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Advanced Electrical Drives: Dr. Sushma Gupta Professor Department of Electrical Engineering MANIT, Bhopal
Advanced Electrical Drives: Dr. Sushma Gupta Professor Department of Electrical Engineering MANIT, Bhopal
Sensing
Control Unit
Unit
Input
Command
CH1
CH2
• First Quadrant-
– CH1 is operated, CH4 is kept on and CH2 and CH3 are kept off.
– When CH1 is on, current flows from source, CH1, load, CH4 and
back to source.
– When CH1 is off, Current flows from CH4, D2, load and back to
CH4.
– Both output voltage and current are positive.
– Chopper operates in step-down mode.
• Second Quadrant:
– CH2 is operated, CH1, CH3 and CH4 are kept off.
– When CH2 is on, current flows from CH2, D4, load and back to
CH2.
– When CH2 is off, Current flows load, D1, source D4 and back to
load.
– Output voltage is positive and current is negative.
– Chopper operates in step-up mode.
• Third Quadrant-
– CH3 is operated, CH2 is kept on and CH1 and CH4 are kept off.
– When CH3 is on, current flows from source, CH3, load, CH2
and back to source.
– When CH3 is off, Current flows from CH2, D4, load and back to
CH2.
– Both output voltage and current are negative.
– Chopper operates in step-down mode.
• Fourth Quadrant:
– CH4 is operated, CH1, CH2 and CH3 are kept off.
– When CH4 is on, current flows from CH4, D2, load and back to
CH4.
– When CH4 is off, Current flows load, D3, source D2 and back to
load.
– Output voltage is negative and current is positive.
– Chopper operates in step-up mode.
CycloConverter
P1 P2
P1 P2
N2 N1
N2 N1
P1 P2 P1 P2
N2 N1 N2 N1
Inverter
Three-Phase Inverter
DC Tacho-generator
AC Tacho-generator
Rotational speed in rpm = 60 f / No. of holes on disc
• As the number of holes in the disc is fixed and known so the rotational
speed can be measured by measuring the pulse rate with an electronic
counter.
• Electronic counter can be calibrated to indicate directly the speed.
• Output is in digital format so it does not require A/D converter when used
in digital instrumental system.
Truth-Table
Where:
VH is the Hall Voltage in volts
RH is the Hall Effect co-efficient
I is the current flow through the sensor in
amps
t is the thickness of the sensor in mm
B is the Magnetic Flux density in Teslas
Control Unit
– Control unit generates the control signals (Gating
Pulses) to the power modulator or converter according
to the feedback signal (speed and voltage or current).
– Control unit may be made by digital IC,
Microprocessor, DSP, dspace, FPGA for sophisticated
control.
– Command signal or reference signal which adjust the
operating point forms an input to the control unit.
– Control unit operates at lower voltage and power level.
– Low voltage control unit is isolated from power circuit
due to-
• Malfunction in the power circuit may damage the control unit.
• Converter generates the harmonics which can enter in the
control unit and interfere with its operation.
Dynamics of Electrical Drives
• Fundamental Torque Equations-
– Motor drives a load through transmission
system.
– Motor always rotates but load may rotate or
undergo a linear motion.
– Motor and load speed may be different. If load
has many parts then their speed may be
different or motion will be different.
– It is convenient to represent motor and load by
an equivalent system.
J
The III quadrant operation is known as the reverse motoring. The motor
works, in the reverse direction. Both the speed and the torque have
negative values while the power is positive.
In the IV quadrant, the torque is positive, and the speed is negative. This
quadrant corresponds to the braking in the reverse braking mode.
Speed-Torque Characteristic of Hoist
Equivalent values of drive parameters
• A motor drives two loads. One has rotational motion. It is coupled to the
motor through a reduction gear with a = 0.1 and efficiency of 90%. The
load has a moment of inertia of 10 kg-m2 and a torque of 10 N-m. Other
load has translational motion and consists of 1000 kg weight to be lifted up
at an uniform speed of 1.5 m/s. Coupling between this load and the motor
has an efficiency of 85%. Motor has an inertia of 0.2 kg-m2 and runs at a
constant speed of 1420 rpm. Determine equivalent inertia referred to the
motor shaft and power developed by the motor.
A motor is used to drive a hoist. Motor characteristics are given by
Quadrant I, II and IV T = 200-0.2 N Nm , Quadrant II, III and IV T = -200-0.2 N Nm
When hoist is loaded, the net load torque Tl = 100 Nm and
When hoist is unloaded, net load torque Tl = -80 Nm Obtain the equilibrium speed for
operation in all the four quadrant
Measurement of Moment of Inertia
• Moment of inertia can be calculated if dimensions and weights of
various parts of the load and motor are known.
• Machine is having very complex structure so it is not possible to
calculate moment of inertia by dimensions and weight.
• It can be measured experimentally by retardation test.
• In retardation test, the drive runs at a rated speed and then the supply
is switched off.
• Drive continuously run due to kinetic energy stored in it and
decelerates due to rotational mechanical losses.
• Variation of speed with time is recorded.
• At any speed ωm, power P consumed in supplying rotational losses is
given by-
P = Rate of change of kinetic energy
= d/dt (1/2 Jωm2) = Jωm dωm/dt (1)
• From retardation test dωm/dt at rated speed is obtained.
• Drive is reconnected to the supply and run at rated speed and
rotational mechanical power input to the drive is measured.
• This is approximately equal to P. Now J can be calculated by eq. 1
• The main problem is that rotational mechanical losses can not be
measured accurately because core losses and rotational mechanical
losses can not be separate out.
• In DC separately excited or a synchronous motor, retardation test is
carried out with field on.
• The core loss is obtained by deducting the copper loss from
armature power input.
• The Moment of inertia can be measured accurately by graphical
method.
(3)
• Subtracting (1) from (3) and rearranging terms gives
• (4)
• For small perturbations, the speed torque curves of the motor
and load can be assumed to be straight lines. Thus
(5)
• where (dT/dωm) and (dTl/dωm) are respectively slopes of the
steady-state speed-torque curves of motor and load at
operating point under consideration.
• Substituting Eq. (5) into (4) and rearranging the terms yields
(6)
• This is a first order linear differential equation. If initial
deviation in speed at t = 0 be (Δωm)=0 then the solution of Eq.
(6) will be
(7)
• An operating point will be stable when Δωm approaches zero
as t approaches infinity. For this the exponent of Eq. (7) must
be negative.
Load Equalisation
• In some drive applications, load torque fluctuates widely
within short intervals of time.
• Examples are pressing machines, electric hammer, steel rolling
mills and reciprocating pumps where a large torque for short
duration is required during operation, otherwise the torque is
nearly zero.
• In such drives, if motor is selected to supply peak torque
demanded by load, first motor rating has to be high. Secondly,
motor will draw a pulsed current from the supply.
• If amplitude of pulsed current forms an appreciable proportion
of supply line capacity, line voltage fluctuates, which
adversely affect other loads connected to the line.
• Problems of fluctuating loads are overcome by mounting a
flywheel on the motor shaft in non-reversible drives.
• Motor speed-torque characteristic is made drooping.
Flywheel Energy Storage
• During high load period, load torque will be much larger
compared to the motor torque.
• Therefore, deceleration occurs producing a large negative
dynamic torque component (J dωm/dt).
• Motor torque and dynamic torque [T + J d(ωm)/dt] = Tl
together are able to produce torque required by the load.
• During light load period, the motor torque exceeds the load
torque causing acceleration and speed is brought back to
original value before the next high load period.
• Variations of motor and load torques and speed for a periodic
load and for a drooping motor speed-torque curve are shown in
figures.
• It shows that peak torque required from the motor has much smaller
value than the peak load torque.
• Hence, a motor of much smaller rating than peak load can be used
and peak current drawn by motor from the source is reduced by a
large amount.
• Fluctuations in motor torque and speed are also reduced.
• Since power drawn from the source fluctuates very little, this is
called load equalisation.
• In variable speed and reversible drives, a flywheel cannot be
mounted on the motor shaft, as it will increase transient time of the
drive by a large amount.
• Moment of inertia of the flywheel required for load equalisation in
electrical drives is calculated as follows-
– Assuming a linear motor-speed-torque curve in the region of interest.
(1)
• where ωm0, ωmr and Tr are no-load speed, rated speed and rated
torque, respectively.
• Motor can be assumed to be in electrical equilibrium
during transient operation of the motor-load system
due to slow response because inertia is large.
• Differentiating (1) and multiplying both sides by ‘J’
gives
(2)
(3)
• Where
(4)
• Term τm is defined as the mechanical time constant of
the motor. It is the time required for the motor speed
to change by (ωm0 – ωmr) when motor torque is
maintained constant at rated value Tr.
• T = Tl + J d(ωm)/dt (2)
(3)
(4)
• Solution of Eq. (3) for the light load period (th ≤ t ≤ th + tl) with the
initial motor torque equal to Tmax is
(6)
T = J dω/dt + TL + C ω2m + B ωm
• It has two loops, inner loop is current controlled and outer loop
is speed controlled.
• Inner current control loop is provided to limit converter and
motor current or motor torque below safe limit.
• If motor speed decreases (ωm), then get the positive
speed error (Δωm).
• Speed error is processed through speed controller
applied to a current limiter.
• Current limiter saturates even for small speed error.
• Current limiter sets reference current for inner current
loop that will be higher than feedback current and drive
will accelerate.
• Steady-state is reached at the desired speed and current
at which motor torque is equal to the load torque.
• Increase in motor speed produces negative error
which saturates the current limiter in the reverse
direction.
• Current error will be negative and converter generates
the signals such that voltage applied to the motor will
be reduced and motor decelerates.
• Drive settles at a desired speed and current for which
motor torque is equal to load torque.
• Current and speed controller may be PI, PD or PID
depending upon the steady-state accuracy and
transient response.
Closed Loop Position Control
Proportional Controller
Integral Controller
Derivative Controller
Integral Controller
Proportional Controller
Derivative Controller
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Controller
S. No. Proportional Integral Derivative
1.
Deviation should not be
large. No limitations No limitations
2. Deviation should not be
sudden.
3. Proportional controller It returns back to It improves the
helps in reducing the steady the exact set point transient response of
state error, thus makes the following a the system.
system more stable. disturbance, means
4. Slow response of the over
it eliminates steady-
damped system can be made
state error.
faster with the help of these
controllers.
5. Due to presence of these It tends to make the It never improves the
controllers some offsets exist system unstable steady state error.
in the system. because it responds
slowly towards the
produced error.
6. Proportional controllers also It amplifies the noise
increase the maximum signals produced in the
system.
overshoot of the system.
Multi-motor Drives
Multi-motor Drives
Mechanical Coupling
Phase Detector
• Inputs of phase detector are reference frequency
and output frequency
• Output of phase detector is filtered by loop filter to
obtain a DC signal and applied as control voltage
to voltage controlled oscillator (VCO).
• Control voltage (comes from the phase difference
between two input signals) is required by VCO to
produce f such that it is equal to f*.
• Frequency of the VCO depends on the magnitude
of controlled voltage.
• Steady-state is reached when feedback frequency f
is equal to f* and loop is locked.
Speed Control by PLL
Disadvantages:
1. Transient response is slow.
2. It has low speed limit.
Voltage Controlled Oscillator
• Main component is the capacitor who’s charging and
discharging actually decides the formation of the output
waveform.
• The input is given in form a voltage which is converted to a
current signal and is applied to the capacitor.
• As the current passes through the capacitor, it starts charging
and a voltage starts building across it.
• As the capacitor charges and the voltage across it increases
gradually, the voltage is compared with a reference voltage
using a comparator.
• When the capacitor voltage exceeds the reference voltage,
comparator generates a high logic output which triggers
transistor and capacitor is connected to ground and starts
discharging.
• Thus the output waveform generated is the
representation of the charging and discharging of the
capacitor and the frequency is controlled by the
reference voltage.
• VCO output frequency changes in a direction that
reduces the phase difference.
Reference Books
• “Fundamentals of Electrical Drives” By G. K.
Dubey, Narosa Publisher.
• “Power Semiconductor Drives” P. V. Rao, B S
Publisher.
• “Power Semiconductor Drives” S.
Sivanagaraju, M. Balasubba Reddy and A.
Mallikarjuna Prasad, PHI.
• “Power Semiconductor Controlled Drives”, By
G. K. Dubey, Prentice Hall