PHYSICS STUDY NOTES

Table of Contents
Density ............................................................................................................... 3
Forces ................................................................................................................ 3
Mass & Weight .................................................................................................. 4
Moments ........................................................................................................... 4
Equilibrium ........................................................................................................ 5
Levers ................................................................................................................ 5
Centre of Gravity ............................................................................................... 5
Simple Machines ................................................................................................ 6
Hooke’s Law....................................................................................................... 7
Dynamics ........................................................................................................... 8
Newton’s Laws of Motion ................................................................................ 10
Momentum...................................................................................................... 10
Energy .............................................................................................................. 11
Potential Energy (𝐸𝑝) .................................................................................. 11
Kinetic Energy (𝐸𝑘) ..................................................................................... 12
Principle of the Law of Conservation of Energy ............................................ 13
Power .............................................................................................................. 13
Work ................................................................................................................ 14
Pressure ........................................................................................................... 15
Pressure in Liquids ....................................................................................... 15
Archimedes’ Principle and Floating .............................................................. 16
Law of Flotation ........................................................................................... 16
Sinking and Floating ..................................................................................... 17
Thermal Physics ............................................................................................... 19
The Caloric Theory ....................................................................................... 19
The Kinetic Theory ....................................................................................... 19
Count Rumford ............................................................................................ 19

1
 James Joule .................................................................................................. 20
Thermal Expansion....................................................................................... 21
Applications of Thermal Expansion .......................................................... 22
Precautions Takes Against Thermal Expansion ......................................... 24
Expansion of Gases .......................................................................................... 25
The Gas Laws ................................................................................................... 26
Charles’ Law ................................................................................................. 27
A Graph for Charles’ Law .......................................................................... 28
Boyle’s Law .................................................................................................. 30
Graphs Representing Boyle’s Law ............................................................ 31
Pressure Law ................................................................................................ 32
A Graph for the Pressure Law................................................................... 33
The Gas Equation ......................................................................................... 34
Heat and Temperature..................................................................................... 35
Temperature Scales ..................................................................................... 35
The Celsius Scale .......................................................................................... 37
The Absolute or Kelvin Scale ........................................................................ 37
Converting Temperatures ............................................................................ 38
Thermometers ................................................................................................. 39
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers ..................................................................... 39
The Clinical Thermometer ............................................................................ 40
Thermocouple Thermometers ..................................................................... 41

2
 Density
Density is defined as the mass per unit volume of a given substance.

Formula:
Density = Mass ÷ Volume
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
Where 𝑚 is in kilograms (kg) or grams (g), and volume is in 𝑐𝑚3
∴ Density is measured in 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 or 𝑔𝑐𝑚−3

Forces
A force is described as any action which changes the position of an object at
rest or alters its speed in motion or changes the shape of an object.

A contact force is when objects are physically in contact with each other.
Non-contact forces act at a distance.

3
 Mass & Weight
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter an object has.
Weight is the gravitational force action on an object.

Formula:
Weight = Mass × Gravity
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
Where mass is measured in kilograms (kg), and gravity is measured in metres
per second squared (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

Weight is measured in kilogram meters per second squared which can be seen
as Newtons (N).
∴ Weight is measured in N.

Moments
Moments is the turning effect of a force and is a vector quantity.
Formula:
Moments = Force × ⊥ distance
𝑀 =𝐹×⊥𝑑

Where Force is measured in Newtons (N), and perpendicular distance is

measure in metres (m).
∴ Moments is measured in Nm.

Law of Moments
The law of moments states that the sum of clockwise moments must be equal
to the sum of anticlockwise moments taken about the same pivot.

4
 Equilibrium
Equilibrium is when a body is at rest, that is if it is neither moving nor turning.
For a body to be in equilibrium, the forces on both sides must be equal,
therefore the resultant force should be 0.

Neutral equilibrium is when a body stays in its new position when slightly
displaced.

Unstable equilibrium is when a body is given a slight displacement and its

centre of gravity falls.

Stable equilibrium is when a body is given a slight displacement and its centre
of gravity rises.

Levers
In a lever an effort is applied to overcome a resistive force called a load. Levers
are force multipliers.

Centre of Gravity
The centre of gravity of a body is the point where the total weight of the body
is considered to act.

5
 Simple Machines
A machine is a device in which an applied force at one point is used to
overcome another force at some other point.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

The velocity ratio of a machine is a measure of how the effort force moves
compared with the load force.
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

The work done by a machine against its load is called its useful energy/work
output.
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 + 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡

Efficiency is given by:

𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑑𝑣𝑎𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 100
1) 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝑛 = ×
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 1
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 100
2) ×
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 1

Energy Output and Input is the same as Work and Power input/output.

6
 Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s Law states that in an elastic material, the applied force is directly
proportional to the extension produced so long as the elastic limit is not
exceeded.
𝐹∝𝑒 or 𝐹∝𝑥
(e and x represent extension)

𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥 or 𝐹 = 𝑘𝑒
Where:
Force is measured in Newtons (N)
k, the elastic constant, is measured in Newton metres (𝑁𝑚−1 )
𝑥/𝑒, the extension produced, is measured in metres (m).

7
 Dynamics
Dynamics is also known as motion in a straight line.

Acceleration is the time-rate of change of the velocity of an object.

Formulae:
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
1) 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
∆𝑣
𝑎=
𝑡

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦−𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

2) 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣−𝑢
𝑎=
𝑡

Where:
𝑎 is acceleration
𝑣 is the final velocity measured in metres per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑢 is the initial velocity measured in metres per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 )
𝑡 is time measures in seconds (s)

∴ Acceleration is measured in metre per second squared (𝑚𝑠 −2 )

8
Velocity is the displacement per unit time.
Formula:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑
𝑣=
𝑡
Where:
d, displacement, is measured in metres (m)
t, time, is measured in seconds (s)

∴ Velocity is measured in metres per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

Speed is the distance per unit time.

Formula:
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑
𝑠=
𝑡
Where:
d, distance, is measured in metres (m)
t, time, is measured in seconds (s)

∴ Speed is measured in metres per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

Displacement is the shortest distance between the initial point and final point.

Distance is the length of the actual path covered by the body in a time interval.

9
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
1) A body stays in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless
forced to chance that state due to some external force.

2) The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied

force and takes place in the direction of the applied force.

3) For every action force, there is an equal and opposite reaction force.

Momentum
Momentum is the product of the mass of an object and its velocity and is a
vector quantity.

Formula:
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑝 =𝑚×𝑣

Where:
m, mass, is measured in kilograms (kg)
v, velocity is measured in metres per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

Law of Conservation of Linear Momentum

The law of conservation of linear momentum states that the total momentum
before collision is equal to the total momentum after collision considering
negligible external forces. Momentum is conserved.

10
 Energy
Energy is the capacity of a body to do work. It is measured in Joules (J).

Potential Energy (𝐸𝑝 )

This is the energy due to the position of an object above the earth’s surface
(height).

Formula:
Potential Energy = mass × acceleration due to gravity × height
𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ

Where:
m, mass, is measured in kilograms (kg)
g, gravity, is measured in metres per second squared (𝑚𝑠 −2 )
h, height above ground, is measured in metres (m)

∴ 𝐸𝑝 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 = 𝐽
𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 ≡ 𝐽

11
 Kinetic Energy (𝐸𝑘 )
This energy is due to the motion or velocity of an object.

Formula:
1
Kinetic Energy = mass × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 2
2

1
𝐸𝑘 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2

Where:
m, mass, is measured in kilograms (kg)
𝑣 2 , velocity squared is measured in metres per second (𝑚𝑠 −1 )2

∴ 𝐸𝑘 = 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 𝑠 −2 = 𝐽

12
 Principle of the Law of Conservation of Energy
The law states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can
change from one form to another.

Power
Power is defined as the rate of doing work or expending energy. Power is
measures in WATTS, W.

Formula:
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝐸
𝑃=
𝑡

Where:
E, energy, is measured in Joules (J)
t, time, is measured in seconds (s)

∴ 𝑃 = 𝐽𝑠 −1 = 𝑊

13
 Work
Work is defined as the product of the force and the distance moved in the
direction of the force.

Formula:
Work = Force × Distance
𝑤 =𝐹×𝑑

Where:
F, force, is measured in Newtons (N)
d, distance, is measured in metres (m)

∴ 𝑤 = 𝑁𝑚 𝑜𝑟 𝐽

14
 Pressure
Pressure is defined as the force acting per unit area.
Atmospheric pressure = 101,325 Pa.

Formula:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴

Where:
Force, F, is in Newtons (N)
Area, A, is in metre squared (𝑚𝑠 2 )
Pressure, P, is in Pa (Pascals) or 𝑁𝑚−2 or 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 𝑠 −2

Note: The smaller the surface area, the greater the pressure.

Pressure in Liquids
Key Notes about Pressure:
1) Pressure in a liquid increases with depth.
2) Pressure is directly proportional to the depth below the surface since
the pressure is greater due to the weight of the liquid above you as you
go deeper.
3) Pressure at the same horizontal level acts equally in all directions.
4) Pressure in a liquid is not affected by the shape or cross-sectional area of
the container.
5) A liquid seeks its own level.
6) Pressure in a liquid depends on the density of the liquid.
7) Pressure is directly proportional to the density of the liquid.

15
 Formula:
Liquid pressure = density × gravity ×depth
𝑃𝑙 = 𝜌 × 𝑔 × ℎ
𝑃𝑙 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ

Where:
Density, 𝜌, is in kilogram metres cubed (𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 )
Gravity, g, is in metres squared (𝑚𝑠 −2 )/ Newton kilograms (𝑁𝑘𝑔−1 )
Height, h, is metre (m)

Archimedes’ Principle and Floating

Archimedes’ principle states that when a body is totally or partially immersed
in a fluid, it experiences an upthrust (upward force) which is equal to weight
of the fluid displaced.

Law of Flotation
A floating body displaces a weight of fluid equal to its own.

16
Note:
Volume of fluid displaced, V = mass of fluid displaced (𝑚 = 𝜌 × 𝑉) = weight of
fluid displaced (𝑊 = 𝑚 × 𝑔) = Upthrust (upward force)

The upthrust mainly depends on the volume of fluid displaced.

Sinking and Floating

The vertical forces acting on an object immersed in a fluid can be represented
by two forces shown in the diagram below.

Where: W is the weight of the object;

u is the upthrust of the fluid acting on the body.

17
The vertical forces acting on a floating object such as a ship are in equilibrium
as the ship neither rises above the water nor sinks.

The weight of the boat increases with cargo and sinks further down it displaces
more fluid hence the upthrust increases. The increase upthrust is such that:

Upthrust = (Weight of cargo + ship)

So, for a floating object: upthrust, u = weight, w.

18
 Thermal Physics
The Caloric Theory
• Heat is fluid called caloric.

• Caloric flows from a hot object to a cold object when they are in contact.
ie. The hot object gets cooler and the cold object get hotter.

• Friction creates small particles caused by the rubbing process and these
particles produce more caloric.

• Caloric flows more easily through metals then non-metals.

• The smaller the object, the less caloric it can hold.

The Kinetic Theory

• All atoms have some form of motion.

• Heat is the kinetic energy of moving atoms.

• The heat produced by friction is explained as the energy supplied when

mechanical work is done.

Count Rumford
In 1798, he made an observation that could not be explained by the caloric
theory. Rumford was supervising the boring gun barrel when he notices that a
lot of heat was generated while only a small quantity of brass chips were
removed from the barrel. He thought it unlikely that all the heat (or caloric)
could have been stored in such a small mass of brass chips.

19
 James Joule
James Joule began a series of important experiments, which proved that heat
was not a material substance. He converted different form of energy, such as
mechanical and electrical energy, into heat.

Joule realised that friction converted the energy required for work into energy
in the form of heat and that the whole process neither gained nor lost energy,
in fact the total energy was always conserved.

We now believe that when heat energy is gained by an object its molecules
gain more kinetic energy and so move faster or vibrate faster.

20
 Thermal Expansion
Heat produces an expansion in a body when it is heated. It may also change
its:
1. Temperature
2. State
3. Colour

NOTE: Water does not follow the rule of Thermal Expansion since it expands
when it freezes because the crystalline structure of ice takes up more space
than liquid water.

21
 Applications of Thermal Expansion
1) To fit bearing on an axel.
2) In bimetallic stirps for temperature control.

Bimetallic Strips
A bimetallic strip is made of two strips of different metals welded or riveted
together. Eg: brass and iron.

When cold, the bimetallic strip is straight.

As it is heated, the brass expands more than the iron, so the brass forms the
outside of a curve, and the iron inside.

Bimetallic stirps are used in thermostats and many other mechanical

circuits.

22
They are used in:
1) Fire alarms to complete an electrical circuit.
2) In thermostats for temperature control.

Bimetallic strip used in a Fire Alarm

23
Bimetallic strips used for an Electrical Switch

Precautions Takes Against Thermal Expansion

1) One the end of a metal bridge is rollers or expansion joints to allow
movement.

2) Aircrafts are designed so they can expand and contract without damage.

3) Telephone and electric wires are left a sag in them to allow for thermal
expansion.

4) Use of expansion joints to prevent damage in:

i) Roadways or pavements are laid in slabs with spaces between them.
ii) Train lines/tracks are also laid with room for thermal expansion after
each length.

24
 Expansion of Gases
Three quantities that are considered with respect to the expansion of gases
are:
1) Pressure, P
2) Volume, V
3) Temperature, T

Where:
Pressure, P, is in Pascals (Pa) or Newton metres squared (𝑁𝑚−2 )
Volume, V, is in metres cubed (𝑚3 ) or centimetres cubed (𝑐𝑚3 )
Temperature, T, is in Kelvin (K)

Temperatures can also be measured on the Kelvin Temperature Scale. Zero

Kelvin (0K) is the temperature at which molecules stop moving.

The divisions on the Kelvin temperature scale are the same size as the divisions
on the centigrade (Celsius) scale.
∴ ∆1𝐾 = ∆1°𝐶

0K is called absolute zero because it is believed that this is the lowest

temperature attainable.
∴ 0𝐾 = −273°𝐶

25
 The Gas Laws
When a gas is heated, its molecules gain extra kinetic energy and move about
at greater speeds.

We detect this change as a rise in temperature of the gas.

This increase in energy in the gas molecules can therefore cause both the
volume and pressure of the gas to increase, due to temperature increase.

The gas laws describe the ways in which the temperature, pressure and
volume, of the gas are related to each other. The gas laws are:

1) Charles’ Law
2) Boyle’s Law
3) The Pressure Law
4) The Gas Equation

26
 Charles’ Law
Charles’ Law states that the volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature, if the pressure is constant.

𝑉∝𝑇
∴ 𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘) × 𝑇
𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘)
𝑇

The constant, k, is the factor of increase or decrease.

Formula:
𝑉1 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Where:
𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the initial and final volumes.
𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are the initial and final temperatures.

Note: The temperature must be in Kelvin.

27
 A Graph for Charles’ Law
We can investigate Charles’ Law by using a fixed mass of air (gas) trapped in a
capillary tube.

A mass of gas in a sealed capillary tube is slowly heated in a water bath.

The increase in temperature and the corresponding increase in length of air

column is recorded and a graph of volume (x) against temperature (y) is
plotted.

Volume/𝑐𝑚3

28
29
 Boyle’s Law
Boyle’s Law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its volume is the temperature is kept constant.

1
𝑃 ∝−1 𝑉 ⟶ 𝑃 ∝
𝑉
1
∴ 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘) ×
𝑉
𝑉𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘)

Formula:
𝑉1 𝑃1 = 𝑉2 𝑃2

Where:
𝑉1 and 𝑉2 are the initial and final volumes.
𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the initial and final pressures.

30
Graphs Representing Boyle’s Law

31
 Pressure Law
The Pressure Law states that the pressure of a fixed mass of gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature if the volume is constant.

𝑃∝𝑇
∴ 𝑃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘) × 𝑇
𝑃
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 (𝑘)
𝑇

Formula:
𝑃1 𝑃2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

Where:
𝑃1 and 𝑃2 are the initial and final pressures.
𝑇1 and 𝑇2 are the initial and final temperatures.

32
 A Graph for the Pressure Law

At absolute zero (-273 degrees Celsius), the molecules would no longer hit the
walls of the container and would therefore give no pressure.

Note:
STP means Standard Temperature and Pressure.

Standard temperature is taken at 0°𝐶 or 273𝐾.

Standard pressure is taken at 1 ATP or 760 mmHg or 101,375 Pa.

RTP means Room Temperature and Pressure.

33
 The Gas Equation
We can combine the three relations between P, V and T from the previous
𝑃𝑉
three gas laws into 1 equation. We obtain which is a constant.
𝑇

If the initial values are 𝑃1 , 𝑉1 and 𝑇1 for a gas and after a change in the gas to
𝑃2 , 𝑉2 and 𝑇2 , providing the mass of the of the gas is constant, we can write:
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
=
𝑇1 𝑇2

34
 Heat and Temperature
What is heat?
Heat is a form of energy, which when absorbed by an object makes it hotter
and when lost by an object leaves it colder. It tells us about the total object in
an object.

What is Temperature?
Temperature is a measure of how concentrated that energy is in an object. It
tells us about the kinetic energy of the individual particles in that object.

Temperature also tells us which way thermal energy is being transferred.

When thermal energy is transferred to an object, its temperature increases.
When thermal energy is transferred away from an object, its temperature
decreases.

Temperature Scales
To fix a temperature scale on a thermometer we choose two easily obtainable
temperatures, such as the boiling and freezing point of water, and give them
numbers.

These two temperatures are called the upper fixed and lower fixed points of
the temperature scale. We then divide the temperature range between the
two fixed points into a number of equal parts called degrees.

35
On a centigrade scale there are 100 equal graduations or 100 degrees between
the upper and lower fixed points.

36
 The Celsius Scale
One the Celsius scale the lower fixed point is the temperature of melting pure
ice, know as the ice point. The ice point is fixed to zero degrees, written 0°𝐶.

The upper fixed point is the temperature of steam just above boiling water,
known as the steam point which is fixed at 𝟏𝟎𝟎°𝑪.

So as there are 100 degrees between the two fixed points on the Celsius scale,
this is a centigrade scale.

The Absolute or Kelvin Scale

Temperatures exist that are much colder than freezing point of ice on the
Celsius scale.

At a temperature of −273°𝐶 all heat energy has been removed from any
substance. We call this lowest possible temperature absolute zero.

A new temperature scale is now used, which has the zero of its scale at this
absolute zero of temperature. This scale is called the absolute scale or Kelvin
scale.

One division on the Kelvin temperature scale is called a Kelvin (K) and is
exactly equal to one division or degree on the Celsius scale. It follows that
there are 100 kelvins between the ice point and steam point of water.

As the scale division on the two scales are equal, 1 kelvin = 1 Celsius degree.

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 Converting Temperatures
If T is the temperature on the Kelvin or absolute scale and 0 is the temperature
on the Celsius scale, then:
𝑇 𝑖𝑛 𝐾 = 0 𝑖𝑛 °𝐶 + 273
or more simply
𝑇 = 0 + 273

To convert from a Celsius temperature to a Kelvin temperature, add 273.

To convert from a Kelvin temperature to a Celsius temperature, subtract 273.

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 Thermometers
Liquid-in-Glass Thermometers
Liquid-in-glass thermometer use the expansion of alcohol or mercury to
measure temperature.

• Mercury thermometers can measure temperatures in the range −39°𝐶

to 357°𝐶.

• Alcohol thermometers can measure temperatures in the range −117°𝐶

to 79°𝐶.

• The bulb of the thermometer has very thin walls so heat is conducted
quickly to the liquid.

• The small volume of liquid heats up quickly and does not take much heat
from the object.

• The narrower the tube, the more liquid level changes for a given
temperature change.

• The space above the liquid is evacuated to reduce the effect of pressure
from trapped air.

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 The Clinical Thermometer
The clinical thermometer is a liquid-in-glass thermometer with these features:
1 1
• A range from 35°𝐶 to 42°𝐶 and a very narrow bore to give or
5 10
degree accuracy ranges.

• A pear-shaped cross-section acts as a magnifying glass in one direction,

making the thermometer easier read.

• A narrow constriction in the bore means the thermometer must be

shaken or flicked to return the mercury to the bulb, so the temperature
can be read after the thermometer is removed from the patient.

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 Thermocouple Thermometers
If two different metals are joined in an electric circuit and one wire junction is
cold and the other is hot, a small electric current is generated in the circuit.

The voltage increases as the temperature difference between the two

junctions increases.

So if one junction is kept at a fixed cold temperature such as 0°𝐶, then the
other junction can be used as a small probe to measure temperatures above
0°𝐶.

The main advantages of thermocouple thermometers are:

• The wire junction can be very small and absorbs very little heat. So it
responds very quickly to changing temperatures and can be used in
small or precise locations, such as in industrial or scientific research.

• Thermocouples can measure temperatures of up to 1500°𝐶, making

them useful in furnaces, such as in steel, glass or ceramic manufacturing.

41