Topic 1: Anatomy

1.1 The Skeletal System

1.1.2 Distinguish anatomically between the axial and appendicular

skeleton
Axial skeleton: 80 bones, central to everything
- Skull
- Ribs and sternum (thorax)
- Vertical column
o Cervical: 7 bones
§ C1 (Atlas)
§ C2 (Axis)
§ C3-C7 (Cervical vertebra)
o Thoracic: 12 bones
§ T1-T12 (thoracic vertebra)
o Lumbar: 5 bones
o Sacrum: 5 bones fused as 1
o Coccyx: 4 bones fused as 1
Functions:
- Provides protection for internal organs e.g. brain, spinal cord, heart, digestive system
- Responsible for upright position of the body (vertebral column)
- Support spine
- Movement e.g. sternum
- Transmits weight from head trunk and upper extremities down to the lower
extremities at hip joints
- Blood cell production e.g. ribs, sternum
- Storage and release of minerals such as calcium and phosphorus e.g. ribs

Appendicular skeleton: 126 bones, supplements the axial skeleton

- Pectoral girdle (scapulae and clavicle)
- Arm
o Humerus
o Radius
o Ulna
- Hand
o Carpals
o Metacarpals
o Phalanges
 - Pelvic girdle: (ilium, ischium, pubis) à pelvis
- Leg
o Femur
o Patella (kneecap)
o Tibia (thick, medial)
o Fibula (thin, lateral) (holds the whole-body weight)
- Foot
o Tarsals
o Metatarsals
o Phalanges
Functions:
- Main function is movement
- Blood cell formation in long bones
- Support
- Mineral reservoir
- Provides protection for digestive, excretive and reproductive systems

1.1.2 Distinguish between the axial and appendicular skeleton in

terms of function
Axial
- Protection for vital/major organs
- Provides support
- Attachment
-

Appendicular
- Allows movement
- Blood cell formation
- Attachment
- Mineral reservoir
- Support
1.1.3 State the four types of bone
Long Bone:
- Longer than it is wide
- Femur, humerus, tibia, phalanges, metatarsals à mostly in the appendicular system
Short Bone:
- Approx. wide as it is long
- Support and stability e.g. carpals
Flat Bone:
- Strong, flat plates
- Protect vital organs
- Muscular attachment
- E.g. scapulae, sternum, cranium
Irregular Bone:
- non-uniform shape e.g. vertebrae, sacrum, mandible

1.1.4 Draw and annotate the structure of a long bone

9 elements:
1. Epiphysis
2. Diaphysis
3. Spongy Bone
4. Compact Bone
5. Bone Marrow
6. Marrow Cavity
7. Articular Cartilage
8. Blood Vessels
9. Periosteum

1.1.5 Apply anatomical terminology to the location of bones

Proximal – Close to axis
Distal – Away from axis

Medial – Towards midline, inside, middle

Lateral – Away from midline, outside
Superior – Upwards/Above
Inferior – Downwards/Below

Posterior – Towards front of the body

Anterior – Towards back of the body

Structure of bones:
Diaphysis: compact bone
Epiphysis: spongy bone (2 end portions)

1.1.6 Outline the functions of connective tissue

Cartilage:
- Hard, strong à hard tissue à provides support for soft tissues
- Forms sliding area for joints e.g. knee, elbow
- Flexible
- Prevents friction and withstand shock
- Allows limited movement in cartilaginous joints

Ligament:
- Bone to bone | cartilage to cartilage | holds a joint
- Support and strength to joints à bends to prevent fracture
- Defines ROM (range of motion) and prevents dislocation
Tendon:
- Muscle to bone
- Transmits force to movement
- Shock absorbers
- Made of strong fibrous collagen
- Tough and does not stretch
- Enables movement of bones
- Provides stability for synovial joints

1.1.7 Define the term joint

Joint: A joint occurs where two or more bones articulate / meet / between bone and
cartilage

1.1.8 Distinguish between the different types of joint in relation to

movement permitted
Fibrous:
 - Bones connect without gap
- Fixed joints (interlocked) e.g. some bones in the skull
- Do not move
- Bones held by fibrous connective tissue
- No synovial cavity
Cartilaginous:
- Made up of cartilage and allows some movement e.g. vertebral joints
- Lacks joint cavity
- Less stable
- No synovial cavity
Synovial:
- Freely moveable
- Cavity in joint filled with synovial fluid, lubricating for greater movement
- Provides movement and then to provide stability
- Has synovial cavity
- E.g. knee, shoulder

1.1.9 Outline the features of a synovial joint.

ASSBLAM (7 elements)
Articular Cartilage:
- Covers ends of bones that articulate
- Smooth tissue that reduces friction
- Distributes load
- Absorbs shock at joint
Synovial Membrane:
- Secretes synovial fluid which lubricates joints and reduces friction between joints
- Soft tissue
Synovial Fluid:
- Lubrication/ reduce friction
- Shock absorption
- Provides nutrients
Bursae:
- Fluid filled sac which acts as a cushion around joints
- Prevents friction between skin, muscle, tendon
Ligaments:
- Dense regular tissue connecting bones
- Resistance to strain
- Bands of fibrous tissue
- Reinforces joint
Articular Capsule:
- Supports and strengthens the joint and covers the cavity
 - Defines a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid
Meniscus:
- Cartilaginous tissue
- Disperses weight and reduces friction

1.1.10 List the different types of synovial joints

Hinge:
- flexion, extension
- only allows for bending and straightening motions along a single axis (uniaxial joint)
- e.g. elbow, knee, ankle
Ball and Socket:
- flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation
- greatest range of motion (multiaxial joints)
- e.g. shoulder, hip
Condyloid:
- flexion, extension, ab/adduction
- two planes of movement: bending / straightening
- e.g. wrist carpals, between metacarpal and phalanges
Pivot:
 - rotation
- rotation is around a single axis
- e.g. atlas and axis (C1 and C2)
Gliding:
- gliding movements
- can allow multiple or a single type of movement including rotation
- e.g. ribs, vertebrae
Saddle:
- (same as condyloid)
- e.g. in the thumb
 1.2 The Muscular System

1.2.1 Outline the general characteristics common to muscle tissue

Contractility:
- Ability to shorten

Extensibility:
- Ability of a muscle to be stretched beyond resting length without damage

Elasticity:
- Ability to return to normal size / resting length after contraction / extension

Atrophy:
- Wasting of muscle tissue due to lack of use

Hypertrophy:
- Building of muscle tissue

Controlled by nerve stimuli:

- ability of muscle to be stimulated by electrical impulses

Fed by capillaries:
- capillaries supply muscles with oxygen, and remove carbon dioxide

1.2.2 Distinguish between the different types of muscle

Smooth:
- Hollow internal structures e.g. blood vessel, stomach, eye
- Involuntary
- Non-striated
Cardiac:
- Most of heart
- Involuntary- contraction and relaxation
- Striated appearance
Skeletal:
- Voluntary
- Attached to bones via tendons
- Striated
 - e.g. biceps

1.2.3 Annotate the structure of skeletal muscle

8 ELEMEMTS:
Epimysium – connective tissue that wraps around the entire muscle.

Perimysium – connective tissue that wraps bundles of muscle fibres, which are known as
fascicles.

Endomysium – connective tissue that wraps around each individual muscle fibre.

Muscle Fibre – a cell composed of numerous myofibrils that contracts when stimulated.

Myofibril – cylindrical structures that extend along the length of each muscle cell and are
composed of actin and myosin myofilaments.

Sarcomere – the contractile unit of myofibril, divided into bands of filaments made of actin
or myosin.

Actin – a muscle protein located in myofibrils. They are thin, and act with myosin to
contract and relax muscle fibres.

Myosin – a muscle protein located in myofibrils. They are thick, and act with actin to
contract and relax muscle fibres.
1.2.4 Define the terms origin and insertion of muscles (AO1)

Origin:
The attachment of a muscle tendon to a stationary bone
- E.g. biceps brachii
- Attachment site that doesn’t move during contraction
- Usually proximal / closer to body

Insertion:
The attachment of a muscle tendon to a moveable bone
- Attachment that moves when the muscle contracts
- Usually distal / further away
- E.g. forearm when biceps contract

1.2.5 Identify the location of skeletal muscles in various regions of the

body
Anterior 9 ELEMENTS
- Deltoid (shoulders)
- Biceps brachii
- Pectoralis (Chest)
- Abdominus rectus (Posterior/below to external obliques)
- External obliques (Outer most abdominal muscle)
- Iliopsoas (origin in lower lumbar/thoracic vertebrae, insert top of femur)
- Sartorius (From lateral to medial over the quads)
- Quadriceps femoris:
o rectus femoris
o vastus intermedialis
o vastus medialis
o vastus lateralis
- Tibialis anterior (Anterior of shin)

Posterior 8 ELEMENTS
- Trapezius
- Triceps brachii
- Latissimus dorsi
- Erector spinae
- Gluteus maximus (ass)
- Hamstrings
o biceps femoris
 o semitendinosus
o semimembranosus
- Gastrocnemius (calf)
- Soleus (anterior to gastrocnemius)
 Topic 2: Exercise physiology

2.1 Structure and Function of the Ventilatory System

2.1.1 List the principal structures of the ventilatory system (AO1)

- Nose – add functions to all

- Mouth
- Pharynx
- Larynx (voice box)
- Trachea
- Bronchi
- Bronchioles
- Lungs
- Alveoli

*Smooth muscle tissue is found on the walls of our internal organs

à rhythmical actions
à Involuntary

2.1.2 Outline the functions of the conducting airways. (AO2)

Low resistance path for airflow

- through the pharynx

Defence against chemicals and other harmful substances that are inhaled
- trapping particles in saliva and mucus

Warming and moistening the air

- nasal conchae (projections) make airstream turbulent - air entering trachea almost
100% humidified
2.1.3 Define the terms pulmonary ventilation total lung capacity (TLC),
vital capacity (VC), tidal volume (TV), expiratory reserve volume (ERV),
inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) and residual volume (RV) (AO1)

1 inflow and outflow of air between the atmosphere and the

lungs (also called breathing)

2 volume of air in the lungs after a maximum inhalation

maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after a maximum
inhalation

3 volume of air breathed in or out in any one breath

volume of air in excess of tidal volume
that can be exhaled forcibly
: Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly
over the tidal volume.

4 volume of air still contained in the lungs after a maximal

exhalation

* Total Lung Capacity = Vital Capacity + Residual Volume

= +

*Vital capacity = inspiratory reserve volume + tidal volume +expiratory reserve volume
= + +

*During exercise:
à Tidal volume will increase
à IRV volume decreases
2.1.4 Explain the mechanics of ventilation in the human lungs (AO3)

Inhalation:
Pleural fluid lies between the lungs and the chest wall
1) As the diaphragm contracts downward, the chest cavity simultaneously expands,
causing the pleural fluid to pull the lungs open and outward – creating a low-
pressure air system within the lungs.
2) As a result of the pressure gradient, air from the atmosphere rushes into the lungs
until air pressure equilibrium is achieved.
3) The external intercostal-muscles help the ribs pivot up and out

*In high intensity exercise, muscles of upper trunk may be recruited (pectoralis, trapezoids)

Exhalation:
® Almost entirely passive process
® Relies on elasticity of lungs, chest and diaphragm as well as pleural fluid
® Surface tension within lungs
1) As the chest and diaphragm relax, air particles are condensed, thus the intra-
alveolar air pressure becomes greater than the atmosphere
2) Air rushes out of lungs until equilibrium is achieved

*Muscles of exhalation (abdominals and internal intercostals) contract during moderate to

high intensity exercise

During strenuous exercise:

- Abdominals press against diaphragm
- Internal intercostals oppose external intercostal muscles
- Forcibly empties lungs
2.1.5 Describe nervous and chemical control of ventilation during
exercise (AO2)

® Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a bi-product of aerobic respiration

® Aerobic respiration occurs during exercise
® As a result of exercise, C02 levels in the blood increase, leading to a decrease in
blood pH (More acidic)
o This is detected by chemoreceptors in the respiratory centre
® As a result, lung stretch receptors, muscle proprioceptors and chemoreceptors are
used as neural controls to increase the rate and depth of ventilation and
o detect when homeostasis is achieved
o This is done to flush out lactic acid and CO2, thus increasing blood pH

2.1.6 Outline the role of hemoglobin in oxygen transportation (AO2)

1. Most (98.5%) of oxygen in the blood is transported by hemoglobin as oxyhemoglobin

within red blood cells.
2. Transported from lungs to rest of body and working muscles by systemic circulation
3. Is a protein containing iron, responsible for binding
4. Can bind up to 4 oxygen molecules

2.1.7 Explain the process of gaseous exchange at the alveoli (AO3)

Gaseous exchange between the air in the alveoli and the blood capillaries occurs across
the respiratory membrane in a process known as pulmonary diffusion.
® The most critical factor for gas exchange between the alveoli and the blood
capillaries is the pressure gradient between the gases
® Diffusion occurs when molecules move from areas of high concentration to areas of
low concentration.
The partial pressure of oxygen arriving at the alveoli is high, and the partial pressure of it in
the capillaries is low. Therefore, oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries.
The partial pressure of the carbon dioxide arriving at the capillaries is high and the pressure
in the alveoli is low. Therefore, carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
 2.2 Structure and Function of the Cardiovascular System
2.2.1 State the composition of blood (AO1)

- Erythrocytes (red blood cells)

- Leucocytes (white blood cells)
- Platelets (thrombocytes)
- Plasma (liquid, highest proportion of blood)
- Blood is also the transport vehicle for electrolytes, proteins, gases, nutrients, waste
products and hormones

2.2.2 Distinguish between the functions of erythrocytes, leucocytes

and platelets (AO2)

Erythrocytes:
- Red blood cells
- Contain haemoglobin
- Transport oxygen around body
- Produced in flat bones, red bone marrow

Leucocytes:
- White blood cells
- Combat disease and infection
 - Removed dead tissue
- Produce antibodies
- Involved in immune function

Platelets:
- Help clot blood in event of a wound to minimise blood loss
- Produced in bone marrow

2.2.3 Describe the anatomy of the heart with reference to the heart
chambers, valves and major blood vessels. (AO2)

Heart = involuntary muscle with striated muscle tissue

- Composed of 3 layers and 4 chambers, separated by a septum and valves
- Triple-layered bag called pericardium surrounds / protects heart

Four Chambers
Right Ventricle (INFERIOR)
Sends deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Left Ventricle (INFERIOR)

Sends/pumps oxygen rich blood to the rest of the body

Right Atrium (SUPERIOR)

Receives oxygen depleted / deoxygenated blood

Left Atrium (SUPERIOR)

Receives oxygen rich blood from the lungs

Four Valves (prevent blood from flowing the wrong way)

Tricuspid (right)
separates right atrium and right ventricle

Bicuspid/Mitral (left)
separates left atrium and left ventricle

Aortic
separates left ventricle from the aorta

Pulmonary/Semilunar
separates the right ventricle from the pulmonary artery
Blood Vessels:
Vena Cava
Carries deoxygenated blood from the body to the heart (right atrium)

Aorta
Largest and principal artery in the body
Carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to all parts of the body through systemic
circulation

Pulmonary Vein
Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium

Pulmonary Artery
Carries oxygen-depleted blood from the right ventricle to the lungs

The heart is covered with blood vessels called coronary arteries, which transport
oxygenated blood to the heart muscle itself
Atria:
- Receiving chambers for blood
- returning to heart- small and thin
Ventricles:
- Large – responsible for pumping blood from heart into circulation
Valves:
- Dense connective structures
- Open and close when heart contracts and relaxes
- Prevents back-flow of blooding chambers two lie in between each atria and ventricle

Process
1. Right atrium fills with blood and contracts - blood from body enters right atrium
through superior and inferior Vena Cava
2. Deoxygenated blood passes through tricuspid valve from right atrium into the right
ventricle
3. Right ventricle contracts and deoxygenated blood travels through the pulmonary
valve into the pulmonary artery to the lungs and becomes oxygenated
4. Oxygenated blood returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein and enters the left
atrium
5. The left atrium contracts and blood is passed through the bicuspid valve into the left
ventricle
6. Left ventricle contracts and oxygenated blood passes through the aortic valve to be
delivered to the body via the aorta
2.2.4 Describe the intrinsic and extrinsic regulation of heart rate and
the sequence of excitation of the heart muscle (AO2)
Intrinsic:
1) The Sinoatrial (SA) node is the heart’s pacemaker that generates electrical impulse
(action potential)
2) This action potential is carried through the Atrioventricular (AV) node, which
spreads the action potential throughout the rest of the heart
3) This is achieved through the use of the Purkinje fibres (Bundle of His) which carries
the action potential to the heart – resulting in ventricular contraction

Extrinsic:
The heart has its own pacemaker, but heart rate is also influenced by the sympathetic and
parasympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system and by adrenaline.

Parasympathetic Nerves (PSNS):

- Slows down heart rate
- Originates in cardiac centres of the medulla
- Passes to the heart through the Vagus nerves
- Release acetylcholine when stimulated to slow the heart

Sympathetic Nerves (SNS):

- Speeds up heart rate
- Originates in upper thoracic spinal cord and reaches myocardium (muscular tissue of
the heart) through accelerator nerves
- When stimulated, the adrenal medulla releases hormones epinephrine (adrenaline)
and norepinephrine (noradrenaline) – important in providing short burst of energy
to respond
o Increases heart rate and strength of contraction

Adrenaline:
- Can speed up heart rate
- Has wider metabolic actions – can increase glycogen and lipid breakdown

*SNS and PSNS are branches of the autonomic nervous system

2.2.5 Outline the relationship between the pulmonary and systemic
circulation (AO2)

Pulmonary Circulation (HeartàLungsàHeart)

The portion of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygen depleted blood away from the
right ventricle, to the lungs, and then returns oxygenated blood to the left atrium.
- Delivers deoxygenated blood to lungs through the contraction of the right ventricle,
passing through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery
- Oxygenated blood returns to left atrium by the pulmonary veins

Systemic Circulation (HeartàBodyàHeart)

The portion of the cardiovascular system that carries oxygenated blood away from the left
ventricle, to the body, and then returns deoxygenated blood to the right atrium.
- Left ventricle contracts, oxygenated blood passes through aortic valve through the
aorta and is delivered to tissues in the body
- Deoxygenated blood returns to heart by the vena cava and enters the right atrium

The pulmonary system transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs for oxygen transfer and
back to the heart so that the systemic circularity system can take oxygenated blood
throughout the body so that bodily functions can be performed.
2.2.6 Describe the relationship between heart rate, cardiac output
and stroke volume at rest and during exercise (AO2)

𝑪𝒂𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒄 𝑶𝒖𝒕𝒑𝒖𝒕 = 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒌𝒆 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 × 𝒉𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒕 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆

Stroke volume expands and heart rate increases during exercise to allow for higher oxygen
demands

Cardiac Output
Amount of blood pumped from heart in one minute (L/min) (Litres/minute)

Stroke volume
Amount of blood pumped by each ventricle per contraction

Heart rate
Number of ventricular contractions / heart beats in one minute

2.2.7 Analyse cardiac output, stroke volume and heart rate data for
different populations at rest and during exercise (AO3)

In response to exercise, there is an increase in cardiac output from approximately 5L/min at

rest to between 20-30L/min during maximal exercise
- Cardiac output increases due to an increase in stroke volume and heart rate

Maximum cardiac output differs in individuals due to body sizes and training

Heart Rate
High in older people, in women and in untrained individuals

Stroke Volume
High in men, young and trained individuals

Cardiac Output
High in men, young and trained individuals
2.2.8 Explain cardiovascular drift (AO3)

Cardiovascular drift is the gradual increase in heart rate during prolonged and sustained
exercise at controlled and fixed levels of intensity and environment.

There are two explanations:

1. Body Temp Increases
1. Peripheral redistribution of blood and sweating to cool the body
2. Small Drop in blood volume (by sweating)
3. Increase in blood viscosity
4. Decreased venous return
5. Decrease in stroke volume
6. Increase HR to maintain Cardiac Output

2. Exercise
1. Depletion of glycogen stores
2. Motor units fatigue
3. Brain recruits more motor units to compensate
4. Demand for blood increases
5. HR increases

à To maintain cardiac output, heart rate increases

à Cardiovascular drift during submaximal exercise is greater in a hot/humid environment
compared to a cool environment
à Dehydration contributes to cardiovascular drift

2.2.9 Define the terms systolic and diastolic blood pressure

Systolic blood pressure:

The force exerted by the blood on arterial walls during ventricular contraction

Diastolic blood pressure:

The force exerted by the blood on arterial walls during ventricular relaxation
2.2.10 Analyse systolic and diastolic blood pressure data at rest
and during exercise

During dynamic exercises:

- Systolic BP increases in direct proportion to the increase in exercise intensity
o Increase in systolic BP:
§ results from increased cardiac output (CO)
• helps increase blood flow to working muscles

Average resting blood pressure is approx. 120/80

In fitter people, BP rises more slowly and returns quicker

During dynamic exercise:

® Systolic rises
® Diastolic remains the same
During static exercise:
® Systolic rises
® Diastolic rises

2.2.11 Discuss how systolic and diastolic blood pressure respond

to dynamic and static exercise (AO3)

Dynamic (Endurance exercise):

Dynamic refers to using changing and rhythmic muscular activity e.g. running, swimming

® Systolic blood pressure (BP):

o rises as a result of increased force of ventricular contraction
o increases at a lower rate as the breathing frequency is much higher than in
static exercise, therefore the pressure is not as high as during static exercise
 ® Diastolic has little to no change
® Due to increases in stroke volume (SV) and heart rate (HR)

Static:
Primary focus on muscle tension e.g. weight lifting

® Little increase in HR
® Increase in both systolic BP and diastolic BP

® Systolic increases à volume of blood + contraction rate

® Diastolic increases due to:

o increased resistance on arterioles due to constant muscle contraction
o harder to pump as less oxygen and more CO2

® BP increases due to the compression of the arterial system

® BP is higher than in dynamic exercise
® Static exercise is therefore not advised for people with coronary heart disease

2.2.12 Compare the distribution of blood at rest and the

redistribution of blood curing exercise (AO3)

At rest
® Blood is distributed relatively evenly across organs and muscles
® Approx. 75% of blood flows to the vital organs of the body, whilst 20% flows to the
muscles

During exercise
® Blood is redistributed in favour of muscles (approx. 75%)
o Primarily to muscles through sympathetic nerves causing the vasodilation of
arterioles that lead to muscles (as high as 90%)
o Away from organs through vasoconstriction of arterioles from
parasympathetic nerves
® Brain blood supply is maintained or increased as it is vital for functioning
® Kidney at rest is around 22% and at exercise is 1%
® Heart is increased
® Liver has around 30% at rest and 2%during exercise

*Vasodilation is the decrease of blood pressure <-> Vasoconstriction opp.

2.2.13 Describe the cardiovascular adaptions resulting from
endurance exercise training (AO2)
CAMMCC
Cardiac hypertrophy in the left ventricle
o Increased stroke volume
o Lower resting and exercising heart rate
1) Increased arteriovenous oxygen difference
o Can extract more CO2 from the blood due to increased capillarisation
2) Increased mitochondrion density
3) Increased myoglobin
4) Increased capillarization around muscles
5) Increase in max cardiac output

2.2.14 Explain maximal oxygen consumption (AO3)

Maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) represents the functional capacity of the oxygen
transport system
® Sometimes referred to as maximal aerobic power/aerobic capacity
It is the maximum amount of oxygen an individual can utilise during intense or maximal
exercise
® Measured in ml/min/kg (oxygen and energy needs differ in size)
® Is an indicator of cardiovascular fitness and aerobic endurance
The more oxygen you can use during high levels of exercise, the more ATP (energy)
produced
® Often the case with elite endurance athletes who typically have very high VO2 max
values

(Marking scheme for Section B Q6(c) ‘Explain maximal oxygen consumption’ May 2015
Paper 2)
® VO2 max is determined by maximal heart rate, stroke volume and AVO2
(arteriovenous oxygen difference)
® Recent research suggests that genetics play a role in how much an individual can
increase VO2 max
® There can be differences in VO2 max for trained versus untrained/males versus
females/young versus old
® It can vary for an individual depending on the mode of exercise
o Variations (persons score) in VO2 max during different modes of exercise
reflect the quantity of activated muscle mass e.g. there is more muscle mass
 activated during treadmill running compared to either cycling or arm
ergometry
® Training improves physiological features such as capillarization, red blood cell %
which will improve VO2
® Skill level/training status/experience can increase the VO2 max values

How VO2 max can be measured using tests such as treadmill test or beep test Person’s
score can differ depending on the quality of the test being done e.g. treadmill versus
12-minute run – which is used to estimate VO2

2.2.15 Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen consumption in

selected groups (AO3)

Trained Vs. Untrained

® Arteriovenous oxygen difference is higher in trained

o Due to greater capillarization
® Trained person takes up to 13% more oxygen
® Trained has:
o Lower HR during exercise
o Higher peak speed
® Trained around 70mL oxygen per kilogram per minute

® Untrained around 55mL oxygen per kilogram per minute

® Untrained can’t reach full respiratory-cardio potential due to faster onset fatigue

Males Vs. Females

® Higher VO2 max in males which corresponds with the fact that
o Males tend to be bigger (e.g. larger lungs) than females
o Males tend to have a greater hemoglobin concentration than females
® Difference in body composition of males and females (females have higher fat
composition)
® Typically, 40-60% higher in men then in women

Young Vs. Old

® Old people have much lower VO2 max because their arterioles have been hardened
o Not much oxygen can be transferred though the blood (atherosclerosis)
® Absolute VO2 higher in young
 ® Old people have a lower cardiac output
o Means less oxygen while exercising VO2 max
® Decline in the efficiency of mitochondria
o Can result in a 50% decline in VO2 max
® VO2 max declines naturally as you get older
o Exercising regularly can slow but not stop it
o VO2 max is highest at 20y.o., decreases 30% at around 65y.o.

Athlete Vs. Non-athlete

® Athletes will need less oxygen to be pumped to the muscles because they have
better endurance
o Allows them to go longer without getting as tired
® VO2 max > 60mL/min/kg indicates athlete

2.2.16 Discuss the variability of maximal oxygen consumption

with different modes of exercise (AO3)

Variations in maximal oxygen consumption during different modes of exercise reflect the
quantity of activated muscle mass.
® Increased muscle use leads to increased oxygen requirement

Running Highest VO2 max as it recruits most of the muscles

Cycling Medium VO2 max, mostly leg muscles

Arm Ergometry Least VO2 max, focuses on arm muscles

Achieves only approx. 70% of running VO2 max values

**Trained status in an exercise mode can influence VO2 achieved

 Topic 3: Energy systems

3.1 Nutrition

3.1.1 List the macronutrients and micronutrients

Macronutrients: Nutrients needed in abundance

1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids (fat)
3. Protein
4. Water

Micronutrients: Nutrients needed in smaller amounts

1. Vitamins
2. Minerals
3. Fibre

3.1.2 Outline the functions of macronutrients and micronutrients

Macronutrients
Carbohydrates
1. Primary fuel source
2. Stores energy
3. Key for brain function
4. Breaks down fatty acids
5. Prevents ketosis
6. E.g. pasta, quinoa

Lipids (fat)
1. Fuel for body
2. Stores energy
3. Essentially fatty acids
4. Thermal insulation (cold climate)
5. Energy abundant source
6. Healing and cell building
7. Structural component of many cell membranes
8. Protects vital organs (heart, lungs, liver etc.)
 9. E.g. meat fish, nuts oil

Protein
1. Fuel for body
2. Essential for repair and growth of muscles and tissues
3. Structure
4. Transport
5. Protection
6. Made up of twenty types of amino acid
7. E.g. meat, fish, dairy, eggs

Water
1. Medium for biochemical reactions
2. Transport nutrients
3. Cooling – thermoregulation, helps maintain blood pressure
4. Excretion
5. Lubrication
6. Prevents dehydration
7. E.g. beverages, fruit, vegetables

Micronutrients
Vitamins
Energy release from macronutrients
® Increases metabolism
® Increases immune function
® Promotes eye sight and healthy skin
® Helps inspire healthy bones and blood
® E.g. fruits, vegetables, fatty fish

Minerals
® Mineralisation of bones and teeth
® Promotes blood oxygen transport
® Increases metabolism
® Helps immune system
® Helps muscle function
® Fluid balance
® E.g. calcium, potassium, sodium
Fibre
Indigestible carbohydrate (insoluble)
® Regulates digestive operations – helps avoid constipation
 ® Lowers cholesterol
® Slower glucose rise
® E.g. Celery, beans, nuts, rice

3.1.3 State the chemical composition of a glucose molecule

Glucose = carbohydrates (carbs), blood sugar, dextrose

C = Carbon
H = Hydrogen
O = Oxygen
C6 H12 O6
1:2:1 ratio

3.1.4 Identify a diagram representing the basic structure of a glucose

molecule

3.1.5 Explain how glucose molecules can combine to form

disaccharides and polysaccharides (AO3)

Many of the most important carbohydrates are the more complex disaccharides and
polysaccharides rather than the simpler monosaccharides
Monosaccharides
® Basic unit of carbohydrate
® Can undergo series of condensation reactions known as condensation
polymerisation
o Adds monomers to the chain until large molecules (polysaccharides are
formed)
® Link together to form disaccharides (2 monosaccharides), and polysaccharides (more
than 2)
o By the removal of a water molecule
® Building blocks of disaccharides
® E.g. glucose

Disaccharides
® When two monosaccharide molecules react or condense with each other, the
product is a disaccharide
o Water molecule is lost in the process

Polysaccharides
® When many monosaccharide molecules react with each other
o Product is a polysaccharide
o Through condensation reaction – a water molecule is lost
® Individual monosaccharides are linked by glyosidic bonds
® Polysaccharides are joined through dehydration synthesis reactions
* More complex à last longer (good for endurance training)
3.1.6 State the composition of a molecule of triacylglycerol (AO1)

The molecules are composed of 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol skeleton

3.1.7 Distinguish between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

(AO2)

Saturated fatty acids (BAD) Unsaturated fatty acids (GOOD)

Have no double bonds between the
individual carbon atoms of fatty acid chain
Originate from animal sources
e.g. meat, poultry, full-fat dairy products,
tropical oils (palm and coconut oils)
Usually solid at room temperature
Contain one or more double bonds
between carbon atoms within fatty acid
chain
Originate from plant-based foods
e.g. Olive oil, olives, avocado, peanuts,
canola oil and seeds, sunflower oil,
rapeseed
Usually liquid at room temperature

***It is easier for the body to break down unsaturated fats due to the double bonds
à making them healthier to eat

3.1.8 State the chemical composition of a protein molecule (AO1)

Base elements of proteins are:

Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
à the monomers of proteins are 20 different amino acids

3.1.9 Distinguish between an essential and non-essential amino acid

(AO2)

Amino acids are the chemical units or building blocks that make up proteins
Essential amino acids cannot be synthesized by the body and must be obtained in the diet
à there are 8 essential amino acids

Non-essential amino acids can be synthesized by the body

3.1.10 Describe current recommendations for a healthy balanced

diet (AO2)

Depends on socio-cultural factors e.g. Mediterranean vs. Japanese

*Consider socio-cultural influences of food selection and preparation that exists across
populations

For the average individual:

Carbohydrate: 55-75%
Lipid: 15-30%
® Saturated: <10%
® Poly-unsaturated: <10%
® Mono-unsaturated: any left-over fat
Protein: 10-15%
Dietary Fibre: <25g
Salt (Sodium Chloride): <5g
Water: 2.5L

3.1.11 State the approximate energy content per 100g of

carbohydrate, lipid and protein (AO1)

Carbohydrate à 1760kJ per 100g

Lipid à 4000kJ per 100g
Protein à 1720kJ per 100g
3.1.12 Discuss how the recommended energy distribution of the
dietary macronutrients differ between endurance athletes and non
athletes (AO3)

Endurance athletes’ dietary needs differ from non-athletes

® The quality of the athlete’s diet is assessed primarily in terms of the macronutrients
(carbohydrates, proteins, fats)
o Micronutrients are essential, but do not provide energy

® Endurance athletes such as endurance runners and swimmers must be aware of the
need for carbohydrate replenishment to avoid feeling “flat”
® Glycogen stores take 24 hours to restore

Endurance Athlete:
® Need more protein for muscle repair and growth
® Higher carbohydrate intake is needed as they require more energy and it delays
fatigue
® More lipid to prepare for events with energy requirements and for essential fatty
acids
o Should be unsaturated
o Saturated and trans fats will impart cardiovascular performance
® More water

Non - Athlete Athlete

Carbohydrates 50-60% 60-75%
Fats (lipids) 30% Less than 30%
Protein 10-15% 10-35%
 3.2 Carbohydrate and Fat Metabolism

3.2.1 Outline metabolism, anabolism, aerobic catabolism and

anaerobic catabolism (AO2)
Metabolism
All the biochemical reactions that occur within an organism, including anabolic and catabolic
reactions
Anabolism (BUILD)
Energy requiring reactions whereby small molecules are built up into larger ones

Catabolism (BREAK)
Chemical reactions that break down complex organic compounds into
smaller ones, with the net release of energy.
1) Aerobic Catabolism à in the presence of oxygen
2) Anaerobic Catabolism à no in the presence of oxygen

3.2.2 State what glycogen is and its major storage sites (AO1)
Glycogen = polysaccharide of glucose
Glycogen is the stored form of extra glucose in the body

Glycogen is stored in the liver and skeletal muscle

3.2.3 State the major sites of triglyceride storage (AO1)

Triglycerides are stored in Adipose tissue and skeletal muscle
3.2.4 Explain the role of insulin in the formation of glycogen and
the accumulation of body fat (AO3)

Insulin is a hormone secreted by the beta cells of the pancreas in response to elevated
blood glucose concentration (glycaemia) – insulin decreases blood glucose concentrations

® The ingestion of carbohydrates causes blood glucose levels to rise, which triggers
insulin to be released from the pancreas
® Diets high in sugar and fat elevate blood glucose concentration, resulting in a high
release of insulin
® Signals when one is well fed, causing liver and muscle cells to take in glucose and
store it in the form of glycogen

Insulin stimulates the uptake of glucose and fatty acids

® Anabolism of glucose to glycogen (glycogenesis)
® Anabolism of free fatty acids to triglycerides (lipogenesis)

Insulin binds to binding sites in the liver and skeletal muscle cells which causes glucose
transporters (GLUT4) to translocate to the cell wall
® Glucose binds to GLUT4 which releases the glucose into the cell which is stored as
glycogen
® When glycogen stores are full, glucose is converted into triglycerides which are
stored in lipid storage sites (ACCUMULATION OF FAT)

Insulin also stimulates the storage of triglycerides (lipids) in the adipose tissue

This stimulates glycogenesis and also inhibits lipolysis

3.2.5 Outline glycogenolysis and lipolysis (AO2)

Glycogenolysis – Catabolic process of the breakdown of glycogen to glucose
® Releases glucose into the blood stream
® Glycogenolysis stimulated by two hormones:
o Glucagon secreted from the pancreas
o Epinephrine/adrenaline released from adrenal glands
Lipolysis – catabolic process of breaking down triglycerides into free fatty acids
® Releases fatty acids into the blood stream
® Also stimulated by glucagon and adrenalin
® Hydrolysis reaction breaks down triglycerides into a glycerol skeleton and 3 fatty
acids
® Free fatty acids can be broken down in the mitochondria to provide energy as ATP
through the process of beta-oxidation

3.2.6 Outline the functions of glucagon and adrenaline during fasting

and exercise (AO2)
Insulin and glucagon are antagonistic hormones that regulate the blood glucose
concentration

Glucagon – is a hormone secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas

During Fasting, blood glucose levels may fall

® Receptors in the pancreas detects this, where alpha cells will secrete glucagon
® Glucagon then stimulates the catabolism of glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) to
increase blood glucose levels
o Glucose will continue to be liberated until glycaemic homeostasis is achieved
® Glucagon inhibits glycogenesis and lipogenesis
® STIMULATES LIPOLYSIS
® Promotes the conversion of non-carbohydrate sources into glucose for the muscles
e.g. fats and protein (STIMULATES GLUCONEOGENESIS)
® Adrenaline is also secreted during fasting

Adrenalin – stimulates the liver and skeletal muscles to convert stored glycogen into
glucose
During exercise, the brain becomes excited and aroused and as a result, releases
adrenaline from adrenal glands
 ® Adrenalin is also a hormone that stimulates glycogenolysis à also to boost fat
metabolism
® Glucagon is also secreted during exercise to maintain exercise capacity

During Exercise During Fasting

Blood glucose levels need to be maintained Needs to be enough glucose in blood

stream, as there will have been little or no
ingestion of carbohydrates

3.2.7 Explain the role of insulin and muscle contraction on glucose

uptake during exercise (AO3)

Insulin and muscle contraction stimulate the uptake of oxygen.

Insulin is secreted in response to high blood glucose levels and lowers the blood glucose
level of the body.
During exercise: blood glucose drops à secretion of glucagon
During Exercise: Pancreas limits insulin secretion and muscular contraction is used
1. Insulin attaches to skeletal muscle cell binding sites, causing GLUT4 to translocate
from the cytosol to the cell membrane
2. Glucose is then extracted from the blood by glucose transporters and absorbed into
the cell to be used by the muscle

® Muscle contraction also stimulates the translocation of GLUT4 to the cell wall
® Insulin concentrations tend to decline
® Muscle contraction increases

The ability of insulin to bind to its receptors on a muscle cells increases during exercise
® due to increase blood flow to the muscles

*Increasing exercise intensity, means more powerful contractions = increased muscle

glucose uptake
 3.3 Nutrition and Energy Systems
3.3.1 Annotate a diagram of the Ultrastructure of a generalised
Animal Cell (AO2)

Ribosomes – Make protein

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum – Holds ribosomes, produce proteins
Lysosomes – Digestion, assembly of protein
Golgi Apparatus (Body) – Processes proteins and fats for secretion
Mitochondria – Produce energy, site of cellular respiration, powerhouse of the cell
Nucleus – Stores DNA, controls cell growth and reproduction, contains protons and
neutrons
3.3.2 Annotate a diagram of the Ultrastructure of a Mitochondrion
(AO2)

Cristae – Allows better ATP production + more surface area

Inner Matrix – Contains the matrix of the mitochondria for energy processes to transpire
Outer Smooth Membrane – Separates the inside of the organelle from the rest of the cell

3.3.3 define the term Cell Respiration (AO1)

Cell Respiration is the controlled release of energy in the form of ATP from organic
compounds in cells
3.3.4 Explain how Adenosine can gain and lose a phosphate molecule
(AO3)
Adenosine and phosphate are compounds that make up Adenosine Diphosphate (ADP) and
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) à the energy currency of the cell
ATP = adenosine + 3 phosphates

Gain Phosphate Molecule (Phosphorylation)

Phosphorylation à the addition of an inorganic phosphate to ADP to make ATP
Body has 3 Mechanisms in which phosphorylation can occur
1) Alactic Anaerobic (ATP-CP) System à Up to 10 seconds
2) Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic glycolysis) à Up to 45 seconds
3) Aerobic System (Aerobic glycolysis / Krebs cycle) à Endless
ATP is broken down into ADP after a muscle contraction
® As a result of this, a phosphate molecule is released
® This free molecule can be combined with an ADP molecule for the resynthesis of ATP

Lose Phosphate Molecule (Dephosphorylation)

ATP loses its endmost phosphate molecule (through a hydrolysis reaction) in the presence
of an enzyme
® As a result of this (reaction):
o The bond between phosphates are broken
o A substantial amount of energy is released
o ATP molecule becomes ADP
3.3.5 Explain the role of ATP in Muscle Contraction (AO3)
Energy is released when ATP breaks down to ADP releasing a phosphate molecule through a
hydrolysis reaction
® This reaction provides substantial amount of energy which is needed for muscle
contraction

1. ATP attaches to myosin head and is hydrolysed

2. The release of energy goes to the middle of the sarcomere
3. In the presence of ATP and calcium, myosin heads can bind to the myosin head
binding sites in the actin filament
4. Actin can pull over the myosin, shortening the sarcomere
5. After ATP is hydrolysed, ADP and P is released

6. For the process to repeat, ATP is needed

7. When muscle returns to resting state, ADP undergoes phosphorylation to reform ATP

*ATP is the only usable source of energy by the cell. ATP is present at the myosin head
*ATP is used to transfer the chemical energy needed for metabolic reactions

3.3.6 Describe the re-synthesis of ATP by the ATP-CP System (AO2)

ATP-CP System / Alactic System à is the phosphorylation of ATP by a combined reaction
and occurs in the cell cytosol
Creatine Phosphate (CP) – High energy molecule
® Broken down to provide a phosphate molecule
o This fee phosphate molecule combines with ADP for the re-synthesis of ATP
o Which was utilised in the initial stages of the exercise
*Occurs anaerobically with no lactic acid produced (Alactic)
*Can drive short duration, high intensity exercise
*Creatine Stores are very limited
 3.3.7 Describe the production of ATP by the Lactic Acid System (AO2)
Lactic Acid System / Anaerobic Glycolysis à an energy yielding process that uses glucose to
drive phosphorylation to form ATP

Glycolysis converts glucose into pyruvate acid

® When not in the presence of oxygen, pyruvate acid is converted to lactic acid (limits
ATP production to 2/3 ATP molecules per glucose molecule)
o Lactic acid decreases blood PH (more acidic) – diminishes the ability of blood
hemoglobin to carry oxygen throughout the body

*Occurs in the cytoplasm of a muscle cell

*It is a process for short duration, high/moderate intensity exercise
® Eventually causes discomfort and reduces muscle contractibility

Bi-products of anaerobic glycolysis (lactic acid system) and the aerobic energy system
Anaerobic Glycolysis / Lactic Acid Aerobic System
System

Fuel source Glycogen/glucose Glycogen, fats and proteins; glucose, lipids

and amino acids

By-products Heat/energy, hydrogen ions (lactic acid) Carbon dioxide, water and heat/energy

3.3.8 Explain the phenomena of oxygen deficit and oxygen debt (AO3)
Oxygen deficit:
Oxygen deficit à Difference between oxygen required for given rate of work and oxygen
actually consumed
1) When exercise begins abruptly. Muscle requirement for oxygen is larger than oxygen
supply à there is an oxygen deficit
2) Oxygen Transport System not immediately able to supple needed quantity of
oxygen to the active muscles
3) Requires several minutes before homeostasis level is reached which is when
Aerobic System will be fully functioning
4) Regardless of insufficient oxygen, muscles still generate ATP needed through
anaerobic pathways
*Trained athlete gets to steady state quicker than untrained
 ® Their oxygen deficit would be smaller
*Oxygen is used to perform cell respiration to generate energy
*Typically occurs when body commenced exercises as there is a high demand for oxygen
® Oxygen intake rises

Oxygen Debt:
Known as Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Consumption (EPOC)
® Occurs after exercise has ceased
® Represents the elevation of the metabolic rate above resting values
*Even though the muscles are no longer actively working, oxygen demand does not
immediately decrease

Body requires oxygen in large amounts after exercise in order to recover and allow muscle
to fully operate through
1) Replacement of ATP
2) Removal of Lactic Acid
3) Replenishment of Muscle Myoglobin with Oxygen

2 Components of EPOC are:

1) Alactic Oxygen Debt (rapid) à restore ATP and PC
2) Lactacid Oxygen Debt (slow) à remove accumulated lactic acid from muscle cells
and blood

3.3.9 Describe the production of ATP from Glucose and Fatty Acids by
the Aerobic System (AO2)
ATP can undergo phosphorylation through chemical reactions that can only occur in the
presence of oxygen and in the mitochondria.

Glucose:
Glucose is initially used to drive aerobic glycolysis
® Produces 4ATP, Pyruvate, NADH, FADH and H+ ions
o In the presence of oxygen, pyruvate is processed by the Krebs Cycle which liberates
electrons tha are passed through the Electron Transport Chain (ETC) à Producing
energy (ATP)
 o Positively charges ions and negatively charged electron shuttle through the
ETC and interact with each other giving off high energy throughout to drive
phosphorylation
*Results in 36-38 ATP molecules and water from ONE molecule of glucose

Fatty Acids:
Fatty acids can also be used
® Fatty acids are oxidised in a process called Beta Oxidation
® Fatty acids are broken down (into Acetyl CoA) and liberates a great number of
electrons (that can go through the ETC)
® Produces around 129 molecules of ATP per molecule of fatty acid

*In extreme cases, some amino acids can be converted into pyruvate

3.3.10 Discuss the Characteristics of the Three Energy Systems

and their relative contributions during exercise (AO3)
(FATBIRD)
ATP-CP System (Anaerobic)
Fuel source: Creatine Phosphate
Duration: 10-12 seconds (shortest)
Intensity: 95% intensity (highest)
Amount of ATP produced: 1 molecule for each CP (1:1)
By-Products: None/no waste products
Energy Types: Weight lifting, sprinting
Recovery: 30seconds – 2min

Lactic Acid System (Anaerobic Glycolysis)

Fuel source: Glucose
Duration: 30-45 seconds (Short)
Intensity: 85-95% (high)
Amount of ATP produced: 1 glucose = 2 ATP (1:2)
By-Products: Lactic Acid
Energy Types: 400m run, 200m swim
Recovery: 30-60 minutes (thorough warm down will assist in lactate removal)

Aerobic System (Aerobic Glycolysis)

Fuel source: Carbohydrates (Glucose) and Lipids (Fat à for extreme conditions)
Duration: Virtually unlimited, depending on intensity (until glucose stores deplete) (long)
Intensity: (Low)
Amount of ATP produced: 1 glucose = 38 ATP molecules / 1 Fatty molecule = 130 ATP
molecules
By-Products: Pyruvate, Water, NADH, CO2, Heat
Energy Types: Marathon, road cycling
Recovery: 12-48 hours

3.3.11 Evaluate the Relative Contributions of the Three Energy

Systems during different types of Exercise (AO3)
Energy Continuum:
Endurance Athlete à Mostly Aerobic
Games Player à Both Aerobic and Anaerobic
Sprint à Mostly Anaerobic

*Contributions of the energy systems will be determined by the individual’s fitness level

Endurance Athlete
3km run/marathon:
® Race strategy: more effort in first and last 100m than the rest of the race
o At these times, athlete relies on the Lactic Acid and the ATP-CP Systems to
produce energy
o During rest of race, athlete relies on aerobic glycolysis

Games Player
Rugby/Football:
® ATP-CP System and Lactic Acid System are used for the short sprints and dashes
when chasing the ball
® Aerobic System used for the continuous movement around the field
o Recovery of the ATP-CP System may occur

***Contributions of the energy systems will be determined by the skill and fitness of the
athlete / breaks in play / pace of the game

Sprinter
100m run/Throw:
® Approx. 100 % of energy comes from ATP-CP system
o The only energy system used
® Event only lasts around 10 seconds – very explosive event
*Can only be achieved by the fast-metabolic processes of the lactic Acid System and the PCr
 Topic 4: Movement Analysis

4.1 Neuromuscular Function

4.1.1 Label a diagram of a motor unit (AO1)

Dendrite:
® Responsible for carrying an impulse towards the cell body
® Main apparatus for receiving signals from other nerve cells – covered by synapses

Cell Body (Soma):

® Factory or neuron, produces proteins for dendrites, axons and synaptic terminals,
contains mitochondria

Nucleus:
® Brain of the cell, contains info to manufacture and operate cell

Axon:
® Conducting unit of neuron, carries electric action potential away from cell body to
muscle, is wrapped by a myelin sheath to protect and insulate axon – made of
Schwann cells – contains gaps between cells called ‘nodes of Ranvier’

Motor End Plate:

 ® Responsible for connecting a motor neuron to voluntary muscle fibres
® Axon terminal bulb (pre-synaptic bulb)

4.1.2 Explain the role of neurotransmitters in stimulating skeletal

muscle contraction (AO3)
Neurotransmitters
® Chemicals used to stimulate action potential for muscle contraction
® Used to communicate between the synapse and another cell

Acetylcholine à Primary neurotransmitter that innervates skeletal muscle

1) Impulses travel in axon towards muscle
2) Neurotransmitters are released into synapse at the motor end plate
3) Muscle fibres are innervated by neurotransmitters
4) Neurotransmitters are broken down to prevent continual firing

Cholinesterase à an enzyme that catalyses the hydrolysis of acetylcholine to choline and

acetic acid (acetylcholine à choline + acetic acid)
® Clears the synapse for the next impulse
® Allows relaxation of the muscle

4.1.3 Explain how skeletal muscle contracts by the sliding filament

theory (AO3)
Sliding filament theory is the phenomenon that explains the concept of muscular contraction
in the myofibril of skeletal muscle by the interaction with the two myofilaments: actin and
myosin.

1) Brain sends action potential/nerve impulses through nervous system that reaches
the motor end plate of motor neuron, where the synapse releases acetylcholine
® Action potential exists in the form of predominantly sodium ions (Na+)
2) Acetylcholine allows an influx of sodium into muscle cell
3) Muscle cell becomes depolarised, causing sarcoplasmic reticulum to release calcium
4) Calcium ions travel through t-tubules of the sarcomere
5) Calcium binds to troponin, causing a conformational change in tropomyosin
 ® Exposes myosin head binding sites on the actin filament
® Allows myosin heads to attach to actin in the presence of ATP
6) ATP is hydrolysed (broken down) releasing energy enabling actin filaments to pull
myosin head inwards (‘Power Stroke’), shortening sarcomere, H-Zone and Z-lines
® A-Bands remains same length
® Muscle shortens due to the shortening of the sarcomere
7) Immediately after, myosin head detaches from actin and another ATP binds to myosin
head
® ATP is hydrolysed again to reactivate myosin head into cocked position
8) This process is repeated until calcium concentrations are weakened/ATP is depleted,
and tropomyosin returns to covering myosin head binding sites

*repeated attachments and power strokes cause the filaments to contract/slide against each
other
Pg 46
Simplified Process
1) Depolarisation of motor end plate, stimulation of AP
2) Calcium ions from Sarcoplasmic Reticulum
3) Calcium binds to troponin, moves tropomyosin
4) Myosin binding sites on actin are exposed
5) ATP attaches to myosin head, Actin and Myosin bond
6) ATP hydrolysed, releases energy, ‘POWER STROKE’
7) Another ATP attached to myosin head, Myosin detaches, reattaches
8) Z-lines and H-band shorten with repeated strokes, A-band remains same
9) Depletion of ATP and calcium ions, tropomyosin returns and covers binding sites,
contraction can no longer occur

Key terms:
Myofibril à Basic unit of muscle, tubular cells that make up a single muscle fibre

Myofilament à Filaments (chain of proteins) of myofibrils found in sarcomere

Sarcomere à Basic contractile unit of myofibril between two adjacent Z-lines

H-Zone à H-band is the zone of the thick filaments that is not superimposed (overlapped)
by the thin filaments. It eventually disappears

A-Band à Entire length of a single myosin (thick) filament, remains the same during
contraction
Z-Line à Anchoring point of actin filaments at either end of the sarcomere

4.1.4 Explain how slow and fast twitch fibre types differ in structure
and function (AO3)
Type I: Slow Oxidative / Slow Twitch
® Red – high myoglobin content
® More mitochondria
® Low glycogen content
® Predominantly aerobic metabolism
® Greater capillary to volume ratio
 ® Endurance – slow ATP production
® Slow fatigue
® E.g. marathon runners have more type I fibres

Type II: Fast Twitch

® White – less myoglobin
® Fewer mitochondria
® Quicker metabolism of ATP
® Lower capillary to volume ratio
® More likely to accumulate lactic acid
® More powerful, shorter contractions
® Quick fatigue
® Anaerobic fuel
® Store high amounts of glycogen

Type IIa Type IIb

® Fast twitch (fatigue resistant) ® Glycolytic
® Oxidative/glycolytic ® Fast twitch
® Fast neural transmission ® Fastest neural transmission
® Slightly lower intensities than IIb ® Fatigue quickly
® Poor capillary supply
® Greater glycogen and ATP stores

4.2 Joint and Movement Type

4.2.1 Outline the types of movement of Synovial Joints (AO2)

1) Flexion / Extension
Flexion
® Closing of angle between two parts, forwards and backwards in the anterior
direction
® E.g. closing of the elbow in bicep curl
Extension
® Straightening movement, increasing the angle between two parts (posterior
direction)
® E.g. bringing the weight back down from bicep curl
2) Abduction / Adduction *motions in the frontal plane*
Abduction
® Motion that pulls a structure away from the midline of the body
® E.g. raising arms laterally moves hand away from the body
Adduction
® Motion that pulls a structure toward the midline of the body (adding to width of the
body)
® E.g. lowering arms back down to the midline

3) Pronation / Supination
Pronation
® The movement of a body part from an anterior-facing position to a posterior-facing
position
® E.g. movement of upward facing palm to downwards facing
Supination
® The movement of a body part from the posterior-facing position to an anterior-
facing position
® E.g. movement of downward facing palm to upwards facing

4) Elevation / Depression
Elevation
® The movement of body structure in a superior direction
® E.g. shrugging the shoulders, lifting the scapulae
Depression
® The movement of body structures in an inferior direction
® E.g. downward movement of scapula / lowering shoulders

5) Rotation / Circumduction
Rotation
® Movement in which a body part rotates on its own axis
® E.g. shaking of the head
Circumduction
® The circular movement of a joint combining all previous movements
® i.e. the movement of the distal end of a body part in a circle
® e.g. windmilling of the arms

6) Inversion / Eversion
Inversion
® Rotation of a joint towards the medial plane
 ® E.g. rolling the sole of the foot inwards facing
Eversion
® Rotation of a joint away from the medial plane
® E.g. rolling the sole of the foot outwards facing

7) Dorsiflexion / Plantar-flexion
Dorsiflexion
® Flexion upwards on the sagittal plane
® E.g. taking foot off accelerator
Plantar-flexion
® Extension downwards on the sagittal plane
® E.g. pressing foot down on the accelerator

Planes of the body

Frontal à cuts body from front to back
Sagittal / Medial à cuts body left to right
Vertical à cuts body top to bottom

4.2.2 Outline the types of muscle contraction (AO2)

Isotonic Contraction: an increase in load/tension results in changes of skeletal muscle
length i.e. lengthening or shortening of the muscle

Two types of isotonic contraction

1. Concentric contractions (‘c’ for contract): muscle actions that produce force to
overcome the load being acted upon
® Referred to as ‘positive work’
® Shortening contraction, typically against gravity
® E.g. lifting phase of bicep curl
2. Eccentric Contractions (‘e’ for extend): muscle action in which muscle force yields to
the imposed work
® Referred to as ‘negative work’
® Lengthening contraction, typically occurs with gravity
® E.g. descending phase of bicep curl
® “Still contracted”

Isometric Contraction: muscle length remains constant

® Muscle force balances resistance and no joint movement occurs
® Joint angle remains constant due to internal movement processes
 ® E.g. carrying shopping bags

Isokinetic Contraction: muscle changes length but produces movements of constant speed
and velocity with full range of movement
® As muscle shortens, resistance increases to maintain constant tension at all joint
angles à leads to muscle fatigue
® May be used for rehabilitation with the use of equipment
® E.g. knee brace

4.2.3 Explain the concept of reciprocal inhibition (AO3)

Reciprocal inhibition à refers to the process of muscles on one side of a joint relaxing to
accommodate contraction on the other side of that joint
® Ensures that the agonist is not being opposed by any muscle torque acting in the
opposite direction
® Is an automatic action controlled by neurons
® When agonist motor neuron is stimulated, the antagonist motoneuron is inhibited
(relaxed)
® Is a safeguard against injury
® E.g. biceps contraction and triceps inhibition

Muscles Involved:
Agonist (mover) à dominant mover muscle that moves / contracts concentrically
(shortens) to move a bone relative to the joint
® Muscle torque (force) is greater than resistance torque
® E.g. In a bicep curl, the biceps brachii are the agonist
® E.g. the triceps brachii in a basketball shot

Antagonist à the muscle is opposing and relaxes to allow for contraction of the agonist
® Acts in opposite direction to its concentric function
® Usually the muscle that is on the opposite side of the joint from the agonist
® E.g. in bicep curl, triceps brachii are the antagonist to the biceps
® E.g. biceps brachii in a basketball shot

Fixator (stabiliser) à stabilising muscle that eliminates unwanted movement at the

agonist’s origin

Synergist (neutraliser) à muscles that contract isometrically to prevent unwanted actions

of the agonists or the antagonists
4.2.4 Analyse movements in relation to joint action and muscle
contraction (AO3)
Examples:
1) Upward motion of a supinated bicep curl
o Joint action is flexion. The bicep contracts concentrically while the triceps relaxes
eccentrically
2) Upward phase of a squat
o Joint action is extension of the knees and hips. The quadriceps contract
concentrically (shorten)
o During downward phase, quadriceps contract eccentrically
o If stop and hold, quadriceps contract isometrically

Muscle Actions
Agonist Antagonist
Biceps Triceps
Deltoids Latissimus Dorsi
Pectoralis Major Trapezius / Rhomboids
Rectus abdominus Erector Spinae
Iliopsoas Gluteus Maximus
Quadriceps Hamstrings
Hip Abductor Gluteus Medius
Tibialis Anterior Gastrocnemius

Joint Actions
Joint Action Movement Description Example
Flexion Decreasing joint angle Biceps curl
Extension Increasing joint angle Triceps extension
Abduction Movement away from body Lateral raises (deltoids)
centreline
Adduction Movement toward body Horizontal flyes (pectoralis)
centre
Rotation Rotation about an axis Twisting the arm
Circumduction 360-degree rotation Arm circle around
4.2.5 Explain delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) in relation to
eccentric and concentric muscle contractions (AO3)
Delayed Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS) refers to the inhibition of muscle performance
through the experience of pain after a bout of exercise
® Usually occurs/felt 24 – 72 hours after high intensity eccentrically contracting
exercise
o The mechanical breaking of actin-myosin bonds during eccentric contraction
® Results primarily from eccentric muscle action and is associated with:
1. Structural muscle damage
2. Inflammatory reactions in the muscle
3. Overstretching
4. Over training
® Associated with micro tears in myofilaments within sarcomere
*Felt in a change of routine, new program, increased volume or intensity
*important part of muscle hypertrophy

Prevented / Minimised by:

® Reducing eccentric component of muscle actions during early training
® Progress Slowly – Starting training at low intensity then gradually increasing intensity
® Warming up before exercise/cooling down after exercise
® Sleep
DOMS à pg. 47
 4.3 Fundamentals of Biomechanics

4.3.1 Define the terms force, speed, velocity, displacement,

acceleration, momentum and impulse (AO1)
Scalar = magnitude
Vector = magnitude and direction

Force (Vector)
® Mechanical interaction between two objects, which attempts to change the motion
of the object
® Push or pull acting on the body

Speed (Scalar)
® The rate at which something moves or operates
!"#$%&'(
® 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = )"*(

Velocity (Vector)
® Speed of an object in a given direction
!"#+,%'(*(&$
® 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = )"*(
® Needs speed, time, direction

Displacement (Vector)
® Shortest distance from the initial to the final point of movement of an object
(distance and direction)
® How far an object moves horizontally, vertically, laterally

Acceleration (Vector)
® Rate of change of velocity, including magnitude and direction
-(,.'"$/
® 𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = )"*(

Momentum (Vector)
® Amount of motion possessed by a moving object
® 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 × 𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Impulse (Vector)
® Force times time (application of force over time)
® E.g. spin for discuss throw increases impulse
4.3.2 Analyse velocity–time, distance–time and force–time graphs of
sporting actions (AO3)
Force–Time Graphs
Used to demonstrate the amount of impulse created during different sports

® A1 (First Area) represents impulse of body due to

ground reaction force (positive)
® A2 represents impulse of body landing on ground
(negative)

*As 𝐴1 > 𝐴2 there is a Net Positive Impulse

Distance–Time Graphs
® Gradient is the velocity
® Area under does not represent anything
useful

Velocity–Time Graphs

® Gradient is the acceleration

® Area under curve is displacement
4.3.3 Define the term centre of mass (AO1)
A point at which the mass of an object is balanced in all directions /
A mathematical point around which the mass of a body is evenly distributed
® For solid bodies that have a symmetrical shape, Centre of Mass is in the geometrical
centre
® COM may or may not be inside the object
® E.g. COM of a hula-hoop is within the centre of the loop

4.3.4 Explain that a change in body position during sporting activities

can change the position of the centre of mass (AO3) + pg. 73
Consider the following example:
1) While at the anatomical position, the centre of mass of a person will be somewhere
towards the middle of their body
2) While bending the knees and spreading feet slightly, the centre of mass will be
lower making balance easier
3) During the flight phase of high jump, the bending of the body places the centre of
mass below the bar therefore making it easier to rotate around the bar and clearing
the jump

Fosbury Flop
® Athlete bends body like a banana around the bar and their COM is below and
outside body / may be below bar
® Jumper using the Fosbury technique will therefore not have to raise their COM as
high as an athlete performing the scissors when clearing the same height
® Using the Fosbury technique, the jumper will be able to clear a higher bar compared
to using the scissors (all other things being equal)
4.3.5 Distinguish between first, second and third-class levers (AO2)
Lever is a rigid rod that rotates around an axis
® Includes rigid rod, fulcrum, resistance force and an effort force

® Distance at which resistance acts from fulcrum is resistance arm

® Distance at which effort acts from fulcrum is effort arm

First Class Levers

Effort force and resistance force are on opposite sides of fulcrum

® Uncommon in the body
® E.g. Neck muscles overcoming resistance force caused by weight of head
® E.g. Triceps at elbow

Second Class Levers

Effort force and resistance force on same side of fulcrum but with effort arm longer than
resistance arm
® Force further away from fulcrum than resistance
® Uncommon in the body
® E.g. calf muscle contraction to cause planter
flexion
® E.g. wheelbarrow
Third Class Levers

Effort and resistance arm on same side as fulcrum, however the resistance arm is further
from the fulcrum than the effort
® Very common in the body
® E.g. bicep curl

4.3.6 Label anatomical representations of levers (AO1)

First Class:

E.g. Triceps-elbow Joint:

Second Class:

E.g. Calf–ankle Joint:

Third Class:

E.g. Biceps–elbow Joint

4.3.7 Define Newton’s three laws of motion (AO1)
First Law (Law of Inertia)

Second Law (Law of Acceleration)

Third Law (Law of Reaction)

4.3.9/10 examples
Pg 26, 43

4.3.12
Golf ball dimples reduces aerodynamic drag
 Topic 6: Measurement and Evaluation of Human Performance

6.1 Statistical Analysis

6.1.1 Outline that error bars are a graphical representation of the

variability of data (AO2)
Error bars are a graphical representation of the spread of the data around the mean
® Important as the mean can be misleading
® Most common display of variability is standard deviation

6.1.2 Calculate the mean and standard deviation of a set of values

(AO2)
® Specify the sample standard deviation, not the population standard deviation
® Not expected to know formulas for calculating these statistics
® Use the statistics function of a graphic display calculator

6.1.3 The statistic standard deviation used to summarise the spread

of data of values around the mean (AO1)
For normally distributed data:
® About 68% of all values lie within ± 1 standard deviation of the mean
® 95% for ± 2 standard deviations
® 99% for ± 3 standard deviations

6.1.4 Explain how the standard deviation is useful for comparing the
means and the spread of data between two or more samples (AO3)
® A small standard deviation indicates that the data is clustered closely around the
mean value
® Conversely, a large standard deviation indicates a wider spread around the mean
6.1.5 Outline the meaning of coefficient of variation (AO2)
Coefficient of variation is the ratio of the standard deviation to the mean expressed as a
percentage
𝑆𝐷
𝑉= × 100%
𝑀𝑒𝑎𝑛

6.1.6 Deduce the significance of the difference between two sets of

data using calculated values for t and the appropriate tables (AO3)
T-test
® Used to compare two sets of data and deduce whether or not they’re statistically
significant
o For the test to be applied, ideally the data should have a normal distribution
and a sample size of at least 10
o Measured from 0 to 1 with < 0.05 (5%) inferring statistical significance

Unpaired
® Applied to two independent groups
® Compares the means of the two groups

Paired
® Data derived from study subjects
® Could be before/after
® Group vs. Group

Two-tailed test
® Tests the probability of the relationship in both directions

One-tailed Test
® Tests in one direction
® Completely disregard the possibility of relationship in the other direction
® Use when consequences of neglecting other direction are not ethical
6.1.7 Explain that the existence of a correlation does not establish
that there is a causal relationship between two variables (AO3)
A correlation infers that one variable is related to another à doesn’t show that one
variable caused a change in another variable
® Thus, strict controlling of variables in experiments is required
® e.g. there may be a strong negative correlation between age and speed of sprinting,
but it is impossible to say that age causes a decrease in sprinting time

6.2 Study Design

6.2.1 Outline the importance of specificity, accuracy, reliability and

validity with regard to fitness testing (AO2)
Specificity
The experiment must assess an individual’s fitness for the activity or sport in question
Are you testing something relevant to the activity?
Accuracy
Must make sure that instruments with which we measure the fitness component are
accurate, working and calibrated, allowing for precise measurements
Reliability
 Topic 7: Further anatomy (HL)

7.1 The Skin System

7.1.1 Annotate a diagram of the generalized structure of the skin

(AO2)

Include:
• epidermis
• dermis
• fat
• glands
• hair follicles

7.1.2 Describe the functions of the skin (AO2)

*skin is the largest organ in the human body
1. Regulation of body temperature
- Thermoregulation is part of homeostasis in the body
- Temperature influences how well enzymes work
o Can changes the chemical make-up of cells
When it’s too hot:
- there is increased blood flow to the skin (vasodilation)
- More sweat is produced by the sweat gland
- The evaporation of the sweat from the skin has a cooling effect
When it’s too cold:
- Vasoconstriction makes the blood stay closer to the body’s core
 o Less heat is lost
- The body is also insulated through the layer of subcutaneous fat

2. Protection and immunity

Protection:
- Production of melanin by melanocytes helps protect the body from damage by the
sun
- Keratin (tough, fibrous protein) protects underlying tissues from:
o Microbes
o Abrasion
o Chemicals
o Heat
Immunity:
- Sebum
o An oily substance that is secreted by the skin
o Contains chemicals that have the ability to destroy surface bacteria
- Phagocytes macrophages
o Found in dermis of the skin
o Ingest and destroy microbes that have penetrated skin

3. Sensation
® Detects heat, cold, touch, pain through sensory nerve endings and receptors in the
dermis
® Relays information to the nervous system

4. Excretion
® Swear glands rid the body of waste such as:
o Urea
o Uric acid from proteins
o Ammonia
® Sweat glands regulate body temperature and cools the body when overheating
® Sebaceous glands excrete sebum that acts as a:
o Water repellent
o Natural antibacterial
o Antifungal agent
*if blocked can cause acne

5. Synthesis of vitamin D
Vitamin D aids with the absorption of calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphate and zinc through
the liver and kidney

1. Vitamin D is absorbed through the UV rays from the sun

2. Epidermal cells convert the ultraviolet rays intro Vitamin D

7.2 Structure and function of the brain

7.2.1 Label the location of the principal structures of the brain

7.2.2 Label the location of the principal lobes of the cerebrum

7.2.3 Outline blood supply to the brain (AO2)

For the brain to function it requires adequate supply of oxygen and nutrients, which are
supplied through a network of blood vessels. Blood supply to the brain comes from the
aortic arch.

Brachiocephalic trunk (left and right common carotid artery)

Left and right internal and external carotid artery
Internal carotid arteries enter the skull though the carotid canals of the temporal bones,
delivering BLOOD to the brain.
Internal carotids supply the arteries of the anterior half of the cerebellum – 80% to the
brain.
Internal carotid arteries ascend into 3 branches:
1) An ophthalmic artery à supplies the eyes
2) An anterior cerebral artery à supplies the frontal and parietal lobes of the brain
3) A middle cerebral artery à supplies the mesencephalon and lateral surfaces of the
cerebral hemisphere
THE EXTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY flows upward on the side of the head to branch into
various structures in the neck, face, jaw, scalp, and base of the skull.
THE INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY enters the skull and supplies the anterior part of the brain
(via cerebral branches), the eye and its appendages, and sends branches to the forehead
and nose.

Left and right Vertebral Arteries arise from the subclavian arteries – 20% to the brain
® Sends blood to the posterior portion of the brain
® Vertebral arteries and the basilar artery supply blood to the spinal cord, medulla
oblongata, pons and cerebellum

Posterior Communicating Artery (Circle of Willis)

® Can change à internal carotids and the basilar artery are interconnected on a
CIRCLE OF WILLIS
® This arrangement allows the brain to receive blood from either the carotid or the
vertebral arteries
o Chances of a serious interruption of circulation are reduced

The blood brain barrier

Blood brain barrier is a network of blood vessels that allows the entry of essential nutrients
into the brain while blocking other substances.

The blood-brain barrier helps block harmful substances, such as toxins and bacteria from
entering the brain.
What is necessary (School’s notes)

1) Right and left common Carotid artery (anterior portion of the brain)
2) Right and left vertebral arteries (posterior portion of the brain)
3) Vertebral arteries come together to form the Basilar Artery (posterior portion of the
brain)
4) Right internal and external carotid artery
5) Left internal and external carotid artery
6) Anterior and Posterior Cerebral Artery
7) Posterior Communicating Artery (Circle of Bruce Willis)

Blood supply to the brain comes from the aortic arch.

Right side

The Brachiocephalic trunk originates in the aorta and leads into the right carotid artery. This
splits into the right internal carotid artery and right external carotid artery.

Left side

Left carotid artery originates from the aorta. This splits into the left internal carotid artery
and left external carotid artery.

The external carotid artery flows upward on the side of the head to branch into various
structures in the neck, face, jaw, scalp, and base of the skull.

The internal carotid artery enters the skull and supplies the anterior part of the brain (via
cerebral branches), the eye and its appendages, and sends branches to the forehead and
nose.

7.2.4 Describe the principal source of energy for brain cells (AO2)

The brain obtains energy using glucose and oxygen, which pass rapidly from the blood to
the brain cells
® Glucose and oxygen are used to makes ATP inside the brain by the process of
aerobic respiration
® Carbohydrate storage in the brain is limited, so the supply of glucose must be
continuous
® If blood entering the brain has low glucose or oxygen levels, it can cause: Mental
confusion, dizziness, convulsions, loss of consciousness

The largest proportion of energy in the brain is consumed for neuronal computation and
information processing
e.g. The generation of action potentials and postsynaptic potentials generated after synaptic
events

Glucose metabolism provides the energy and precursors for the biosynthesis of
neurotransmitters

Dependence of the brain on glucose as its obligatory fuel derives mainly from the BBB

Glucose cannot be replaced as an energy source, but it can be supplemented

e.g. During strenuous physical activity when blood lactate levels are elevated

7.2.5 Explain the function of the principal parts of the brain (AO3)
Include brain stem, diencephalon, cerebrum and cerebellum.
® Brain stem— Regulates vital body functions such as cardiac and respiratory
functions and acts as a vehicle for sensory information.
o It is the control center for the regulation of cardiac and respiratory function,
consciousness and sleep cycle.
® Diencephalon made up of 4 components (but only 2 is necessary to know)
o Thalamus—perception of sensations (pain, temperature, pressure);
cognition.
o Hypothalamus—control of autonomic nervous system (ANS), heart rate and
blood pressure, pituitary gland, body temperature, appetite, thirst, fluid and
electrolyte balance, circadian rhythms.
Link to topic 8: The endocrine system, pineal gland.
® Cerebrum—responsible for high-level brain functions such as thinking, language and
emotion, and motivation. The function is divided into three broad processes.
1. sensory (receiving sensory impulses)
2. association (interpreting and storing input, and initiating a response)
3. motor (transmitting impulses to effectors).
Within the cerebrum there are 5 lobes:
Although the lobes do not function independently, each lobe is associated with certain
aspects of the following processes.
® Frontal lobe—many aspects of association such as reasoning and motivation,
planning, emotions and problem-solving. Also contains the speech and movement
motor areas.
® Parietal lobe—somatic sensory and motor areas linked to movement, body
awareness, orientation and navigation. Also contains symbolic and speech
association areas.
® Occipital lobe—visual sensory and association centre.
 ® Temporal lobe—auditory sensory and association area; many aspects of long-term
and visual memory.
® Limbic lobe concerned with association processes such as emotion, behaviour,
motivation and long-term memory.
Cerebellum
® Helps to smooth and coordinate sequences of skeletal muscle contractions.
® Regulates posture and balance.
® Makes possible all skilled motor activities, from catching a ball to dancing.
 Topic 8: The Endocrine System (HL)

8.1.1 Label the location of the major endocrine organs in the human
body (AO1)

Hypothalamus (above pituitary gland)

® Releases hormones
® Regulates body temperature

Pituitary gland (tiny gland at the base of the brain)

® Master gland
 ® Produces hormones, directs processes or stimulates other glands to produce other
hormones
® Releases its own ‘stimulating’ hormones to change hormone production

Pineal gland
® Produces melatonin – helps maintain circadian rhythm (sleep cycle)

Thyroid gland (below larynx – Adams apple)

® Releases hormones to regulate metabolic processes i.e. growth and energy
expenditure
® Required for metabolism and body homeostasis

Adrenal glands
® Produce hormones i.e. adrenaline, steroids, cortisol, aldosterone

Pancreas
® Converts food we eat into fuel for the body’s cells. Two main functions:
o Exocrine function that helps digestion
o Endocrine function that regulates blood sugar

Ovaries
® Produce the reproductive hormones oestrogen and progesterone
Testes
® Produce gametes (sperm) and secrete hormones à Testosterone

8.1.2 Describe the role of circulating (blood) and local hormones (AO2)

Hormones are excreted into the blood (extracellular fluid) to regulate and coordinated a
range of bodily functions e.g. growth, reproduction, control of metabolic processes, sexual
attributes and even personality traits
® Hormones act as chemical messengers to body organs, stimulating certain life
processes and retarding others
® Release of most hormones occurs in short bursts, although some are secreted over
longer periods of time in order to stimulate permanent changes to the body
o (regulation of short-term or long-term bodily functions)
® Hormones usually affect specific target cells by (chemically) binding to specific
receptors that bind and recognise that hormone
Circulating Hormones à Majority of endocrine hormones
® Travel around the body in the blood to act on distant target cells
® Pass from secretory cells that make them into interstitial fluid and then into the
blood
Local Hormones
® Act on neighbouring cells (paracrine) OR on the same cells that produced them
(autocrine) without entering the bloodstream and are usually inactivated quickly

8.1.3 Explain how circulating hormone levels are regulated (AO3)

Circulating hormone levels are regulated through complex feedback loops – maintains
optimal levels of each hormone in the body
® When a stimulus elicits the release of a substance, the substance reaches a certain
level where it sends a signal that inhibits further secretion of the substance
(homeostatic balance)
® Controlled by positive feedback (increase its own production) and mostly by
negative feedback loops (decrease)

à This may be influenced by:

o Neural stimuli – signals from the nervous system
o Humoral stimuli – chemical changes in the blood
o Other hormones – such as growth hormone
Neural Stimuli à the nervous system directly stimulates endocrine glands to release
hormones
® E.g. stress response facilitated by the stimulation of the adrenal glands to release
neural stimuli (Adrenaline and noradrenaline) by the sympathetic nervous system
(SNS)
Humoral Stimuli à the control of hormone release in response to changes in extracellular
fluids (changed ion and nutrient concentration in the blood) - insulin
® E.g. a rise in blood glucose concentrations stimulates the release of insulin from the
pancreas
8.1.4 Explain the relationship between the hypothalamus and the
pituitary gland (A03)

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland control the endocrine system. The hormones they
release control the secretions of the other endocrine glands and all major internal functions.

The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are together responsible for homeostasis.
® The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland (which is also called the hypophysis) are
part of the diencephalon region of the brain.
o The hypothalamus is the part of the brain that controls the pituitary gland.
® The pituitary gland is an endocrine gland located in the brain below the
hypothalamus.
® Neurohormones, such as GHRH and somatostatin from the hypothalamus, directly
influence the pituitary gland.
® Nerve impulses from the hypothalamus also stimulate the pituitary gland.

Axons from the hypothalamus reach into the posterior pituitary where they release two
hormones, oxytocin (OXT) and Antidiuretic hormone (ADH), for storage and later secretion
by the pituitary gland.
® The pituitary gland secretes ADH and growth hormone (GH) which help regulate a
wide range of bodily functions including growth, and water and temperature
regulation.
 Option D: Nutrition for Sport, Exercise and Health

D.1 Digestion and Absorption

D.1.1 Outline the features of the principal components of the

digestive system (AO2)

Mouth
Mechanical Digestion
® Begins in the mouth by chewing/mastication
® Large pieces of food are broken down into smaller particles to be acted upon by
various enzymes
Chemical Digestion
® Complex molecules catalysed into smaller ones by chemical digestion to be absorbed
and utilised by cells
o Uses water (hydrolysis) and digestive enzymes

Oesophagus
® Peristalsis action: Series of wave like muscle contractions that moves food in the
oesophagus and to the stomach
® Organ of vertebrates consists of a muscular tube that food passes through from
mouth to stomach
® Lined with mucous membrane

Stomach
Rugae, Lumen, Mucous Coating
Hollow muscular organ with inner layer and expandable folds
® Muscular contractions grind bolus (chewed food) to smaller parts (chyme)
Rugae
® Folds of stomach formed by submucosa and mucosa
® Serves to accommodate filling and expanding of stomach
® Prominent in the lower, narrow region of the stomach
Lumen
® Hollow space
® From lumen, there are 4 outer layers (inside to out)
o Mucosa
o Submucosa
 o Muscularis
o Outer connecting covering (adventitia)
Mucous Coating
® Lining of the digestive tract
® Consists of epithelial tissue resting upon layer of connective tissue
® Provides role in protection, secretion of mucous/digestive juices for absorption of
nutrients

Small Intestine
Absorption of Macronutrients (by diffusion or active transport)
Small intestine walls have wrinkled appearance à covered by hair-like structures called Villi
® Villi: increase surface area of small intestine for digestion and absorption of nutrients
® Further expanded by Microvilli
Split into 3 parts
1) Duodenum (upper)
2) Jejunum (middle)
3) Ileum (lower)
® Duodenum continues chemical digestion through mixing chyme with digestive fluids
from pancreas and liver
® Absorption is carried on in the Jejunum and the Ileum, where nutrients enter
bloodstream
® Transports undigested food and unabsorbed nutrients to large intestine

Large Intestine
Main Functions:
à Water balance
à Vitamin Absorption
® Absorption of sodium and water from the remaining indigestible food matter
® Sodium is absorbed by active transport and water follows by osmosis

Pancreas
Production of enzymes
® Secretes pancreatic fluid
® Protects wall of small intestine by producing mixture of digestive enzymes and fluids
that neutralise the corrosive effect of the gastric acid that enters the upper small
intestine with chyme
® Produces specialised enzymes for the digestion and breakdown of proteins, fats, and
carbohydrates (macronutrients)
Liver
Production and secretion of bile for digestion into the small intestine
® Bile digests fat
® Production of lymph for transport of fat

Gall bladder
Storage of Bile
® A hormone secreted by intestinal mucosa in presence of fat causing the release of
bile

D.1.2 State the typical pH values found throughout the digestive

system (AO1)
Mouth (Salivary fluid): 5.5 – 7.5
Stomach: 1.0 to less than 4.0
Small Intestine: 6.0 – 8.0
D.1.3 Describe the function of enzymes in the context of
macronutrient digestion (AO2)
Enzymes are catalysts in the breakdown of macronutrients that are otherwise very slow

® Works by providing an alternative reaction pathway to the reaction product

o Provides lower activation energy and thus faster rate of reaction
® Enzymes are proteins themselves à activity is highest under optimum conditions
of temperature and pH
o This environment is provided by the digestive tract
® Each reaction requires a specific enzyme
® Duodenum in small intestine is critical in balancing pH

D.1.4 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion (AO3)

Enzymes are proteins that catalyse biochemical reactions
® Are essential in speeding up digestion which would otherwise take too long

Digestive enzymes are in the alimentary canal that breaks down food into smaller
substances so that the organism can absorb it.
® Main sites of action:
o Oral cavity
o Stomach
o Duodenum
o Jejunum
® Secreted and produced by different sites in the body:
o Pancreas
o Stomach
o Small intestine
o Salivary glands (mouth)

*Enzymes are secreted in an inactive form and are activated at the site of function to
protect the secretion organs from damage by pre-enzymatic action.

Work in an optimal pH and temperature range

*Able to increase the rate of digestion whilst maintaining body temperature
D.1.5 List the enzymes that are responsible for the digestion of carbohydrates,
fats and proteins from the mouth to the small intestine (AO1)
Carbohydrates:
® Salivary amylase (oral cavity)
® Pancreatic amylase (small intestine)

Fats:
® Pancreatic lipase (small intestine)
® Bile àproduced by the liver and is involved in the digestion of fats (small intestine)

Proteins:
® Pepsin (Stomach)
® Trypsin (Small intestine)

D.1.6 Describe the absorption of glucose, amino acids and fatty acids
from the intestinal lumen to the capillary network (AO2)
Glucose, fatty acids and amino acids cross the brush-border membrane, pass through the
cytosol of the absorptive cell and cross the basolateral membrane before entering the
capillary network (glucose and amino acids) or the lymphatic system (fats).

Glucose:
® Absorbed as monosaccharides
® Absorbed in the small intestine
® Is transported into epithelial cells of the villi by active transport
® Crosses the brush-border membrane, and passes through the cytosol of the
absorptive cell
o After absorption, glucose is transported out of epithelial cells, crossing the
basolateral membrane before entering the capillary network

Amino Acids: *refer to paragraph 1*

Fatty Acids:
® Digested through the process of emulsification
® (same as glucose and amino acids) However, enters the lymphatic system
® Chylomicrons transport triglycerides into the bloodstream
 D.2 Water and Electrolyte Balance

D.2.1 State the reasons why humans cannot live without water for a
prolonged period of time (AO1)
Water:
® Is the basic substance for all metabolic processes in the body
® Regulates body temperature
® Enables transport of substances essential for growth
® Allows for the exchange of nutrients and metabolic end products

D.2.2 State where extracellular fluid can be located throughout the

body (AO1)
Extracellular fluid includes
® Blood plasma and lymph
® Saliva
® Fluid in eyes
® Fluid secreted by glands and digestive tract
® Fluid surrounding nerves and spinal cord
® Fluid secreted from skin and kidneys
*Intracellular fluid is contained within a cell

D.2.3 Compare water distribution in trained and untrained

individuals (AO3)
*Water comprises approx. 60-70% of an average person’s body weight
Trained:
Trained individuals will have a greater water content in their body both intra and
extracellularly
® Muscle tissue is 70-75% water
o Trained have more muscle mass, therefore they have more water
o More muscle tissue = more glycogen (2-3 grams of water within 1 unit of
glycogen à more water)
 ® Athletes must maintain normal body temperature and normal blood volume more
frequently due to exercise à using more water
® Improved temperature regulatory processes
Untrained:
® Fat tissue is only 10% water
o Untrained person has less lean muscle and increased fat tissue à lower
water levels
® Less blood plasma volume
® Reduced sweat response

*Inadequate fluid intake will have negative effects on the blood, brain, and muscle
*Athletes need to drink fluid throughout the day to replace water lost in sweat, respiration,
urine, and faeces

D.2.4 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables

and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms
(AO3)
Homeostasis: the maintenance of a constant environment where levels and concentrations
of the body are in an ideal range
Negative feedback: response produced that reduces the intensity of the original stimulus à
stabilises body
Example:
1) Net loss of water occurs
2) Body fluid concentration increases (hypertonicity)
® Change detected by receptors
3) Negative feedback (GAIN AND RETAIN) mechanism activates
4) Thirst sensation is activated à promoting fluid ingestion
5) ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) is secreted by pituitary gland
® Permeability of collecting duct increases (inhibits urine production)
® Permeability of descending limb of Loop of Henlé decreases (retain water)
6) Increased H2O availability in extra-cellular fluids (ECFs)
7) Hypothalamus detects restoration of homeostatic range of tonicity
® Thirst sensation deactivated
 ® ADH secretion is reduced

*Process shows negative feedback is an action initiated to reverse/reduce the loss of body
fluid

D.2.5 Explain the roles of the Loop of Henlé, medulla, collecting duct
and ADH in maintaining the water balance of the blood (AO3)
Kidney controls retention and loss of water by its nephrons (basic structural and functional
unit of the kidney)
Components of the Kidney include:
Loop of Henlé
à has an increasing/high salt concentration
à Where water and salts are resorbed into the blood
à Ascending loop of Henlé actively pumps out salt and impermeable to water
à Descending is only permeable to water
Medulla
à Is a region in the kidney which has a high salt concentration
à Responsible for maintaining the balance of water and salt within the blood
Collecting Duct à Transportation of urine and absorption of water
ADH
When body fluid levels are low, receptors in the hypothalamus are stimulated which send
nerve impulses to the pituitary gland to secrete ADH.
® This hormone then travels in the blood to the kidney where it stimulates the uptake
of water by osmosis
o ADH acts on kidneys, increasing the water permeability of renal tubules and
collecting ducts
o ADH increases the absorption of water
*Intense exercise is usually associated with an increase in ADH secretion so that plasma
volumes can be maintained
® Sweating causes loss of blood plasma
*If body fluids are sufficient then little ADH is released, resulting in excess water being
passed in the urine

D.2.6 Describe how the hydration status of athletes can be

monitored (AO2)
Monitoring of hydration can be based on:
o Urine Colour à darker colours suggest higher levels of dehydration
o Urine Osmolarity à amount of solute per unit of volume (the concentration of
urine)
o Variation in Body Mass (most simple) à mass of the athlete before and after the
event
*Dehydration in athletes can impair performance in both training and performance as well
as being a health risk

D.2.7 Explain why endurance athletes require a greater water intake

(AO3)
Endurance athletes are likely to have greater water intake needs to cope with heat and
dehydrating effects of exercise.
Athletes expend a lot of energy à increasing body temperature (heat is a by-product of
energy production)
® Controlled by sweat (thermoregulation)
® Therefore, needs greater water intake to:
o Replace lost sweat
o Maintain hydration
 o Maintain body temperature
o Maintain plasma volume osmolarity
® In athletes, sweat loss can exceed 1.5litres/hour
If athlete is not hydrated, can impair:
® Mental concentration
® Alertness
® Muscular strength and endurance
® Athletic performance
® Increases risks for heat injury
Too much low osmolality fluid (too much water) can lead to hyponatremia (Low in blood
sodium)
® Hyponatremia means not enough electrolytes which could lead to body trying to get
rid of water, further dehydrating the athlete
® Electrolytes should be replenished after 60-90mins of exercise
® Can have life threatening consequences

D.2.8 Discuss the regulation of electrolyte balance during acute and

chronic exercise (AO3)
Electrolyte balance is regulated by the Kidneys
® The level of any electrolyte in the blood can become too high or too low
® Main electrolytes: Sodium, Potassium, Calcium, Chloride
® Often, electrolyte levels change when water levels in the body change

à During exercise, muscles gain water at expense of plasma volume

à Osmotic pressure/sweating/blood pressure increases during exercise
à A large volume of sweat can lead to a loss of electrolytes from the body
o Sodium and chloride are the most abundant electrolytes in sweat
à Ingest sports drinks which contain electrolytes to help maintain electrolyte balance

Acute à Short duration exercise

o Diluted sports drinks are adequate to replace lost electrolytes in acute exercise

Chronic à Long duration (high intensity exercise)

o After 60 minutes, replacement of electrolyte is required
o It is important to actively replace lost sodium
 o Use of complex sports drinks

*Consumption of excess plain water can cause sodium depletion and may lead to
hyponatremia
 D.3 Energy Balance and Body Composition
D.3.1 Define the term basal metabolic rate (BMR) (AO1)
Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)
Amount of energy expended while at rest in a neutrally temperate environment, in a post-
absorptive state. Release of energy is only sufficient for the functioning of organs.

D.3.2 State the components of daily energy expenditure (AO1)

® Basal Metabolic Rate
® Thermic effect of Physical Activity
® Thermic effect of Feeding (eating)
o Energy required for: absorption, digestion, disposal of ingested nutrients

D.3.3 Explain the relationship between energy expenditure and

intake (AO3)
Energy Balance = Energy intake – Energy expenditure
An energy imbalance results in a change in the body mass
® This change in body mass is generally achieve over a long period of time
(months/years)
Energy intake only occurs intermittently throughout the day when we eat food. However,
we constantly expend energy and the rate at which this occurs is variable
Energy Intake = Energy Expenditure (Weight maintained)
Energy Intake > Energy Expenditure (Weight gain)
Energy Intake < Energy Expenditure (Weight loss)

D.3.4 Discuss the association between body composition and athletic

performance (AO3)
Fat Mass (FM)
The mass of all lipids in the body that can be extracted
Fat Free Mass (FFM)
The mass of all remaining tissues and materials in the body – Including tissue and fluids
(excluding FM)
Lean Body Mass
Includes combined weight of muscles, bones, ligaments, tendons and internal organs (not
Fluids)
® Differed from FFM as it includes small percent of essential fats in bone marrow and
organs

Practical Measurements
® Skinfold test – cheap / not accurate
® Bioelectrical impendence – expensive / more accurate
® Underwater weighing – very expensive / highly accurate
Sport Gender FM% FFM%
Marathon Male 3 97
Female 15 85
Shot Put Male 17 83
Female 28 72

Optimal body composition varies between sports and positions

FM
In general, the greater the relative amount of body fat an athlete has, the poorer their
performance will be.
® Athletes carrying excess weight may be more prone to injury
® Additional weight is inefficient for duration /aerobic events
® Can limit endurance / speed / movement through space
v Negative correlation between body composition and athlete performance
® Low body fat is important for:
o Endurance, anti-gravity and aesthetic sports
However, increasing fat mass is required for:
® Sumo wrestlers (Gain a lower centre of gravity)
® Endurance Swimmers (Buoyancy)
® Open water swimmers (Thermal insulation)
FFM
Increasing fat-free mass is desirable for athletes that require strength, power and muscular
endurance
® High proportion of fat-free mass is related to a high power to weight ratio, increased
acceleration and decreased energy expenditure
® Large fat-free mass is ideal in sports where body size is an advantage e.g. basketball,
volleyball
D.3.5 Discuss dietary practices employed by athletes to manipulate
body composition (AO3)
Body composition can be influenced by:
Gaining Muscle Mass (Increasing FFM)
Strength training can cause muscle hypertrophy.
Strength athletes require high carbohydrate and adequate glycogen stored in the muscle.
® All-out, high intensity, powerful muscle contractions (e.g. weight lifting) are fuelled
with carbohydrate
® Neither fat nor protein can be oxidised rapidly enough to meet the demands of high-
intensity exercise
o Adequate dietary carbohydrate must be consumed on a daily basis to
restore glycogen levels
® Carbohydrates are the primary fuel for intense muscular efforts and should be the
cornerstone of an athlete’s diet, regardless of the sport they play
Reducing Fat Mass
® Low energy intake causes the body to metabolise stores of fat
o Associated with lean athletes – can be a problem
Dehydration
® Water takes up a large percentage of body mass
o Participants may deliberately restrict fluid intake in order to decrease weight
o Dehydration will reduce BM
® E.g. weight class athletes (boxers, judo, jockey) may try to do this
® Risks associated with the cardiorespiratory system
Diets
® Athletes need a high protein diet to build muscle (synthesise amino acids)
o Atkins diet – used to synthesise amino acids over long periods of time
® High intensity sports need more glucose
® Diet pills, fat diets and crash diets may be beneficial for short-term weight loss but
not in the longer term
*Practices recommended by nutritionists are the most effective in the long term
*An athlete’s nutrition plan should be individualised to meet the needs of training and
competition
 D.4 Nutritional Strategies

D.4.1 State the approximate glycogen of specific skeletal muscle fibre

types (AO1)
Slow Twitch Fibre (Type I) à Low glycogen content
® Oxidative
Fast Twitch Fibre (Type IIa) à Medium glycogen content (Content on training status)
® Oxidative/glycolytic
Fast Twitch Fibre (Type IIb) à High glycogen content
® Glycolytic

*type I fibres are the first to be recruited during light exercise (and very little type IIa/b);
type I fibres are more frequently used during endurance exercise
*as the intensity of the exercise increases beyond moderate levels (and type I fibres
become progressively glycogen depleted), type IIa fibres are employed;
*type IIb fibres are employed during exercise that require levels of intensity approaching
maximal levels

D.4.2 Describe with reference to exercise intensity, typical athletic

activities requiring high rates of muscle glycogen utilisation (AO2)
Cross reference with 3.3.11 (energy continuum)
High intensity athletic activities that require high levels of muscle glycogen are those that
are especially used during glycolysis and predominantly use fast twitch muscles.
® Sports that involve intermittent sprinting
o 400m sprint
o Swimming (100m)
o Field/Team sports
® Glycogen is the main metabolic fuel during high intensity and prolonged exercise
Type I Type II
Colour Red White
Contraction Speed Slow Fast
Contraction Velocity Slow twitch Fast twitch
 Activity Aerobic Anaerobic
Duration Long Short
Fatigue Resistant Early/easily
Power Strong Weak
Storage Triglyceride Glucose/ Creatine Phosphate
Sports Example Marathon Field/Team sports, e.g. football

D.4.3 Discuss the pattern of muscle glycogen use in skeletal muscle

fibre types during exercise of various intensities (AO3)
Cross reference with 4.1.4
Submaximal Exercise
Mostly type I muscle fibre are used as the body has time to activate aerobic energy systems
® Lower intensity exercise can rely on plasma glucose or triglycerides in muscle
® Rate of glycogenolysis is greatest in type I during submax.
® Lower glycogen, increased triglyceride utilisation
® Carb oxidation in long duration activities depends on muscle glycogen concentration
Maximal Exercise
Glycogenolysis in type II is occurring at maximal rate
® Type I release glycogen depending on availability of oxygen
High Intensity
Muscle glycogen is depleted quickly in Type II fibres during high intensity
® High intensity, short duration (Type II muscle fibres) are used as they have higher
muscle glycogen content
® High VO2 max = higher glycogen utilisation

*at the initiation of exercise glycogen use of type I fibres will be minimal
*the rate of muscle glycogen depletion depends on the intensity of the activity/exercise

D.4.4 Define the term glycaemic index (GI) (AO1)

Glycaemic index is the ranking system for carbohydrates based on the immediate effect of
food on blood glucose concentrations, when compared with a reference food such as pure
glucose
*High GI à carbs that break down quickly (rapid release of glucose into bloodstream)
*Low GI à carbs that break down more slowly (gradual release of glucose into
bloodstream)
® Slow release of energy to maintain performance

D.4.5 List food with low and high glycaemic indexes (AO1)
High GI
® Glucose (100)
® White bread (65-75)
® Potatoes (85)
Medium GI
® Brown rice (50)
® White rice (50-70)
® Baked Beans (40)
High GI
® Green vegetables (<15)
® Chick peas (10)
® Peanuts (7)
® Hummus (6)

D.4.6 Explain the relevance of GI with regard to carbohydrate

consumption by athletes pre- and post–competition (AO3)
Low GI foods are digested slowly, providing slow, sustained release of glucose that occurs
even during exercise
® Can remain in small intestine hours after consumption
® Carbs with low GI provide long term health benefits and may prevent diseases

High GI foods (for athletes) supply readily available carbohydrates either before, during or
post exercise
® May assist in speeding glycogen replenishment after exercise
 ® May also assist in re-fuelling prior to future training

*For good health, athletes’ diets should be based on carbohydrate foods with low to
medium GI

Pre-event:
® Foods that don’t cause cramps or flatulence (high fibre)
® Porridge (42), Sustagen (40), Apple (38)
® 1-2 hours before the start of the event

Post-event (Recovery)
® Muscles are more sensitive to glucose in the first hour after exercise
o Significantly increases one’s ability to replenish glycogen stores
® Preferably consume high GI foods within first hour to recover more rapidly
® Accompanied by rest to speed glycogen replenishment
® Aim: 1-1.5g of carbohydrate per kg of body weight for each 2 hours after exercise
*athletes involved in events longer than 2 hours should focus on maintaining an adequate
carbohydrate supplementation during the event
*Carbohydrate consumption increases muscle glycogen storage, and levels of glycogen
influence your ability to train and compete
® High levels of glycogen increase the ability to maintain muscle functioning
*It can take up to 24 hours to replenish glycogen stores after strenuous exercise

D.4.7 Discuss the interaction of carbohydrate loading and training

programme modification prior to competition (AO3)
Carbohydrate loading is a strategy employed by athletes that involves changes to training
and nutrition that maximises glycogen stores prior to endurance competition.
® Generally recommended for endurance events > 90minutes
o Short term exercise is unlikely to benefit as normal carb stores are adequate
® Allows muscle glycogen levels to be increased to around 150-200mmol/kg wet
weight (ww)
o Extra supply of carbs can improve endurance athlete’s performance by
allowing athletes to exercise at their optimal pace for a longer time
Short Workout
 ® Normal diet and light training for a week leading up to the event
® Day before the event, consume 12g of carbs per kg of body mass
® Reportedly results in a 90% increase in glycogen stores
Tapering
® Athletes reduce training intensity and volume before a major event to give the mind
and body a break (Tapering)
® Allows for peak performance
® Practices of tapering and carb loading often help athletes prepare for large
competitions
Method
1) 3-4-day depletion phase of hard training and low carbohydrate intake
o Increases the activity of glycogen synthase à increases muscle glycogens
stores
2) Followed by loading phase of high carbohydrate and exercise taper
o Glycogen super compensation occurs

D.4.8 State the reasons for adding sodium and carbohydrate to water
for the endurance athlete (AO1)
Benefits of sodium
o Maintains plasma osmolarity (replenish lost electrolytes)
o Stimulates thirst receptors – increased hydration
o Can help absorption of carbs
o Reduces urine production
Benefits of Carbohydrates
o Stimulate fluid uptake
o Replaces glycogen stores in skeletal muscle/liver (energy for exercise over 60-90
min)
o Not too concentrated à can inhibit hydration

D.4.9 Discuss the use of nutritional ergogenic aids in sport (AO3)

Nutritional ergogenic aids à nutritional substances, or practices that enhance an
individual’s energy use, production, or recovery;
Aid Health Considerations Ethical Considerations Performance Considerations
Sports ® Sugar content can ® Widely accepted ® Ready source of fluid, carb,
drinks, bars damage teeth electrolytes
and gels ® Can impair gastric ® Easy to digest
emptying ® Increased sodium – stimulates
® GI issues thirst receptors
® Unwanted insulin spike ® Increased glycogen and delays
® Dehydration when fatigue
taken in wrong ® Increases performance for
accounts endurance (1.5hrs+)
® Increased plasma osmolality
Caffeine ® Diuretic – can ® Restricted by Olympics ® Enhanced utilisation of fat
dehydrate ® Deliberate ® Stimulates CNS – can reduce
® Insomnia, poor sleep, consumption for aid is sensation of fatigue and increase
anxiety unethical force production
® Can be addictive ® Reasonable to take ® Increases exercise performance
® GI issues (e.g. normal dietary
increased stomach acid caffeine
production – acid
reflux)
® Has peak and fall
Creatine ® Increases water weight ® Not banned by anyone ® Faster resynthesis of CP
® Dehydration ® NCAA bans institutions ® Good for strength, power,
® Diarrhea providing it to athletes sprinting
® Liver and kidney issues ® Hard to ingest ® Encourages muscle anabolism
® GI issues through normal diet (growth/repair)
– viewed as ® Increases creatine stores in
unethical muscle
(Sodium) ® Gastro-intestinal issues ® Not banned ® Reduces acidity of
Bicarbonate (stomach cramps) ® Part of everyday blood/increases pH – delayed
® High chance of diet fatigue
vomiting post exercise ® Easily obtained ® Useful for athletes who utilise
lactic acid system
® Combats effects pf lactic acid
® Delays fatigue
® Improve anaerobic work
D.4.10 State the daily recommended intake of protein for adult male
and female non-athletes (AO1)
WHO recommends a minimum of 0.8 g per kg of body weight for males and females.

D.4.11 List sources of protein for vegetarian and non-vegetarian

athletes (AO1)
Vegetarian Non-Vegetarian

® Peanuts, walnuts, nuts ® Meat

® Eggs ® Fish
® Legumes ® Poultry
® Milk ® Vegetarian foods
® Grain products
® Soy

D.4.12 Discuss the significance of strength and endurance training on

the recommended protein intake for male and female athletes (AO3)
It is recommended that strength and endurance athletes consume more protein than the
recommended daily allowance (roughly 1.2-1.8g/kg for both men and women)
® Endurance training promotes more protein breakdown and requires protein
synthesis for growth and repair – limit microscopic muscle tears
o Optimal timing for protein consumption Is asap after training
o This is needed to compensate for higher rates pf muscle hypertrophy
® Excess process can have damaging effects, primarily kidney damage

Sprinting and Endurance Athletes

® Amino acid oxidisation – medium low use of protein
® Muscle repair – high use of protein
® Muscle hypertrophy – high use of protein
(g/kg/BW/day) Endurance Strength Untrained
Male 1.6 1.2-1.7 0.8
Female 1.4 1-1.5 0.75
D.4.13 Outline the possible harmful effects of excessive protein intake
(AO2)
Body cannot store protein
® Excess protein is catabolised into carbohydrates and or fatty acids
o Increased risk of dehydration because 50mL of water is secreted in the urine
for every gram of urea excreted
§ Urea is a product of protein breakdown
® Possible damage to nephrons in the kidney
® Excessive protein can lay greater stress on kidneys as they must excrete unused
amino acids
*Kidney and liver damage as well as heart disease
*Can lead to dehydration and constipation

D.5 Glucose Uptake (HL)

D.5.1 State the normal levels of blood glucose at rest (AO1)

The human body normally keeps blood glucose level very stable (between 4.0mmol/L –
4.5mmol/L)
® Blood glucose level (blood sugar level)
® Amount of glucose in the blood – measured in millimoles per litre (mmol/L)
Pre- and post-competition (recommended)
® 4-7mmol/L before meals
® <10mmol/L 1-2 hours after meals
Exercise:
® During exercise, muscles need more glucose to supply energy
® However, glucose needs insulin in order to be used by muscles
o A lack in insulin will cause a rise in blood glucose levels after exercise as
glucose cannot get into the muscles to provide needed energy
o Therefore, glucose backs-up in the bloodstream, causing higher blood
glucose readings
® However, typically lower after exercise

D.5.2 Outline the causes of hypoglycaemia and hyperglycaemia (AO2)

Glucose is the body’s main source of energy
Hypoglycaemia (Low in blood glucose/sugar levels)
® < 3.9mmol/L
® Insufficient food intake
® Excessive exercise
® High insulin levels among diabetics
Hyperglycaemia (High in blood glucose levels)
® Higher than 7.0mmol/L when fasting
® 11.0mmol/L 2 hours after meals
® Infections (such as the cold or flu)
® Low insulin levels in diabetics
® Consumption of a high carbohydrate meal
*Hyperglycaemia usually develops slowly, over several hours or days

D.5.3 Explain the transportation of glucose across the cell membrane

when at rest and during physical activity (AO3)
This is done for the production of ATP for muscles OR for the storage of glycogen and
triglycerides
Glucose uptake into a cell is facilitated by the glucose transport proteins GLUT4 (Glucose
Transporter Type 4) and GLUT1
The most important stimulators of glucose transport in skeletal muscle are insulin and
exercise
1) (GLUT4) glucose transporters translocate from intracellular storage depots to the
plasma membrane
2) Glucose enters the muscle cell via facilitated diffusion
o Facilitated diffusion is a passive transport mechanism where carrier proteins
transport molecules across the cell membrane without using the cells energy
supplies
o Done through the concentration gradient – where molecules are
transported from higher to lower concentrations into or out of the
cell
3) GLUT4 transporters allow for greater glucose movement into a cell

At rest
 ® GLUT4 transporters can be stimulated during rest by raised levels of insulin after
eating
Method:
Pancreas releases insulin which binds on to and stimulates carrier proteins to translocate
the glucose from one side of the membrane to the other (using GLUT4 transporters)

During Exercise
® GLUT4 transporters are stimulated by calcium ions during physical activity without
the need of insulin
o Glucose take into the muscle cells are quickly converted to glucose-6-
phosphate à to maintain concentration gradient for glucose movement

D.5.4 Outline the effect of training on an athlete’s ability to take in

glucose at the cellular level (AO2)
Exercise increases the amount of GLUT4 transport in cells, which, in turn, enables a higher
rate of glucose uptake into the cells for use as a fuel
® Increases insulin’s ability to increase glucose transport
® However, during submaximal exercise, glucose utilisation is decreased in the trained
state

D.6 The effects of Alcohol on Performance and Health

D.6.1 Describe the acute effects of alcohol on the body (AO2)

® Frequent urination and dehydration
® Cardiovascular system is affected by alcohol
o Increased blood pressure
o Cause a temporary increase in heart rate and blood pressure
® Influences thermoregulation
o Lowers core body temperature
§ Not only by automatic mechanisms (sweating and skin vasodilation)
but also behaviourally
® Immune System
o Inflammatory response from immune system
® Neurologic System
o Delayed reaction times
 o Poor coordination
o Impaired vision and hearing

D.6.2 Discuss the possible effects of excessive chronic alcohol intake

on body systems (AO2)
Chronic heavy drinking is associated with many serious health problems within the body,
including:
Digestive System:
® The lining of the stomach is worn down, increasing the production of stomach acid
à creates ulcers
® Alcohol can also hinder nutrient breakdown, absorption, transportation, storage and
secretion
Liver problems and inflammations:
® Steatosis
® Alcoholic hepatitis
® Fibrosis
® Cirrhosis
*Liver diseases cause kidney diseases
Kidney:
® Kidney filters harmful substances from the blood
o Alcohol reduces the kidney’s ability to filter the blood
® Kidney balances the water levels in the body
o Alcohol hinders this process
® High blood pressure from excessive drinking can cause kidney disease
Heart:
® High blood pressure (hypertension) puts a strain on the heart muscle and can lead to
Cardiovascular disease (CVD)
® This increases the risk of heart rate and stroke
Brain:
® Inability to think abstractly
® Loss of visuospatial abilities
® Memory loss
® Loss of attention span
D.6.3 Discuss the effects of alcohol on athletic performance (AO3)
The effect of alcohol on athletic performance varies depending on quantity, demographics,
and type of exercise, making it difficult to determine specific recommendations
For athletes à the acute use of alcohol can influence motor skills, hydration status,
aerobic performance, as well as aspects of the recovery process

Ergogenic effects
Low amounts of alcohol (0.02 - 0.05 g/dL) might assist in sports such as shooting and
archery by reducing hand tremors
® Any level above this will have a negative impact

Ergolytic effects
Acute effects:
Alcohol is a diuretic, leading to dehydration and electrolyte imbalances
® Combined with sweating and diuretic effects of exercise, dehydration is more likely
® Dehydration will reduce athletic performance and increase risk of injury
Depletes energy
® Prevents liver from producing enough glucose that is needed for the intense levels of
exercise
® Results in a lack of energy, impairs performance (especially in endurance
performance)
Depression of the central nervous system activity
® Compromised motor skills
® Decreased coordination
® Delayed reactions
® Diminished judgement
® Impaired balance
Alcohol:
® Slows the critic acid cycle
® Inhibit gluconeogenesis
® Increase levels of lactate
*All significantly increase an athlete’s risk for injury
*Chronic effects only increase the acute effects of alcohol
Consider:
® Balance
® Power and strength
® Endurance
® Speed
® Coordination
® Reaction time (RT) and cognitive processing
® Cardiac function
® Inhibition of gluconeogenesis

Inhibition of Gluconeogenesis –
Gluconeogenesis is a metabolic pathway that results in the generation of glucose from
certain non-carbohydrate carbon substrates including lactate.
However INCREASED ETHANOL (ALCOHOL) = INCREASED NADH = INCREASED PYRUVATE =
DECREASED LACTATE AVAILABLE.
As Lactate is a precursor for gluconeogenesis,
GLUCONEOGENESIS will decrease.
D.4.3 pg. 16
D.4.7 pg. 63 …

D.7 Antioxidants (HL)

D.7.1 Outline the role of antioxidants in the body (AO2)

Antioxidants are molecules that can prevent or limit the damaging effects of free radicals by
turning them into substances that are far less reactive.
® Antioxidants keep free radicals in check
® Antioxidants are molecules in cells that prevent free radicals from raking electrons
and causing damage
Free radicals are unstable and destructive to nearby molecules
Free radicals are produced in the body as a by-product of normal cellular function that can
lead to oxidative stress without sufficient antioxidants
® Nutrients such as Vitamins A, C and E are well-known antioxidants
o Several minerals such as selenium, copper and manganese are components
of enzymes, also involved in defence against free radicals
Berries, red grapes, kale, broccoli and tea are examples of foods that contain antioxidants
® They act as extra defence against free radical damage

Summary:
Antioxidants;
® Stops chain reactions
® Remove oxidative proteins
® Decrease free radical formation
® Prevent accumulation of free radical formation

D.7.2 Explain the harmful effects of free radicals at the cellular level
(AO3)
A free radical (or a reactive oxygen species (ROS)) is a particle that processes at least one
unpaired electron
Free radicals in the body include:
® Superoxide
® Hydroxyl
® Nitric cycle
These cause damage by removing electrons from parts of the cell in order to create paired
electrons in their own structures
Free radicals can:
1) Affects the permeability of cell and mitochondrial membranes
2) Impair the function of molecules such as enzymes and DNA
o By removing electrons from molecules
3) Impair DNA structure