Discuss the “Big Five” model of personality.

Personality research has generated a variety of different theories that attempt to define and
measure personality. The most widely accepted taxonomy of personality among industrial-
organizational psychologists is the Big Five Personality Traits model, or the Five Factor Model
of personality. The Five Factor Model breaks personality down into five components:
Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Extraversion, Openness, and Stress Tolerance. Personality
tests that are based on this model measure where an individual lies on the spectrum of each of the
five traits.

Each trait measures a unique aspect of human personality:

Agreeableness is a measure of an individual’s tendencies with respect to social harmony. This

trait reflects how well the individual gets along with others, how cooperative or skeptical they
are, and how they might interact within a team.

Conscientiousness is a measure of how careful, deliberate, self-disciplined, and organized an

individual is. Conscientiousness is often predictive of employee productivity, particularly in
lower-level positions.

Extraversion is a measure of how sociable, outgoing, and energetic an individual is. Individuals
who score lower on the extraversion scale are considered to be more introverted, or more
deliberate, quiet, low key, and independent. Some types of positions are better suited for
individuals who fall on one side of the spectrum or the other.

Openness measures the extent to which an individual is imaginative and creative, as opposed to

down-to-earth and conventional. Stress Tolerance measures the ways in which individuals react
to stress.
State the conditions of gaining power and influence.

Power and Influence

Leadership Power

Power is the ability to influence the behavior of others with or without resistance by using a
variety of tactics to push or prompt action.

Power is the ability to get things done. People with power are able to influence others behavior to
achieve a goal or objective. Others may resist attempts to make them do certain things, but an
effective leader is able to overcome that resistance. Although people may regard power as evil or
corrupt, power is a fact of organizational life and in itself is neither good nor bad. Leaders can
use power to benefit others or to constrain them, to serve the organization’s goals or to
undermine them.

Another way to view power is as a resource that people use in relationships. When a leader
influences subordinates, it is called downward power. We can also think of this as someone
having power over someone else. On the other hand, subordinates can also exercise upward
power by trying to influence the decisions of their leader. Indeed, leaders depend on their teams
to get things done and in that way are subject to the power of team members.

The Six Sources of Power

Power comes from several sources, each of which has different effects on the targets of that
power. Some derive from individual characteristics; others draw on aspects of an organization’s
structure. Six types of power are legitimate, referent, expert, reward, coercive, and informational.

Legitimate Power

Also called “positional power,” this is the power individuals have from their role and status
within an organization. Legitimate power usually involves formal authority delegated to the
holder of the position.

Referent Power

Referent power comes from the ability of individuals to attract others and build their loyalty. It is
based on the personality and interpersonal skills of the power holder. A person may be admired
because of a specific personal trait, such as charisma or likability, and these positive feelings
become the basis for interpersonal influence.

Expert Power

Expert power draws from a person’s skills and knowledge and is especially potent when an
organization has a high need for them. Narrower than most sources of power, the power of an
expert typically applies only in the specific area of the person’s expertise and credibility.

Reward Power

Reward power comes from the ability to confer valued material rewards or create other positive
incentives. It refers to the degree to which the individual can provide external motivation to
others through benefits or gifts. In an organization, this motivation may include promotions,
increases in pay, or extra time off.

Coercive Power

Coercive power is the threat and application of sanctions and other negative consequences. These
can include direct punishment or the withholding of desired resources or rewards. Coercive
power relies on fear to induce compliance.

Informational Power

Informational power comes from access to facts and knowledge that others find useful or
valuable. That access can indicate relationships with other power holders and convey status that
creates a positive impression. Informational power offers advantages in building credibility and
rational persuasion. It may also serve as the basis for beneficial exchanges with others who seek
that information.

All of these sources and uses of power can be combined to achieve a single aim, and individuals
can often draw on more than one of them. In fact, the more sources of power to which a person
has access, the greater the individual’s overall power and ability to get things done.

Power Tactics

People use a variety of power tactics to push or prompt others into action. We can group these
tactics into three categories: behavioral, rational, and structural.
Behavioral tactics can be soft or hard. Soft tactics take advantage of the relationship between
person and the target. These tactics are more direct and interpersonal and can involve
collaboration or other social interaction. Conversely, hard tactics are harsh, forceful, and direct
and rely on concrete outcomes. However, they are not necessarily more powerful than soft
tactics. In many circumstances, fear of social exclusion can be a much stronger motivator than
some kind of physical punishment.

Rational tactics of influence make use of reasoning, logic, and objective judgment, whereas
nonrational tactics rely on emotionalism and subjectivity. Examples of each include bargaining
and persuasion (rational) and evasion and put downs (nonrational).

Structural tactics exploit aspects of the relationship between individual roles and positions.
Bilateral tactics, such as collaboration and negotiation, involve reciprocity on the parts of both
the person influencing and the target. Unilateral tactics, on the other hand, are enacted without
any participation on the part of the target. These tactics include disengagement and fait accompli.
Political approaches, such as playing two against one, take yet another approach to exert
influence.

People tend to vary in their use of power tactics, with different types of people opting for
different tactics. For instance, interpersonally-oriented people tend to use soft tactics, while
extroverts employ a greater variety of power tactics than do introverts. Studies have shown that
men tend to use bilateral and direct tactics, whereas women tend to use unilateral and indirect
tactics. People will also choose different tactics based on the group situation and according to
whom they are trying to influence. In the face of resistance, people are more likely to shift from
soft to hard tactics to achieve their aims.

Leaders Use Influence

In an organization, a leader can use these three types of influence to motivate people and achieve
objectives. For example, compliance is a means of maintaining order in the workplace, such as
when employees are expected to follow the rules set by their supervisors. Similarly,
identification happens when people seek to imitate and follow the actions of people they look up
to and respect, for example a more experienced co-worker or trusted supervisor. Internalization
results when employees embrace the vision and values of a leader and develop a commitment to
fulfilling them.

Leaders use these types of influence to motivate the behaviors and actions needed to accomplish
tasks and achieve goals. Individuals differ in how susceptible they are to each type of influence.
Some workers may care a great deal about what others think of them and thus be more amenable
to identifying the cues for how to behave. Other individuals may want to believe strongly in what
they do and so seek to internalize a set of values to guide them. In organizations and in most
parts of life, sources of influence are all around us. As a result, our behavior can be shaped by
how others communicate with us and how we see them

Contrast leadership and power.

The concepts of power and leadership are very distinct, diametrically opposed even. Three
differences stand out:

1- Power is a force that comes from on high, (from the hierarchy) and goes toward the bottom
(top- down), from the strong to the weak. Leadership, on the other hand, comes from lower down
(in the hierarchy) and goes towards the top: one is ‘made’ or recognized a leader by one’s group.

2- Power tends to ‘divide and rule’ as the saying goes. If this division is to organize and assign
tasks, why not? If this division is to limit all counter-powers, it opens the door to power’s
arbitrary exercise, its abuse, and legitimized violence.

Leadership, by contrast is built on the concept of cohesion and tends to ‘unite and rule.’ It
includes instead of divides; is not afraid to see people group together as this union is symbolic of
everyone pulling together, of diverse values, of a goal that the combined strength of a team
allows us to reach.

3 - Power gives orders and instructions, takes no time to listen, deprives itself of the creativity of
others except for the execution of orders.
Leadership, on the other hand, consults, listens and builds its authority on this synthesis of work.
If work must be assigned and directives given there remains the freedom to express creativity
and one’s own identity, to make strong personal contributions, implicitly expressing respect for
the added value that each person brings reinforces cohesion, the feeling of belonging to a group,
to a team paradoxically varied… but united.

List and discuss the bases of personal power

Someone with strong personal power is focused on their self-efficacy and ability to cooperate

with others. They lead by example. They are inspiring. They influence their peers by fostering a
positive worldview. They are assertive but respectful, successful but humble, and driven but
stable.

People with personal power affect change around them by regulating themselves. In contrast,
those with positional power affect change by regulating others.

For example, someone who is confident and charismatic will find it easier to make

friends and influence people. This is true even if they hold no official position of power.

In professional settings, someone who is dependable, assertive, and well-organized will likely be
taken more seriously. These are examples of personal power in practice

Two types of personal power

There are two types of personal power: referent and expert power. Let’s explore the differences
between the two.

Referent power

Referent power is characterized by strong interpersonal skills. A leader whose charisma and
approachability puts their team at ease and inspires commitment has strong referent power. 

When you listen to someone talk and are inspired by their confidence, drawn in by their
charisma, and comforted by their presence, they are exercising referent power. 
This doesn’t mean you’re being manipulated. It just means that the person you’re talking to
commands respect because of their leadership and communication skills.

Think of Steve Jobs during his time at Apple. His self-assurance, magnetism, public speaking
skills, and natural charisma motivated his employees. It attracted customers and put his products
on the map. He was a wizard of referent power — so much so that millions of people continue to
emulate him during their own presentations. 

Referent power is exceedingly important in a leader. It sets the tone for the operations of the
entire organization. It doesn’t matter how solid your business plan is. If you can’t inspire your
colleagues or make them feel valued, you will inevitably run into obstacles that inhibit progress.

Expert power

Expert power differs from referent power in that it emphasizes knowledge, not charisma. 

In the workplace, somebody with expert power is perceived to have a high level of knowledge on
a certain subject. This person has a strong influence over their peers, as others trust their input on
decisions and strategies. They are looked up to by others who share similar skill sets and are
sought after for solutions and advice.

Expert power is to referent power, as Steve Wozniak is to Steve Jobs. His technical expertise has
made him the port of call for countless issues in Apple’s history. People wanted to work for
Apple because of him. He inspired a generation of engineers and programmers to expand their
own skills. 

Expert power is just as important as referent power. But it’s okay if you don’t have both.
Personal power is built on: 

Collaboration and cooperation 

The sharing of skills 

The transfer of knowledge 

Organizational leaders with both expert and referent power create work environments with
inspired and satisfied employees.
Section (B)

Describe the important keys to effective leadership

Effective leaders have productive teams. Those leaders possess common qualities like building
trust, a necessary foundation for a high-performing team. With high levels of trust, teams are
more productive, have a greater sense of unity and are supportive. An effective leader is also able
to help his or her team work through conflict. Additionally, a true leader is reliable and holds
each team member accountable to accomplish organizational goals. Before one can develop an
effective team, a leader must have the training and skills to be successful. That development
begins in the new leadership phase and builds as the leader further develops communication
skills, conflict management strategies and is able to manage time and priorities.
Getting Started
Effective new leaders are able to: quickly and effectively generate results; focus time and efforts
on high-priority tasks; lead teams to contribute to the organization’s business strategies; and
achieve results through others by building strong relationships with team members —
empowered employees produce. Trust, respect and the ability to inspire are essential
characteristics of a true leader. The quality of the manager’s relationship with direct reports is a
key predictor of turnover, customer satisfaction, employee job satisfaction, morale and
performance.
Communication
Organizations proven to be successful on a consistent basis communicate effectively from top
down and frontline up. With an emphasis on the importance of communication, these
organizations benefit from higher performance of individuals and teams in the workplace,
satisfied customers and better bottom-line results. Employees feel engaged and are able to
communicate with their immediate supervisors to understand how their role impacts the basic
core values and big picture effort to execute the strategy.
Face-to-face dialogues are critical to success in business. The ability to get your point across
when negotiating a deal, speaking to executives, interacting with clients or seeking buy-in from
staff can make or break what you need to accomplish. A masterful storyteller uses words, voice,
tone and body language effectively to communicate. Eye contact and listening to responses are
vital to effective communication. Listeners need to feel they are part of the discussion on an
intimate level. As a leader, one must speak from a place of passion, using persuasion rather than
manipulation to impact listeners. One situation many leaders encounter today is that they must
connect with the remaining workforce after a reduction in force by offering clarity, sincerity and
caring to reduce the survivor guilt factor so team members can get back on track and become
productive.
Conflict
The true challenge of any leader is managing change and conflict. Pick your battles wisely and
meet with team members one-on-one. Do not encourage negative behavior and do not write
people off so soon. Leaders are responsible for creating a work environment that enables people
to thrive. In order to do so, intervene immediately when disagreements and disputes occur —
become the mediator who resolves the conflict, which usually affects more than the participants.
Meet with participants, understand the situation, discuss a solution, get buy-in and commitment
to the plan, expect individuals to be proactive and assure all that you have faith in them. Set
specific timelines, continue to communicate and review progress and make it clear that
resolution is expected for the success of the organization.

Time and Priorities

Leaders who begin to focus on big projects, then leave space for dozens of little things to
consume their time, often lose focus on what really matters. In this case, failure is inevitable. To
ensure success, leaders must take a sensible approach to managing time and priorities. Plan for
the future, spend one-on-one time with your team, develop talent and succession plans, delegate
constructively. It is all about focus, planning and building relationships with key contributors.
Create new business opportunities and fix problems once and for all. You will see a difference
when you can balance work life with your personal life. Colleagues will notice that difference
too.
Corporate College, a division of Cuyahoga Community College, helps organizations develop
successful leaders through customized learning solutions designed to fit the needs of a wide
range of industries. Customized learning solutions facilitated by top-notch facilitators are
available for frontline managers, mid-level managers and senior leaders. Corporate
College offers organizational development tools and services including: training and
development consulting; executive coaching; train-the-trainer seminars; surveys and assessments
to increase levels of performance, employee engagement and business results.

Summarize group norms and statuses affect individual behavior?

Every group in which we participate has a set of norms, or ground rules for how group members
should act or behave. Each group’s rules and norms are different, and we must learn them to be
effective participants. Some groups formalize their norms and rules, while others are less formal
and more fluid. Norms are the recognized rules of behavior for group members. Norms influence
the ways we communicate with other members, and ultimately, the outcome of group
participation. Norms are important because, as we highlighted in the “norming” stage of group
development, they are the defining characteristics of groups.  In this chapter, we will highlight
several of the essential aspects of norms and how they relate to people in groups or teams. We
will also consider the characteristics and functions of group norms, the process of learning group
norms, as well as conformity with and deviance from them.

DEFINING NORMS IN GROUPS

Because people in groups come together for a specific purpose, they develop shared norms to
help them achieve their goals. Even with a goal in place, random interaction does not define a
group. Group interaction is generally guided by norms a group has established for acceptable
behavior. Norms are essentially expectations of the group members, established by the group,
and can be conscious and formal, or unconscious and informal. A couple of examples of group
norms include the expectation that all members show up at group meeting times, the expectation
that all group members focus on the group instead of personal matters (for example, turning cell
phones and other distractions off), and the expectation that group members finish their part of the
work by the established due date. When members of the group violate group norms, other
members of the group get frustrated and the group’s overall goal may be affected.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GROUP NORMS

A work group norm may be defined as a standard that is shared by group members and
regulates member behavior within a group or organization. An example can be seen in a typical
classroom situation when students develop a norm against speaking up in class too often. It is
believed that students who are highly visible improve their grades at the expense of others.
Hence, a norm is created that attempts to govern acceptable classroom behavior. We see similar
examples in the workplace. There may be a norm against producing too much or too little,
against getting too close to the supervisor, against being late for work, and so forth. According to
Hackman (1996), workgroup norms may be characterized by at least five factors:

1. Norms summarize and simplify group influence processes. They denote the processes
by which groups regulate and regularize member behavior.
2. Norms apply only to behavior, not to private thoughts and feelings. Although norms
may be based on thoughts and feelings, they cannot govern them. That is, private
acceptance of group norms is unnecessary—only public compliance is needed.
3. Norms are generally developed only for behaviors that are viewed as important by
most group members.
4. Norms usually develop gradually, but the process can be quickened if members
wish. Norms usually are developed by group members as the need arises, such as when
a situation occurs that requires new ground rules for members to protect group
integrity.
5. All norms do not apply to all members. Some norms, for example, apply only to young
initiates (such as getting the coffee), whereas others are based on seniority, sex, race,
or economic class.
FUNCTIONS OF GROUP NORMS

Most all groups have norms, although some may be more extensive than others. To see this,
examine the norms that exist in the various groups to which you belong. Which groups have
more fully developed norms? Why? What functions do these norms serve? Several efforts have
been made to answer this question. In general, workgroup norms serve four functions in
organizational settings (Feldman, 1984):

1. Norms facilitate group survival. When a group is under threat, norms provide a basis
for ensuring goal-directed behavior and rejecting deviant behavior that is not
purposeful to the group. This is essentially a “circle the wagons” phenomenon.
2. Norms simplify expected behaviors. Norms tell group members what is expected of
them—what is acceptable and unacceptable—and allow members to anticipate the
behaviors of their fellow group members and to anticipate the positive or negative
consequences of their own behavior.
3. Norms help avoid embarrassing situations. By identifying acceptable and unacceptable
behaviors, norms tell group members when a behavior or topic is damaging to another
member. For example, a norm against swearing signals group members that such
action would be hurtful to someone in the group and should be avoided.
4. Norms help identify the group and express its central values to others. Norms
concerning clothes, language, mannerisms, and so forth help tell others who belongs to
the group and, in some cases, what the group stands for. Norms often serve as rallying
points for group members.