PH212, APCS 2022-2023 2/5/2023

Chapter
Chapter23
23
Continuous
ContinuousCharge
ChargeDistributions
Distributions&&Gauss’s
Gauss’sLaw
Law

Lake Tekapo, New Zealand

Electric Field – Continuous Charge Distribution

The distances between charges in a group of charges may be much smaller
than the distance between the group and a point of interest.
In this situation, the system of charges can be modeled as continuous.
The system of closely spaced charges is equivalent to a total charge that is
continuously distributed along some line, over some surface, or
throughout some volume.

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Electric Field – Continuous Charge Distribution, cont

Procedure:
 Divide the charge distribution into small
elements, each of which contains Δq.
 Calculate the electric field due to one of these
elements at point P.
 Evaluate the total field by summing the
contributions of all the charge elements.
For the individual charge elements
 q
E  ke 2 rˆ
r
Because the charge distribution is continuous
 qi dq
E  ke lim
qi 0

i ri 2
rˆi  ke  2 rˆ
r

Charge Densities for Uniform Distribution

Volume charge density: when a charge is distributed evenly throughout a
volume
 ρ ≡ Q / V with units C/m3
Surface charge density: when a charge is distributed evenly over a surface
area
 σ ≡ Q / A with units C/m2
Linear charge density: when a charge is distributed along a line
 λ ≡ Q / ℓ with units C/m

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Amount of Charge in a Small Volume

If the charge is nonuniformly distributed over a volume, surface, or line, the

amount of charge, dq, is given by
 For the volume: dq = ρ dV
 For the surface: dq = σ dA
 For the length element: dq = λ dℓ

 Q1, Q2

Problem-Solving Strategy

Conceptualize
 Establish a mental representation of the problem.
 Image the electric field produced by the charges or charge distribution.
Categorize
 Individual charge?
 Group of individual charges?
 Continuous distribution of charges?

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Problem-Solving Strategy, cont

Analyze
 Analyzing a group of individual charges:
 Use the superposition principle, find the fields due to the individual
charges at the point of interest and then add them as vectors to find the
resultant field.
 Be careful with the manipulation of vector quantities.
 Analyzing a continuous charge distribution:
 The vector sums for evaluating the total electric field at some point must
be replaced with vector integrals.
 Divide the charge distribution into infinitesimal pieces, calculate the
vector sum by integrating over the entire charge distribution.
 Symmetry:
 Take advantage of any symmetry to simplify calculations.

Problem Solving Hints, final

Finalize
 Check to see if the electric field expression is consistent with your mental
representation.
 Check to see if the solution reflects any symmetry present.
 Image varying parameters to see if the mathematical result changes in a
reasonable way.

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Example – Charged Disk

The disk has a radius R and a

uniform charge density σ.
Choose dq as a ring of radius r.
The ring has a surface area 2πr dr.
Integrate to find the total field.

𝑘 𝑥 𝑑𝑞 𝑘 𝑥 𝜎 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝐸 = /
=
𝑟 +𝑥 𝑟 +𝑥 /

𝑘 𝑥 𝜎 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 1 1
→𝐸= 𝑑𝐸 = = 𝑘 𝑥 𝜎 2𝜋 −
𝑟 +𝑥 / 𝑥 𝑥 +𝑅
𝜎
lim 𝐸 = 𝑘𝜎2𝜋 =
→ 2𝜖

Gauss’ Law

Gauss’ Law can be used as an alternative procedure for calculating electric

fields.
Gauss’ Law is based on the inverse-square behavior of the electric force
between point charges.
It is convenient for calculating the electric field of highly symmetric charge
distributions.
Gauss’ Law is important in understanding and verifying the properties of
conductors in electrostatic equilibrium.

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Electric Flux

Electric flux is the product of the

magnitude of the electric field and
the surface area, A, perpendicular to
the field.
ΦE = EA
Units: N · m2 / C

Electric Flux, General Area

The electric flux is proportional to the

number of electric field lines penetrating
some surface.
The field lines may make some angle θ with
the perpendicular to the surface.
Then ΦE = EA cos θ
The flux is a maximum when θ = 0°
The flux is zero when θ = 90°
If the field varies over the surface, Φ = EA
cos θ is valid for only a small element of
the area.

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Electric Flux, General

In the more general case, look at a small area

element.
 
 E  Ei Ai cos θi  Ei  A i
In general, this becomes
 E  lim
Ai 0
E i Ai
 
E  
surface
E  dA Φ = 𝐸 ∙ 𝑛 𝑑𝐴

 The surface integral means the integral

must be evaluated over the surface in
question.
In general, the value of the flux will depend
both on the field pattern and on the surface.  Q3

Electric Flux, Closed Surface

Assume a closed surface

The vectors A i point in different
directions.
 At each point, they are
perpendicular to the surface.
 By convention, they point
outward.

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Flux Through Closed Surface, final

The net flux through the surface is proportional to the net number of lines
leaving the surface.
 This net number of lines is the number of lines leaving the surface minus
the number entering the surface.
If En is the component of the field perpendicular to the surface, then
 
 E   E  dA   En dA
 The integral is over a closed surface.

Flux Through a Cube, Example

The field lines pass through two

surfaces perpendicularly and are
parallel to the other four surfaces.
For face 1, Φ = −𝐸𝑙
For face 2, Φ = 𝐸𝑙
For the other sides, Φ = 0
Therefore, Φ =0

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Karl Friedrich Gauss

1777 – 1855
Made contributions in
 Electromagnetism
 Number theory
 Statistics
 Non-Euclidean geometry
 Cometary orbital mechanics
 A founder of the German Magnetic
Union
 Studies the Earth’s magnetic
field

Gauss’s Law, Introduction

Gauss’s law is an expression of the general relationship between the net

electric flux through a closed surface and the charge enclosed by the surface.
 The closed surface is often called a gaussian surface.
Gauss’s law is of fundamental importance in the study of electric fields.

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Gauss’s Law – case of a point charge

A positive point charge, q, is located at the
center of a sphere of radius r.
The magnitude of the electric field everywhere
on the surface of the sphere is
E = k e q / r2
The field lines are directed radially outward
and are perpendicular to the surface at every
point.
 
 E   E  dA   EdA  E  dA

This will be the net flux through the gaussian

surface, the sphere of radius r (Asphere = 4πr2)
q
 E  4πkeq 
εo  Q4

Gauss’s Law – General, notes

The net flux through any closed surface

surrounding a point charge, q, is given by
q/εo and is independent of the shape of
that surface.
The flux through any closed surface by
the electric field due to many charges :
    
 
 E  dA   E1  E2   dA
The electric flux through a closed surface
that surrounds no charge is zero  Any
field line entering the surface leaves at
another point.

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Gauss’s Law – Final

The mathematical form of Gauss’s law states

  q
 E   E  dA  in
εo
 q is the net charge inside the surface.
 in

E represents the electric field at any point on the surface.


 E is the total electric field and may have contributions from charges
both inside and outside of the surface.

Although Gauss’s law can, in theory, be solved to find E for any charge
configuration, in practice it is limited to symmetric situations.

 Q5, Q6, Q7

Applying Gauss’s Law

To use Gauss’s law, you want to choose a gaussian surface over which the
surface integral can be simplified and the electric field determined.
Take advantage of symmetry.
 The value of the electric field can be argued from symmetry to be constant
over the surface.

 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 if 𝐸 and 𝑑𝐴⃗ are parallel.

 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = 0 if 𝐸 and 𝑑𝐴⃗ are perpendicular.

 The field is zero over the portion of the surface.

Remember, the gaussian surface is a surface you choose, it does not have to
coincide with a real surface.

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Field Due to a Spherically Symmetric Charge Distribution

Select a sphere as the gaussian surface where 𝑬 is radial and constant

𝑞
Φ= 𝐸 ∙ 𝑑𝐴⃗ = 𝐸𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸 𝑑𝐴 = 𝐸4𝜋𝑟 =
𝜖
For 𝑟 > 𝑎: 𝑞 = 𝑄: 𝑄
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜖 𝑟
For 𝑟 < 𝑎: 𝑞 = 𝜌𝑉 = 𝜋𝑟
𝑄𝑟 Field of a
𝐸= point
4𝜋𝜖 𝑎
charge

Field at a Distance from a Line of Charge

It is a cylindrical charge distribution .
 The gaussian surface is a cylinder of radius r Flux =0
and length ℓ.

E is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to
the surface at every point on the curved part of the
surface.
Use Gauss’s law to find the field.
  q
 E   E  dA   EdA  in
εo
λ
E  2πr    End view
εo
λ λ
E  2ke
2πεo r r

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Field Due to a Plane of Charge


E must be perpendicular to the plane and must
have the same magnitude at all points equidistant
from the plane.
Choose a small cylinder whose axis is
perpendicular to the plane for the gaussian
surface.

E is parallel to the curved surface and there is no
contribution to the surface area from this curved part
of the cylinder.
The flux through each end of the cylinder is EA
The total charge in the surface is σA. σA σ
 E  2EA  and E 
εo 2εo
Therefore, the field is uniform everywhere.  Q10

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