need to clarify to ensure you have received their message accurately.
2. Prepare Yourself to Listen
Relax.
Focus on the speaker. Put other things out of mind. The human mind is easily distracted by other
thoughts – what’s for lunch, what time do I need to leave to catch my train, is it going to rain – try to
put other thoughts out of mind and concentrate on the messages that are being communicated.
3. Put the Speaker at Ease
Help the speaker to feel free to speak.
Remember their needs and concerns. Nod or use other gestures or words to encourage them to
continue.
Maintain eye contact but don’t stare – show you are listening and understanding what is being said.
4. Remove Distractions
Focus on what is being said.
Don’t doodle, shuffle papers, look out the window, pick your fingernails or similar. Avoid
unnecessary interruptions. These behaviours disrupt the listening process and send messages to
the speaker that you are bored or distracted.
5. Empathise
Try to understand the other person’s point of view.
Look at issues from their perspective. Let go of preconceived ideas. By having an open mind we
can more fully empathise with the speaker. If the speaker says something that you disagree with
then wait and construct an argument to counter what is said but keep an open mind to the views
and opinions of others.
6. Be Patient
A pause, even a long pause, does not necessarily mean that the speaker has finished.
Be patient and let the speaker continue in their own time, sometimes it takes time to formulate
what to say and how to say it. Never interrupt or finish a sentence for someone.
7. Avoid Personal Prejudice
Try to be impartial.
Don't become irritated and don't let the person’s habits or mannerisms distract you from what the
speaker is really saying. Everybody has a different way of speaking - some people are for example
more nervous or shy than others, some have regional accents or make excessive arm movements,
some people like to pace whilst talking - others like to sit still. Focus on what is being said and try to
ignore styles of delivery.
8. Listen to the Tone
Volume and tone both add to what someone is saying.
A good speaker will use both volume and tone to their advantage to keep an audience attentive;
everybody will use pitch, tone and volume of voice in certain situations – let these help you to
understand the emphasis of what is being said.
9. Listen for Ideas – Not Just Words
You need to get the whole picture, not just isolated bits and pieces.
Maybe one of the most difficult aspects of listening is the ability to link together pieces of
information to reveal the ideas of others. With proper concentration, letting go of distractions, and
focus this becomes easier.
10. Wait and Watch for Non-Verbal Communication
Gestures, facial expressions, and eye-movements can all be important.
We don’t just listen with our ears but also with our eyes – watch and pick up the additional
information being transmitted via non-verbal communication.
Voice and Articulation
Key Points
o In articulation you change the sounds coming from your vocal folds by moving the
teeth, tongue, and lips in recognizable patterns.
o After practice, if you cannot physically produce the sound, then you may want to
consult with a professional speech therapist to help you with articulation.
o In pronunciation you change the sounds of words by using stress. rhythm, and tone
change on different syllables of the word.
o The syllable is the phonological "building block" of words. It is a unit of organization
for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the word water is composed of two
syllables: wa and ter.
o Practice to make sure you are not substituting or omitting sounds when you say a
word, and pay particular attention to common sound substitutions such as 'tin for
thin and d for th so that you do not say 'den for then or goin' for going.
o Install an online dictionary with audio pronunciation guides on your cellphone or
laptop so you can listen to words that are troublesome to you when you are
practicing.
Terms
 intonation
The rise and fall of the voice in speaking. Some texts use "inflection" instead of intonation to
indicate change in pitch.
 articulation
Use of tongue, lips, jaw, and other speech organs to make a sound. Often the concept is only
used for the production of consonants,
 pronunciation
The way in which the words of a language are made to sound when speaking.
Articulation, the last step in speech production
We as humans are unique in our use of tongue, lips, and other movable parts of the speech
mechanism. The first act of speech is breathing, in which you get air into a storage chamber; second
is phonation, the process by which you force air into vibration by the action of the vocal folds; third,
resonation, in which your mouth, nose and throat cavities amplify the sound so you can hear it; and
finally there is articulation, in which you modify the sound by movement of the teeth, tongue, and
lips into recognizable patterns. There are only forty-four sounds to master, and as young child you
started making them by mastering simple sounds which you later articulated into repetitive sound
combinations and then words.
Head and Neck Overview
The human pharynx is situated immediately below the mouth and nasal cavity, and above the
esophagus and larynx.
Here you are concerned with intelligibility. Can the audience comprehend what you are saying? If
you produce the basic sounds of the language in a manner which is different from the language
users in the audience, at the most basic level your speech will not be understood. You might
substitute one sound for another at the beginning of a word such as 'dis for this and "w" for "r" so
you would say "wabbit" rather than "rabbit. " Or you might leave a sound off the end of a word, such
as in goin' for going, in casual speech. But, the real challenge is whether or not you can produce the
"correct" sound when it is required. If you can not physically produce the sound, then you may want
to consult with a professional speech therapist to help you with articulation.
Tips for Speaker
 Practice to make sure you are not substituting or omitting sounds when you say a word, or
adding sounds such as needcessity for necessity.
 Pay particular attention to common sound substitutions such as t for th so that you don't
say 'tin for thin and d for th so that you dont say 'den for then.
 Practice reading and recording passages with the problem sounds. Listen to the practice
recording with a learning partner or tutor.
Pronunciation in spoken language
Pronunciation refers to the ability to use the correct stress, rhythm, and intonation of a word in a
spoken language. A word may be spoken in different ways by various individuals or groups,
depending on many factors. These factors include the area in which you grew up, the area in which
you now live, whether you have a speech or voice disorder, your ethnic group, your socio-economic
class, or your education.
When we talk about pronunciation, we focus on the word rather than the individual sound, as with
articulation. The syllable is a unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds. For example, the
word water is composed of two syllables: wa and ter. A syllable is typically made up of a syllable
nucleus (most often a vowel) with consonants around it at the beginning and end. Syllables are
often considered the phonological "building blocks" of words. A word that consists of a single
syllable (like English dog) is called a monosyllable, and is said to be monosyllabic. Similar terms
include disyllable and disyllabic, for a word of two syllables; trisyllable and trisyllabic for a word of
three syllables; and polysyllable and polysyllabic, which may refer either to a word of more than
three syllables or to any word of more than one syllable. Your job in pronunciation involves
recognizing the different syllables that make up a word, applying the stress to the right syllable and
using the right up and down pitch pattern for intonation.
Intonation is also used in English to add function to words such as to to differentiate between wh-
questions, yes-no questions, declarative statements, commands, requests, etc. You can change the
meaning by varying the intonation pattern.
Tips for Speaker
 Listen to recordings of different people you admire, to check the pronunciation.

 You can connect to one of the online dictionaries which has an audio of the preferred
pronunciations if you are unsure.
 You can download an app for your cellphone or tablet so you have it readily available to
check pronunciation and meaning of words.
 If you are using a non-English word, you can also use Google's translate function with audio
pronunciation guide with the translation.
 If you spell a word differently than other language users, you may also pronounce the word
differently. Check to determine if the word is pronounced as it is spelled. There are fourty-
four sounds in English, but over five hundred spellings for the different sounds.
 You may want to practice reading a story or article aloud with a learning partner or tutor to
check your pronunciation.
WEEK 9
BUSINESS LETTER WRITING
Introduction
Very often our understanding of grammar is limited to the rules of sentence formation, which are
taught through classroom exercises involving the transformation of isolated (and unrelated)
sentences from one grammatical category to another. For example, we are all familiar with
exercises that require the students to changes sentences from active to passive voice and vice versa.
Exercises such as these at best make students remember the rule, but do not give any practice in
using that grammatical form meaningfully for real communication. As language teachers, our
objective is not to teach the content found in grammar books (i.e., the rules), but to enable students
to use appropriate vocabulary and structures in meaningful communicative contexts. This unit will
focus on familiarizing you with communicative grammar and activities that deal with developing
grammatical competence.
Unit outcomes
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
 help your students engage in informal conversational English for real-life communicative
purposes,
 involve your students in activities that encourage them to speak about themselves, their daily
routines and their future plans, and
Outcomes  help your students perform certain language functions using appropriate grammar and
vocabulary.
This is the grammar of utterances — that is, words that we actually use in
communicative situations, rather than the sentence grammar that
discusses the rules of correct use. Communicative grammar teaches
Communicative students to use the language appropriately in meaningful situations to
grammar: perform functions such as accepting or rejecting an invitation, or providing
and getting information, and is built around topics rather than grammar
rules.
Terminolog
These are the skills that speakers use to communicate their feelings
y effectively so that the attention of the listener is drawn to the meaning the
speaker wishes to convey through the utterances, rather than the
Communicative grammatical form. Communicative strategies also include the ability of
strategies: people to respond appropriately in conversation, whether the situation is
formal (classrooms, meetings, ceremonies) or informal (parties, family
events, festivals).
This is a deliberate and simplified form of English used with non-native

Slow colloquial: speakers to help them understand what is being said.
Discussions
Communication
Communication is the exchange of ideas, opinions and information through written or spoken
words, symbols or actions.
Communication is an important part of our world today. The ability to communicate effectively is
considered a prized quality. But people in the world are not alike. These differences, however, can
cause problems in sending/receiving messages. Simply these are the hurdles in the way of
communication and anything which blocks the meaning of a communication is a barrier to
communication.
Barriers to Effective Business Communication
1. Conventions of meaning
2. Differences in perception of reality
3. Values, attitudes and opinions
1. Conventions of meaning
There are a lot of meanings for a single word. So, it may mislead the reader from the real meaning.
Miscommunication may occur due to the use of ‘Denotations’ and ‘Connotations’.
Denotations
Denotation is the dictionary definition of a word. It means name, object, people or events without
indicating positive or negative qualities. These words don’t have clear meanings. Such words are: Car,
Desk, Book, House, etc.
Connotations
A word that separates the meanings of a word from its usual definition is called connotation. These
have clear meanings.
Such words are: BMW, BC book, mental house etc.
So, use of denotations instead of connotations may mislead the reader. Choose connotations &
denotations wisely.
2. Differences in perception of reality
Because of changing world, everyone has its own concept of reality. Each person’s mental filter is
unique. In our daily interactions with others, we make various abstractions, inferences and
evaluations of the world around that may cause problems in the way of communication.
Abstraction
It means selecting some detail and omitting others. It may cause problem in communication. One must
always try to avoid Slanted statements. That’s why news reporters are said to quote the statement of a
person as it is to show it a fact or true statement.
Inferences
It means conclusion on the basis of assumptions. But for some situations inferences proves fruitful but
for some situations it is risky & sometimes dangerous.
Evaluation
It is a person’s own perception or opinion towards a certain fact.
So, difference in perception may become a hurdle in communication.
3. Values, attitudes and opinions
Communication is also affected by the Values, attitudes and opinions of the communicators. People
react favorably when they receive agreeable message. Occasionally people react according to their
attitude towards a situation rather than to the facts.
Closed Minds
Some people hold rigid views on certain subjects. They don’t consider facts and maintain their views.
Such person is very hard to communicate with.
Sender’s creditability
Usually people react more favorably to that communicator who has credibility.
The message is said to be effective when the receiver understands the same meaning that the
sender was intended to convey. For any communication in business, in order to be effective, it must
have seven qualities. These seven attributes are called seven C’s of effective business
communication. (All these attribute starts with the alphabet ‘C’ so are called 7 C’s)
Seven C’s of Effective Business Communication
1. Correctness
At the time of encoding, if the encoder has comprehensive knowledge about the decoder of
message, it makes the communication an ease. The encoder should know the status, knowledge and
educational background of the decoder. Correctness means:
 Use the right level of language

 Correct use of grammar, spelling and punctuation
 Accuracy in stating facts and figures
Correctness in message helps in building confidence.
2. Clarity
Clarity demands the use of simple language and easy sentence structure in composing the
message. When there is clarity in presenting ideas, it’s easy for the receiver/decoder to grasp the
meaning being conveyed by the sender/encoder.
Clarity makes comprehension easier.
3. Conciseness
A concise message saves time of both the sender and the receiver. Conciseness, in a business
message, can be achieved by avoiding wordy expressions and repetition. Using brief and to the
point sentences, including relevant material makes the message concise. Achieving conciseness
does not mean to lose completeness of message.
Conciseness saves time.
4. Completeness
By completeness means the message must bear all the necessary information to bring the
response you desire. The sender should answer all the questions and with facts and figures. and
when desirable, go for extra details.
Completeness brings the desired response.
5. Consideration
Consideration demands to put oneself in the place of receiver while composing a message. It

refers to the use of You attitude, emphases positive pleasant facts, visualizing reader’s problems,
desires, emotions and his response.
Consideration means understanding of human nature.
6. Concreteness
Being definite, vivid and specific rather than vague, obscure and general leads to concreteness of
the message. Facts and figures being presented in the message should be specif.
Concreteness reinforces confidence.
7. Courtesy
In business, almost everything starts and ends in courtesy. Courtesy means not only thinking
about receiver but also valuing his feelings. Much can be achieved by using polite words and
gestures, being appreciative, thoughtful, tactful, and showing respect to the receiver. Courtesy
builds goodwill.
Business Communication
Business Communication is any communication used to promote a product, service, or organization

– with the objective of making sale. In business communication, message is conveyed through
various channels of communication including internet, print (publications), radio, television,
outdoor, and word of mouth.
In business, communication is considered core among business, interpersonal skills and etiquette.
Historical Background
Thousands years ago, people used to communicate orally. Greeks used a phonetic alphabet written
from left to right. After that, many books appeared on written communication principles. As a result
of this, Greek started her very first library.
When communism was ruling China, communication had become the biggest challenge not only
within the vast government, but also between the government and people of China. Postal services
were then ;launched in China. Rome introduced the postal service after China. After that paper and
printing press was invented in china that made communication much easier.
Hence, today’s principles of communication are founded on a mixture of ancient oral and written
traditions.
Organization
It’s an arrangements between individuals and groups in human society that structure relationships
and activities (Business, Political, Religious or social). In other words, an organization is a group of
people identified by shared interests or purpose, for example, a “Bank”.
Lifeblood of an Organization
Communication is the lifeblood of an organization. If we could somehow remove
communication flow from an organization, we would not have an organization.
It is needed for:
 Exchanging information  Executing decisions

 Exchanging options  Sending and fulfilling orders
 Making plans and proposals  Conducting sales
 Reaching agreement
When communication stops, organized activity ceases to exist. Individual uncoordinated activity
returns in an organization. So, Communication in an organization is as vital as blood for life.
Types of Business Communication
There are two types of business communication in an organization:
 Internal Communication
 External Communication
1. Internal Communication
Communication within an organization is called “Internal Communication”. It includes all

communication within an organization. It may be informal, formal function, or department
providing communication in various forms to employees.
Effective internal communication is a vital mean of addressing organizational concerns. Good

communication may help to increase job satisfaction, safety, productivity, and profits and decrease
grievances and turnover.
Under Internal Business Communication types, there come:
Upward Communication
Upward communication is the flow of information from subordinates to superiors, or from
employees to management. Without upward communication, management works in a vacuum, not
knowing if the messages have been received properly, or if other problems exist in the organization.
By definition, communication is a two-way affair. Yet for effective two-way organizational
communication to occur, it must begin from the bottom.
Upward Communication is a mean for the staff to:

 Exchange information
 Offer ideas
 Express enthusiasm
 Achieve job satisfaction
 Provide feedback
Downward Communication
Information flowing from the top of the organizational management hierarchy and telling people in
the organization what is important (mission) and what is valued (policies). Downward
communication generally provides information – which allows a subordinate to do something. For
example, instructions on how to complete a task. Downward communication comes after upward
communications have been successfully established.
This type of communication is needed in an organization to:
 Transmit vital information

 Give instructions
 Encourage 2-way discussion
 Announce decisions
 Seek cooperation
 Provide motivation
 Boost morale
 Increase efficiency
 Obtain feedback
Both Downward & Upward Communications are collectively called “Vertical Communication”
 Horizontal/Literal communication
Horizontal communication normally involves coordinating information, and allows people with the
same or similar rank in an organization to cooperate or collaborate. Communication among
employees at the same level is crucial for the accomplishment of the assigned work.
Horizontal Communication is essential for:
 Solving problems  Accomplishing tasks

 Improving teamwork  Boosting efficiency
 Building goodwill
We know that communication is a process of transmitting and receiving messages (verbal

and non-verbal). Communication is a dialogue not a monologue. So, a communication is said to be
effective only if it brings the desired response from the receiver.
Communication consists of six components or elements.
2. External Communication
Communication with people outside the company is called “external communication”.

Supervisors communicate with sources outside the organization, such as vendors and customers.
It leads to better:
 Sales volume  Operational efficiency

 Public credibility  Company profits
It should improve:
 Overall performance  Corporate image

 Public goodwill
Ultimately, it helps to achieve:
 Organizational goals  Customer satisfaction
Components of Communication
1. Context 3. Message
2. Sender/Encoder 4. Medium
5. Receiver/Decoder 6. Feedback
Context
Every message (Oral or written), begins with context. Context is a very broad field that may
include different aspects. One aspect is country, culture and organization. Every organization,
culture and country communicates information in their own way.
Another aspect of context is external stimulus. The sources of external stimulus include; meeting,
letter, memo, telephone call, fax, note, email and even a casual conversation. This external stimulus
motivates you to respond and this response may be oral or written.
An internal stimulus is another aspect of communication. Internal Stimuli includes: You opinion,
attitude, likes, dis-likes, emotions, experience, education and confidence. These all have
multifaceted influence on the way you communicate you ideas.
A sender can communicate his ideas effectively by considering all aspects of context mentioned
above.
Sender/Encoder
Encoder is the person who sends message. In oral communication the encoder is speaker, and in
written communication writer is the encoder. An encoder uses combination of symbols, words,
graphs and pictures understandable by the receiver, to best convey his message in order to achieve
his desired response.
Message
Message is the information that is exchanged between sender and receiver . The first task is to
decide what you want to communicate and what would be the content of your message; what the
main points of your message are and what other information to include. The central idea of the
message must be clear. While writing the message, encoder should keep in mind all aspects of
context and the receiver (How he will interpret the message).
Messages can be intentional and unintentional.
Medium
Medium is the channel through which encoder will communicate his message. How the
message gets there. Your medium to send a message may be print, electronic, or sound. Medium
may be a person as postman. The choice of medium totally depends on the nature of you message
and contextual factors discussed above. Choice of medium is also influence by the relationship
between the sender and receiver.
The oral medium, to convey your message, is effective when your message is urgent, personal or
when immediate feedback is desired. While, when your message is ling, technical and needs to be
documented, then written medium should be preferred that is formal in nature. These guidelines
may change while communicating internationally where complex situations are dealt orally and
communicated in writing later on.
Receiver/Decoder
The person to whom the message is being sent is called ‘receiver’/’decoder’. Receiver may be a
listener or a reader depending on the choice of medium by sender to transmit the
message. Receiver is also influenced by the context, internal and external stimuli.
Receiver is the person who interprets the message, so higher the chances are of mis-
communication because of receiver’s perception, opinion, attitude and personality. There will be
minor deviation in transmitting the exact idea only if your receiver is educated and have
communication skills.
Feedback
Response or reaction of the receiver, to a message, is called ‘feedback’. Feedback may be written or
oral message, an action or simply, silence may also be a feedback to a message.
Feedback is the most important component of communication in business. Communication is

said to be effective only when it receives some feedback. Feedback, actually, completes the loop of
communication.
Activities
Activity 1: Asking for and giving information: Talking about professions
Activity This activity should familiarize your students with the grammatical structures used to ask for and
1 give information in authentic (real-life) situations. One such situation is talking about professions
and jobs. For this activity, follow the steps below. Remember to share with the students the
explanations given (e.g., the definition of regular activities) at each point. Ask them to note down
two sentences about their parents’ professions. (For example: My father is an engineer with the Public
Works department./My mother works as a doctor in Fortis hospital.) Each student should then share
the information with a partner. Ask them to use the following pattern (you can write this sample
structure on the board):
1. What does your father/mother do?

2. My father/mother is a teacher. He/she works at Nairobi High School.
Ask the students, working in pairs, to make a list of three professions that interest them. Have the
pairs team up into groups of four then ask each other about their chosen professions. The students
should use the following structures when they talk (this dialogue cue can be written either on the
board or on paper handouts):
1. What would you like to do/be when you finish your studies?
2. I’d like to be a __________, because _______________.
Have your students listen to the audio recording in Resource 1: Exchanging information and
answer these questions:
1. What is Nicholas planning to do when he finishes college?

2. What are the two reasons why Maria has decided not to become a doctor?
3. Working with a partner, write down two things you could suggest to Maria to make her want
to study medicine in your country.
4. Between Nicholas and Maria, who is giving their information more clearly? Listen to the
dialogue once again and fill in the blanks in the sentences below:
a. Nicholas and Maria are meeting after _____ years.
b. Nicholas will join _______________ after college.
c. Maria always had a _______________ dream.
d. A medical degree can be very _______________.
e. As a girl, Maria is expected to stay __________ and __________ after marriage.

Purposive Communication School of Liberal Arts Divine Word College of Calapan Week 2 Grammar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Purposive Communication School of Liberal Arts Divine Word College of Calapan Week 2 Grammar

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Purposive Communication School of Liberal Arts Divine Word College of Calapan Week 2 Grammar

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION

SCHOOL OF LIBERAL ARTS

Upon completion of this unit you will be able to:

Nouns can also name a place:

Proper Nouns vs. Common Nouns

Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?

The girl crossed the river.

Types of Common Nouns

I heard the doorbell.

Conversely, an abstract noun is something that cannot be perceived by the senses.

We can’t imagine the courage it took to do that.

A collective noun denotes a group or collection of people or things.

That pack of lies is disgraceful.

A pride of lions roamed the savanna.

Pride of lions is also a collective noun.

Give the books to her.

Nouns as Subject and Object Complements

A related usage of nouns is called an object complement.

I now pronounce you husband and wife.

making, naming, or creating are often followed by object complements.

Appositive Nouns and Nouns as Modifiers

My brother, Michael, is six years old.

Sometimes, nouns can be used adjectivally as well.

Speed is a normally a noun, but here it is acting as an adjective to modify demon.

Countable Nouns vs. Uncountable Nouns

Cat is singular and—obviously—countable.

Here are a few cats.

Here are some cats.

An I.Q. test measures intelligence.

Intelligence is an uncountable noun.

Students don’t seem to have much homework these days.

This example refers to an unspecified, unquantifiable amount of homework, so homework is an

The cat’s toy was missing.

I have been invited to the boss’s house for dinner.

Mrs. Sanchez’s coat is still hanging on the back of her chair.

*Plural nouns ending in s take only an apostrophe to form a possessive.

My nieces’ prom dresses were exquisite.

Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing characteristic of pronouns is

you’re referring to two different people.

Who vs. Whom—Subject and Object Pronouns

Please mail it to me.

Ms. Higgins caught they passing notes.

Ms. Higgins caught them passing notes.

Is this cake for we?

Is this cake for us?

Whom did you speak to earlier?

Whom should I say is calling?

Whom should I say is calling? Should I say she/her is calling?

pronoun from the sentence, it becomes obvious.

Reflexive and Intensive Pronouns

Annie went to the market.

Mark lifted the rock.

We washed the car.

Now eat your dinner.

You go and stand over there!

Don't ever say that word again.

Please pass the salt.