Untitled

INTRODUCTION TO
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION TO
STATISTICS
STATISTICS
STATISTICS
• Is concerned with scientific methods
STATISTICS
• Is concerned with scientific methods for
C________, O________, S________,
P________, and A________ data,
DESCRIPTIVE
- Concerned with describing
the characteristics and
properties of a group of
STATISTICS persons, places or things of
interest
INFERENTIAL
- Concerned with drawing
inferences or conclusions about
the properties or characteristics
of a large group of people, places
or things on the bases of the
information from a small portion
of a large group
PRACTICE!
1) A local basketball player finds his free throw average
for the past 5 games
2) A convenient store manager predicts the sale
performance of the company for the next 3 years
3) A teacher determines the percentage of students who
passed the departmental exam
4) An IT student computes his average monthly
expenditure on school supplies in the past four
months
5) A traditional politician estimates his chance of
winning in the upcoming elections
PARAMETER
- Numerical measure of population (population
mean, population variance)
STATISTIC
- Numerical measure of
sample (sample mean,
sample variance)
YOUR TURN…
• VARIABLE
• DATA
• QUALITATIVE
• QUANTITATIVE
• DISCRETE
• CONTINUOUS
PRACTICE AGAIN!
QUALITATIVE OR QUANTITATIVE?
1) Monthly salary
2) Outcome in tossing a coin
3) Year level
4) Height of trees
5) Student number
6) Hourly output of a machine
7) Speed of a car
8) Subjects enrolled this term
PRACTICE AGAIN AND AGAIN!
DISCRETE OR CONTINUOUS?
1) Height of basketball player
2) Length of a rod
3) Number of chairs in a room
4) Dimensions of a table
5) Number of possible outcomes on throwing a
die
VARIABLE CLASSIFICATIONS
QUALITATIVE QUANTITATIVE
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
DATA LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
NOMINAL INTERVAL
“IDENTIFICATION” “GREATER OR LESS”
ORDINAL
“ORDER” RATIO
“ZERO BASELINE”
PRACTICE AGAIN 3X!
N, O, I, R
1) Religion
2) Civil status
3) Lot area
4) IQ
5) Speed of a car
6) Judging (1st place, 2nd place, etc)
7) Ranking of winners in a contest
8) Temperature
SAMPLE SAMPLING SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
“PORTION” “PROCESS” “PROCEDURE”
PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON - PROBABILITY SAMPLING

“EQUAL CHANCE” “RESEARCHER’S CHOICE”
PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON-PROBABILTY SAMPLING

SIMPLE RANDOM CONVENIENCE
SYSTEMATIC RANDOM QUOTA
STRATIFIED RANDOM PURPOSIVE
CLUSTER
DATA COLLECTION
PRIMARY SECONDARY
“first-hand”
DATA COLLECTION
PRIMARY SECONDARY
“books, journals,
etc.”
DATA COLLECTION
PRIMARY SECONDARY
“first-hand” “books, journals,
etc.”
D I R E
D I
R E
RAW DATA
HIGHEST
TO LOWEST UNGROUPED
ARRAY
STEM AND LEAF PLOT
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
RAW DATA TABLE
CLASSES OR
GROUPED
CATEGORIES
TABLE
DATA PRESENTATION
T_ _ _ _ _ L G_______L
T_____R
DATA PRESENTATION
TEXTUAL
During the first semester of AY 2017-
2018, 2000 students enrolled in the programs of
the Faculty of Engineering. There were 700
students enrolled in the Civil Engineering
program, 500 students in the Mechanical
Engineering program, 400 students in the
Electronics Engineering program, 300 students in
the Chemical Engineering program, and 100
students in the Industrial Engineering program.
DATA PRESENTATION
TABULAR
Table 1. Student population in the Faculty of Engineering for AY 17-18
Level CE ChE ECE IE ME Total
1st Year
2nd Year
3rd Year 250 100 150 30 200 730
4th Year 250 100 150 40 150 690
5th Year 200 100 100 30 150 580
Total 700 300 400 100 500 2000
DATA PRESENTATION
GRAPHICAL
TYPES
BAR
LINE
CIRCLE OR PIE
PICTOGRAM
DATA PRESENTATION
VERTICAL BAR
GRAPH
GRAPHICAL
TYPES
BAR
LINE
CIRCLE OR PIE
PICTOGRAM
DATA PRESENTATION
HORIZONTAL BAR
GRAPH
GRAPHICAL
TYPES
BAR
LINE
CIRCLE OR PIE
PICTOGRAM
DATA PRESENTATION
GRAPHICAL
TYPES
BAR
LINE
CIRCLE OR PIE
PICTOGRAM
DATA PRESENTATION
GRAPHICAL
TYPES
BAR
LINE
CIRCLE OR PIE
PICTOGRAM
DATA PRESENTATION
GRAPHICAL
TYPES
BAR
LINE
CIRCLE OR PIE
PICTOGRAM
INTRODUCTION TO
ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS 2.0
RECALL…
HIGHEST
TO LOWEST UNGROUPED
ARRAY
STEM AND LEAF PLOT
RAW DATA TABLE
CLASSES OR
GROUPED
CATEGORIES
TABLE
UNGROUPED DATA
ARRAY
STEM-LEAF
PLOT
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
UNGROUPED DATA
It is an arrangement of raw data in
ARRAY increasing or descending order.
4 2 4 5 1 3
STEM-LEAF
INCREASING ARRAY
PLOT
DECREASING ARRAY
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
UNGROUPED DATA
It is usually done by assigning the units digit of
the data as the leaf and the rest as the stem
ARRAY
23 32 17
18 36 28
24 19 33
STEM-LEAF
STEM LEAF
PLOT
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
UNGROUPED DATA
It is a statistical table showing the frequency or
number of observations.
ARRAY
1 2 2 3
4 2 1 1
3 4 3 2
STEM-LEAF
1 3 4 3
PLOT
NUMBER FREQUENCY
FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION
TABLE
GROUPED DATA
FREQUENCY It is a statistical table showing the frequency or
DISTRIBUTION TABLE number of observations in each of the classes or
categories.
QUANTITATIVE FDT
QUALITATIVE FDT - Data are grouped according to
some numerical or quantitative
- Data are grouped according to characteristics.
some qualitative characteristics or
into non-numerical categories. Weight (in kg) Frequency
7-9 4
Gender of Number of
respondents respondents 10-12 10
Male 38 13-15 16
Female 62 16-18 20
TOTAL 100 TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA
STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A QUANTITATIVE FDT:
1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

GROUPED DATA

Weight (in kg) Frequency
7-9 4
10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

7-9 4
10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

7-9 4
10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
k=4
GROUPED DATA

2. Determine the range (R) 7-9 4
10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
R = 18 – 7 = 11
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
3. Determine the class width (i)
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
k=4 R = 11
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
k=4 R = 11
i = R/k = 11/4 ≈ 3
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
4. List the class limits using the class width 16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
i=3
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
i=3
7, 8, 9 = 3
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
i=3
10, 11, 12 = 3
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
i=3
13, 14, 15 = 3
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
i=3
16, 17, 18 = 3
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
5. Tally the frequency (f) for each class
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
6. Check the total number of observations

GROUPED DATA

10-12 10
13-15 16
TOTAL 50
6. Check the total number of observations

GROUPED DATA
OTHER COLUMNS IN A QUANTITATIVE FDT:
GROUPED DATA

7-9 4
10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA
Weight f
(in kg)
7-9 4
10-12 10
13-15 16
16-18 20
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA
1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class

of the lower class limit of class (in kg) Boundaries
and the upper class limit of
7-9 4 6.5-9.5
the previous class
10-12 10 9.5-12.5
13-15 16 12.5-15.5
16-18 20 15.5-18.5
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA
1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class Class

of the lower class limit of class (in kg) Boundaries Marks
7-9 4 6.5-9.5 8
the previous class
10-12 10 9.5-12.5 11
2. Class Marks – midpoint of 13-15 16 12.5-15.5 14
the class interval
16-18 20 15.5-18.5 17
TOTAL 50
GROUPED DATA
1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class Class <Cf >Cf

of the lower class limit of class (in kg) Boundaries Marks
7-9 4 6.5-9.5 8 4 50
the previous class
10-12 10 9.5-12.5 11 14 46
2. Class Marks – midpoint of 13-15 16 12.5-15.5 14 30 36
the class interval
16-18 20 15.5-18.5 17 50 20
3. Cumulative frequency TOTAL 50
<Cf – total number of
observations less than the
upper boundary of the class
interval
>Cf – total number of
observations greater than the
lower boundary of a class
interval
GROUPED DATA
1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class Class <Cf >Cf Relative

of the lower class limit of class (in kg) Boundaries Marks frequency
7-9 4 6.5-9.5 8 4 50 8%
the previous class
10-12 10 9.5-12.5 11 14 46 20%
2. Class Marks – midpoint of 13-15 16 12.5-15.5 14 30 36 32%
the class interval
16-18 20 15.5-18.5 17 50 20 40%
3. Cumulative frequency TOTAL 50
<Cf – total number of
observations less than the
4. Relative frequency – the percentage of
upper boundary of the class
observations falling in each class interval
interval
>Cf – total number of
observations greater than the
lower boundary of a class
interval
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF THE FDT
Frequency Histogram Pie Chart

Bar Graph: Relative frequency
X: Class Intervals for each class
Y: Frequency interval
Frequency Polygon Ogives
Line Chart:
X: Class Marks
Y: Frequency
< Ogive > Ogive

Line Chart: Line Chart:
X: Upper boundary X: Lower boundary
Y: <Cf Y: >Cf
STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION
OF DATA
Expected Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, the students must be able to…
 Understand the summation notation

(concepts, properties and calculations)
 Calculate the different measures of central tendency
(ungrouped and grouped data)
 Calculate the other measures of location
(ungrouped and grouped data)
2
Summation Notation
The most common symbol or notation used in

statistics
∑ 𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑋𝑖
“The summation of x sub i, from
Where,
i=1 to i=n”
i = index of summation
1 = lower limit
SUMMATION n = upper limit
Summation Notation
𝑛
𝐶 = 𝐶 + 𝐶 + ⋯ + 𝐶 = 𝐶𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛
∑ 𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝐶𝑋𝑖 = 𝐶𝑋1 + 𝐶𝑋2 + ⋯ + 𝐶𝑋𝑛 = 𝐶
𝑖=1
𝑋𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖 = (𝑋1 +𝑌1 ) + (𝑋2 +𝑌2 ) + ⋯ + (𝑋𝑛 +𝑌𝑛 ) =

𝑋𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑋𝑖 +
𝑛
𝑖=1
𝑌𝑖
SUMMATION
PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION NOTATION

PRACTICE!
Write the following in full.
∑
5𝑋𝑖
𝑖=1
(𝑋𝑖 + 2𝑌𝑖 − 5)
𝑖=3
SUMMATION
5
( 3𝑋𝑖 )2
𝑖=2
PRACTICE!
Write in summation notation.
∑ 2𝑋1 + 2𝑋2 + 2𝑋3 + 2𝑋4 + 2𝑋5 + 2𝑋6
(𝑎3 + 5)2 + (𝑎4 + 5)2 +(𝑎5 + 5)2 +(𝑎6 + 5)2
SUMMATION
1 + 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + ⋯ + 𝑛2
PRACTICE!
Evaluate the following.
∑ 𝑖=1
25
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑋1 = 2, 𝑋2 = −1, 𝑋3 = 4, 𝑋4 = 0, 𝑋5 = 3, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑

5
7𝑋𝑖
𝑖=2
SUMMATION
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑋1 = 2, 𝑋2 = −1, 𝑋3 = 4, 𝑋4 = 0, 𝑋5 = 3
𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑌1 = −3, 𝑌2 = 4, 𝑌3 = 5, 𝑌4 = −1, 𝑌5 = 2
4
𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑 (2𝑋𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖 )
𝑖=1
MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY
It is a score that indicates where the center of distribution tends to be located.
MEAN MODE
MEDIAN
UNGROUPED GROUPED UNGROUPED GROUPED
UNGROUPED GROUPED
MOCT (UNGROUPED DATA)
It is located at the exact mathematical center
MEAN of a distribution.
𝝁 𝑜𝑟 𝑿
𝑛
𝑋
𝑖=1 𝑖
𝑛
MEDIAN When the data are arranged in decreasing or

increasing order, it is the middle value when
the number of observations is odd, or the
arithmetic mean of the two middle values
𝑿 when the number of observations is even.
MODE It is the value which occurs most often or with

greatest frequency.
𝑿
MEAN
WEIGHTED MEAN COMBINED MEAN
𝑾 𝒊 𝑿𝒊 𝒏𝑿𝒊
𝑿𝒘 = 𝑿𝑪 =
𝑾𝒊 𝒏𝒊
PRACTICE AGAIN!!!
• What is the average for a student who received
grades of 85, 76, and 82 on three tests, and a 79 on
the final examination in a certain course if the final
examination counts three times as much as each of
the three tests?
Grade (X) Weight (W)
85 1
76 1
82 1
79 3
PRACTICE AGAIN AND AGAIN!!!
• Three sections of a statistics class containing 32, 30,
and 38 students averaged 84, 80, and 76,
respectively, on the same final examination. What is
the combined mean for all three sections?
NO. OF STUD GRADE

32 84
30 80
38 76
MOCT (GROUPED DATA)
MEAN 𝒇 𝒊 𝑿𝒊
𝝁 𝑜𝑟 𝑿 𝑿=
𝒏
WHERE:
𝒇𝒊 = FREQUENCY
𝑿𝒊 = CLASS MARK
𝒏 = TOTAL NO. OF OBSERVATIONS
MOCT (GROUPED DATA)
𝒏
MEDIAN − 𝑺𝒃
𝑿=𝑳+( 𝟐 )𝒊
𝑿 𝒇𝒎
WHERE:
𝑳= LOWER BOUNDARY OF MEDIAN CLASS
𝒏= TOTAL NO. OF OBSERVATIONS
𝑺𝒃 = <CF OF THE CLASS BEFORE MEDIAN
CLASS
𝒇𝒎 = FREQUENCY OF THE MEDIAN CLASS
MOCT (GROUPED DATA)
MODE ∆𝟏
𝑿=𝑳+ 𝒊
𝑿 ∆𝟏 + ∆𝟐
WHERE:
𝑳= LOWER BOUNDARY OF MODAL CLASS
∆𝟏 = DIFF BETWEEN THE FREQ OF THE
MODAL CLASS AND THE NEXT LOWER CLASS
∆𝟐 = DIFF BETWEEN THE FREQ OF THE
MODAL CLASS AND THE NEXT HIGHER CLASS
EXERCISE!
• Consider the following frequency distribution. Solve for
the mean, median and mode.
𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 Test Score No. of Students
𝑿=
𝒏 20-24 2
25-29 6
𝒏 30-34 9
− 𝑺𝒃)
𝑿=𝑳+( 𝟐 )𝒊 35-39 10
𝒇𝒎
40-44 12
45-49 7
∆𝟏 50-54 4
𝑿=𝑳+ 𝒊 N = 50
∆𝟏 + ∆𝟐
𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊
𝑿=
𝒏 EXERCISE!
Test Score No. of Students X fX
20-24 2 22 44
25-29 6 27 162
30-34 9 32 288
35-39 10 37 370
40-44 12 42 504
45-49 7 47 329
50-54 4 52 208
N = 50
𝒏
− 𝑺𝒃)
𝑿=𝑳+( 𝟐
𝒇𝒎
)𝒊 EXERCISE!
Test Score No. of Students <Cf
20-24 2 2
25-29 6 8
30-34 9 17
MEDIAN
35-39 10 27 CLASS
40-44 12 39
45-49 7 46
50-54 4 50
N = 50
𝒏
− 𝑺𝒃)
𝑿=𝑳+( 𝟐
𝒇𝒎
)𝒊 EXERCISE!
20-24 2 2
25-29 6 8
30-34 9 17 𝑺𝒃
35-39 10 27
40-44 12 39
45-49 7 46
50-54 4 50
N = 50
𝒏
− 𝑺𝒃)
𝑿=𝑳+( 𝟐
𝒇𝒎
)𝒊 EXERCISE!
20-24 2 2
25-29 6 8
30-34 9 17 𝑺𝒃
35-39 𝒇𝒎 10 27
40-44 12 39
45-49 7 46
50-54 4 50
N = 50
∆𝟏
𝑿=𝑳+
∆𝟏 + ∆𝟐
𝒊 EXERCISE!
Test Score No. of Students

20-24 2
25-29 6
30-34 9
35-39 10
MODAL
40-44 12 CLASS
45-49 7
50-54 4
N = 50
∆𝟏
𝑿=𝑳+
∆𝟏 + ∆𝟐
𝒊 EXERCISE!

20-24 2
25-29 6
30-34 9
35-39 10
40-44 12 ∆𝟏
45-49 7
50-54 4
N = 50
∆𝟏
𝑿=𝑳+
∆𝟏 + ∆𝟐
𝒊 EXERCISE!

20-24 2
25-29 6
30-34 9
35-39 10
40-44 12
45-49 7
∆𝟐
50-54 4
N = 50
OTHER MEASURES OF LOCATION
FRACTILES OR They are values that describe the
position of data below which a
specific fraction or percentage of the
QUANTILES observations in a given set must fall.
QUARTILES PERCENTILES
DECILES
UNGROUPED GROUPED UNGROUPED GROUPED
UNGROUPED GROUPED
OMOL (UNGROUPED DATA)
Are values that divide a set of observations
QUARTILES into 4 equal parts. (Q1, Q2, Q3)
𝒌
𝑳𝑸𝒌 = (𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)
𝟒
DECILES into 10 equal parts. (D1, D2,… D9)
𝒌 𝑫𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)
𝑳𝑫𝒌 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟏𝟎
PERCENTILES into 100 equal parts. (P1, P2,… P99)
𝒌 𝑷𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)
𝑳𝑷𝒌 = (𝒏 + 𝟏)
𝟏𝟎𝟎
PRACTICE (QUARTILES)
• A cigarette vendor records the number of
packs he sold for 12 days and obtains the
following:
43 37 49 35 29 37
33 41 75 53 30 62
following:
43 37 49 35 29 37
33 41 75 53 30 62
REARRANGE!
following:
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
following:
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝒌
𝑳𝑸𝒌 = (𝒏 + 𝟏) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)
𝟒
following:
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝟏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = (𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)
𝟒
following:
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)

following:
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)

following: LS HS
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)

following: LS HS
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝒌 = 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝟑𝟓 − 𝟑𝟑)

following: LS HS
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑𝟑. 𝟓
YOUR TURN!
following:
29 30 33 35 37 37
41 43 49 53 62 75
1. Q2 6. P10
2. Q3 7. P80
3. D3 8. D5
4. D6 9. P50
5. D9 10. P25
OMOL (GROUPED DATA)
QUARTILES into 4 equal parts. (Q1, Q2, Q3)
𝒌𝒏
𝒌 − 𝑺𝑸𝒌
𝑳𝑸𝒌 = (𝒏) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑸𝒌 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝟒 𝒇 𝑸𝒌
DECILES into 10 equal parts. (D1, D2,… D9)
𝒌𝒏
𝒌 − 𝑺𝑫𝒌
𝑳𝑫𝒌 = (𝒏) 𝑫𝒌 = 𝑳𝑫𝒌 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒊
𝟏𝟎 𝒇𝑫𝒌
PERCENTILES into 100 equal parts. (P1, P2,… P99)
𝒌𝒏
𝟏𝟎𝟎 − 𝑺𝑷𝒌
𝒌 𝑷𝒌 = 𝑳𝑷𝒌 + 𝒊
𝑳𝑷𝒌 = (𝒏) 𝒇𝑷𝒌
𝟏𝟎𝟎
OMOL (GROUPED DATA)
𝒌𝒏
− 𝑺𝑸𝒌
QUARTILES 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑸𝒌 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝒌
Where:
𝑳𝑸𝒌 = lower boundary of the quartile class
𝒏 = total number of observations
𝑺𝑸𝒌 = less than cumulative frequency before the quartile class
𝒇𝑸𝒌 = frequency of the quartile class
𝒊 = class width
OMOL (GROUPED DATA)
𝒌𝒏
− 𝑺𝑫𝒌
DECILES 𝑫𝒌 = 𝑳𝑫𝒌 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒊
𝒇𝑫𝒌
Where:
𝑳𝑫𝒌 = lower boundary of the decile class
𝑺𝑫𝒌 = less than cumulative frequency before the decile class
𝒇𝑫𝒌 = frequency of the decile class
𝒊 = class width
OMOL (GROUPED DATA)
𝒌𝒏
− 𝑺𝑷𝒌
PERCENTILES 𝑷𝒌 = 𝑳𝑷𝒌 + 𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒊
𝒇𝑷𝒌
Where:
𝑳𝑷𝒌 = lower boundary of the percentile class
𝑺𝑷𝒌 = less than cumulative frequency before the percentile class
𝒇𝑷𝒌 = frequency of the percentile class
𝒊 = class width
• Consider the following frequency distribution
table. Scores Frequency
70-74 3
75-79 16
80-84 14
85-89 10
90-94 7
𝒌𝒏
𝒌 𝟒
− 𝑺𝑸 𝒌
𝑳𝑸𝒌 = (𝒏) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑸 𝒌 + 𝒊
𝟒 𝒇𝑸𝒌
70-74 3
75-79 16
80-84 14
85-89 10
90-94 7
𝒌𝒏
𝟏 𝟒
− 𝑺𝑸 𝒌
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = (𝒏) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑸 𝒌 +
𝒇𝑸𝒌
𝒊
𝟒
70-74 3
75-79 16
80-84 14
85-89 10
90-94 7
𝒌𝒏
𝟏 𝟒
− 𝑺𝑸 𝒌
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = (𝟓𝟎) 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑸 𝒌 +
𝒇𝑸𝒌
𝒊
𝟒
70-74 3
75-79 16
80-84 14
85-89 10
90-94 7
𝒌𝒏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸 𝒌
𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑸 𝒌 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝒌
70-74 3
75-79 16
80-84 14
85-89 10
90-94 7
𝒌𝒏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑸 𝟏 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝟏
table. Scores Frequency <CF
70-74 3
75-79 16
80-84 14
85-89 10
90-94 7
𝒌𝒏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑸 𝟏 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝟏
70-74 3 3
75-79 16 19
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
𝒌𝒏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑸 𝟏 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝟏
70-74 3 3
75-79 16 19 𝑳𝑸𝟏
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
𝒌𝒏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑸 𝟏 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝟏
70-74 3 3 𝑺𝑸𝟏
75-79 𝒇𝑸𝟏 16 19 𝑳𝑸𝟏
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
𝒌𝒏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸 𝟏
𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑸 𝟏 + 𝟒 𝒊
𝒇𝑸𝟏
70-74 3 3 𝑺𝑸𝟏
75-79 𝒇𝑸𝟏 16 19 𝑳𝑸𝟏
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝑺𝑸𝟏
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳 𝑸𝟏 +
𝒇𝑸𝟏
𝒊
70-74 3 3 𝑺𝑸𝟏
75-79 𝒇𝑸𝟏 16 19 𝑳𝑸𝟏
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 − 𝟑
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟕𝟒. 𝟓 +
𝟏𝟔
𝟓
70-74 3 3 𝑺𝑸𝟏
75-79 𝒇𝑸𝟏 16 19 𝑳𝑸𝟏
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟕

YOUR TURN!
70-74 3 3
75-79 16 19
80-84 14 33
85-89 10 43
90-94 7 50
1. D6 4. Q3
2. P65 5. P75
3. Q2 6. D5
STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION
OF DATA 2.0
Expected Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, the students must be able to…
 Calculate the different measures of dispersion

(absolute, relative, grouped and ungrouped)
 Understand the applications of standard deviation
(Chebyshev’s theorem and empirical normal rule)
 Calculate the measures of shapes
(kurtosis, skewness , grouped and ungrouped data)
2
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
They are measures of the average distance of
each observation from the center of the
distribution.
“how spread out”
MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE MEASURES OF RELATIVE

DISPERSION DISPERSION
- same units - different units
- close mean values - not close mean values
MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE DISPERSION
RANGE VARIANCE
STANDARD GROUPED
UNGROUPED
DEVIATION
UNGROUPED GROUPED
MOAD (STANDARD DEVIATION)
UNGROUPED
(𝑿 − 𝑿)𝟐
POPULATION SD: 𝝈=
𝑵
(𝑿 − 𝑿)𝟐
SAMPLE SD: 𝒔=
𝒏−𝟏
UNGROUPED
A B
14 5
15 15
13 22
14 14
14 14
(𝑿 − 𝑿)𝟐
𝝈=
𝑵
UNGROUPED
A B
14 5
15 15
13 22
14 14
14 14
𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟔𝟑𝟐
UNGROUPED
A B
14 5
15 15
13 22
14 14
14 14
𝟐
𝝈 = 𝟎. 𝟒
YOUR TURN!
UNGROUPED
A B
14 5
15 15
13 22
14 14
14 14
𝝈= 𝟐
𝝈 =
GROUPED
𝒇(𝑿 − 𝑿)𝟐
POPULATION SD: 𝝈=
𝑵
𝟐
𝒏 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 𝟐 − ( 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 )
SAMPLE SD: 𝒔=
𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)
GROUPED
For 108 randomly selected college students, the following
exam score frequency distribution was obtained:
Class limits Frequency
90-98 6
99-107 22
108-116 43
117-125 28
126-134 9
𝟐 𝟐
𝒏 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 − ( 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 )
𝒔=
𝒏(𝒏 − 𝟏)
GROUPED
Class limits Frequency 𝑿𝒊 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 𝒇𝒊 𝑿𝒊 𝟐
90-98 6 94 564 53016
99-107 22 103 2266 233398
108-116 43 112 4816 539392
117-125 28 121 3388 409948
126-134 9 130 1170 152100
𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟏, 𝟑𝟖𝟕, 𝟖𝟓𝟒 − (𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟎𝟒)𝟐

𝒔=
𝟏𝟎𝟖(𝟏𝟎𝟕)
GROUPED
90-98 6 94 564 53016
99-107 22 103 2266 233398
108-116 43 112 4816 539392
117-125 28 121 3388 409948
126-134 9 130 1170 152100
𝒔 = 𝟗. 𝟎𝟕
GROUPED
90-98 6 94 564 53016
99-107 22 103 2266 233398
108-116 43 112 4816 539392
117-125 28 121 3388 409948
126-134 9 130 1170 152100
𝒔𝟐 = 𝟖𝟐. 𝟐𝟔
MEASURES OF RELATIVE DISPERSION
COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION STANDARD Z SCORE
- is used to compare the variability of - measures how many standard

two or more sets of data even when deviations an observation has
they are expressed in different units above or below the mean.
SAMPLE POPULATION SAMPLE

POPULATION
𝝈 𝑺 Z=
𝑿−𝝁 𝑿−𝑿
𝑪𝑶𝑽 = 𝑪𝑶𝑽 = 𝝈
Z=
𝑺
𝝁 𝑿
MORD (COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION)
On a final examination in Statistics, the mean grade of a
group of 100 students was 78 and the standard deviation
was 8.0. In algebra, however, the mean final grade of the
group was 73 and the standard deviation was 7.6. In
which subject was there a greater
a) Absolute dispersion
b) Relative dispersion
MORD (COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION)
group was 73 and the standard deviation was 7.6. In
which subject was there a greater
a) Absolute dispersion STATISTICS

b) Relative dispersion ALGEBRA
POPULATION
𝑪𝑶𝑽 𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑽 𝑨𝑳𝑮𝑬𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒

MORD (STANDARD Z SCORE)
group was 73 and the standard deviation was 7.6. In this
examination, a student scored 75 in Statistics and 71 in
Algebra. In which exam was his relative standing higher?
MORD (STANDARD Z SCORE)
was 8.0. In Algebra, however, the mean final grade of the
group was 73 and the standard deviation was 7.6. In this
examination, a student scored 75 in Statistics and 71 in
Algebra. In which exam was his relative standing higher?
ALGEBRA
POPULATION
Z 𝐒𝐓𝐀𝐓 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 Z 𝐀𝐋𝐆𝐄𝐁 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟑

APPLICATIONS OF STANDARD
DEVIATION
CHEBYSHEV’S THEOREM It is used to determine where a
certain fraction (AT LEAST) of the
1 𝒂𝒕 𝒍𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒕 observations will fall.
1− =
𝑘2 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
EXAMPLE
If the IQs of a random sample of 1080 students at a large university have a mean score of
120 and a standard deviation of 8,
a) Determine the interval containing at least 810 of the IQs in the sample .
b) In what range can we be sure that no more than 120 of the scores fall?
DEVIATION
CHEBYSHEV’S THEOREM
The interval containing
1 𝟖𝟏𝟎 this fraction is
1− = 𝒌=𝟐
𝑘2 1080 [𝟏𝟎𝟒, 𝟏𝟑𝟔]
EXAMPLE
DEVIATION
CHEBYSHEV’S THEOREM
The interval containing
1 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝟎−𝟏𝟐𝟎 this fraction is
1− = 𝒌=𝟑
𝑘2 1080 [𝟗𝟔, 𝟏𝟒𝟒]
EXAMPLE
DEVIATION
EMPIRICAL (NORMAL) It is a simpler form of
RULE Chebyshev’s theorem that applies
to a bell-shaped distribution
Approximately 68% of the data values will fall (normal).
within 1 standard deviation of the mean
SOLUTION
Approximately 95% of the data values will fall
within 2 standard deviations of the mean Based from the given, 31 pounds is 1 standard
deviation from the mean (26.8+4.2), thus, only
Approximately 99.7% of the data values will fall 100−68
16% ( ) of the people is expected to consume
2
within 3 standard deviations of the mean more than 31 pounds of citrus fruit per year.
EXAMPLE
The average yearly per capita consumption of citrus fruits of a certain country is 26.8
pounds. Suppose that the distribution of fruit amounts consumed is bell-shaped with a
standard deviation equal to 4.2 pounds. What percentage of people living in that country
would you expect to consume more than 31 pounds of citrus fruit per year?
DEVIATION
EMPIRICAL (NORMAL) It is a simpler form of
RULE Chebyshev’s theorem that applies
to a bell-shaped distribution
Approximately 68% of the data values will fall (normal).
within 1 standard deviation of the mean
SOLUTION
Approximately 95% of the data values will fall
within 2 standard deviations of the mean Based from the given, 31 pounds is 1 standard
deviation from the mean (26.8+4.2), thus, only
Approximately 99.7% of the data values will fall 100−68
16% ( ) of the people is expected to consume
2
within 3 standard deviations of the mean more than 31 pounds of citrus fruit per year.
EXAMPLE
The average yearly per capita consumption of citrus fruits of a certain country is 26.8
pounds. Suppose that the distribution of fruit amounts consumed is bell-shaped with a
standard deviation equal to 4.2 pounds. What percentage of people living in that country
would you expect to consume more than 31 pounds of citrus fruit per year?
MEASURES OF SHAPES
SKEWNESS KURTOSIS
It refers to the degree of symmetry It refers to the peakedness or
or asymmetry of a distribution flatness of a distribution
Negatively Skewed Mesokurtic
Positively Skewed Leptokurtic
Normal Platykurtic
MEASURES OF SHAPES
SKEWNESS KURTOSIS
Normal Platykurtic
MEASURES OF SHAPES
SKEWNESS KURTOSIS
Normal Platykurtic
SKEWNESS
UNGROUPED GROUPED
𝟑(𝑴𝑬𝑨𝑵 − 𝑴𝑬𝑫𝑰𝑨𝑵)
𝑺𝑲 =
𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑵𝑫𝑨𝑹𝑫 𝑫𝑬𝑽𝑰𝑨𝑻𝑰𝑶𝑵
SKEWNESS
UNGROUPED GROUPED
𝟑(𝑿 − 𝑿)
𝑺𝑲 =
𝑺
POPULATION SAMPLE
Negatively Skewed SK < 0
Positively Skewed SK > 0
Normal SK = 0
SKEWNESS
PRACTICE (UNGROUPED)
The following data give the weight lost by a sample of 15 new

members of a fitness gym at the end of their first two months
of membership. Determine the coefficient of skewness.
12 9 10 7 27 14 7 16
23 12 13 13 20 11 10
𝑺𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟑𝟓
POSITIVELY SKEWED
SKEWNESS
PRACTICE (GROUPED)
Consider the following frequency distribution of scores of 50

randomly selected students in a quiz in MATH 103. Compute
the coefficient of skewness.
SCORE NO. OF STUDENTS
40-44 4
45-49
50-54
7
12
𝑺𝑲 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟓𝟏
55-59 10
60-64 9
POSITIVELY SKEWED
65-69 6
70-74 2
KURTOSIS
UNGROUPED GROUPED
(𝑿 − 𝑿)𝟒 𝒇(𝑿 − 𝑿)𝟒

𝑲𝒖 = 𝑲𝒖 =
𝒏(𝑺)𝟒 𝒏(𝑺)𝟒
KURTOSIS
UNGROUPED GROUPED
(𝑿 − 𝑴𝑬𝑨𝑵)𝟒
𝑲𝒖 =
𝒏(𝑺)𝟒
POPULATION SAMPLE
Mesokurtic Ku = 3
Leptokurtic Ku > 3
Platykurtic Ku < 3
KURTOSIS
PRACTICE (UNGROUPED)
Calculate the Kurtosis of the Sample Data Set.

77 86 72 88 66
80 83 87 76 72
𝑲𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟑𝟓
PLATYKURTIC
KURTOSIS
PRACTICE (GROUPED)
Consider the following distribution.
HOURLY WAGE NO. OF STAFF
140-159 7 𝑲𝒖 = 𝟐. 𝟓𝟗
160-179 20
180-199 33 PLATYKURTIC
200-219 25
220-239 11
240-259 4
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
It is used to determine the chance of having a certain
outcome from all the possible outcomes in a statistical
experiment or sequence of events.
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
FUNDAMENTAL COMBINATION
COUNTING RULE RULE
PERMUTATION
RULE
PROBABILITY
FUNDAMENTAL COMBINATION
COUNTING RULE RULE
Is a method for
determining the number
PERMUTATION Is a selection of objects
without regard to order
of times an operation RULE
can be performed
Is an ordered
arrangement of all of part
of a set of objects
FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING RULE
EXAMPLE
In a medical study, patients are classified in 8 ways according to whether they have blood
type AB+, AB-, A+, A-, B+, B-, O+, and O-, and also according to whether their blood pressure is
low, normal or high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can be classified.
EXAMPLE
type AB+, AB-, A+, A-, B+, B-, O+, and O-, and also according to whether their blood pressure is
low, normal or high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can be classified.
(_) (_)
EXAMPLE
type AB+, AB-, A+, A-, B+, B-, O+, and O-, and also according to whether their blood pressure
is low, normal or high. Find the number of ways in which a patient can be classified.
(8) (_)
EXAMPLE
(8) (3)
EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
A college freshman must take a science course, a humanities course, and a mathematics
course. If he may select any of 7 science courses, any of 4 humanities courses, and any of
the 5 mathematics courses, how many ways can he arrange his program?
EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
(_) (_) (_)

EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
(7) (_) (_)

EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
(7) (4) (_)

EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
(7) (4) (5)

EXAMPLE
24
EXAMPLE
140
PRACTICE
1) How many different outcomes can occur when a coin is tossed 5 times?
2) How many three-digit numbers can be formed from the digits 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 if
each digit can only be used once?
3) How many of the three-digit numbers in number 2) are odd numbers?
4) How many of the three-digit number in number 2) are greater than 330?
PRACTICE
(2) (2) (2) (2) (2) = 32

PRACTICE
(2) (2) (2) (2) (2) = 32

(6) (6) (5) = 180

PRACTICE
(2) (2) (2) (2) (2) = 32

(6) (6) (5) = 180

(5) (5) (3) = 75

PRACTICE
(2) (2) (2) (2) (2) = 32

(6) (6) (5) = 180

(5) (5) (3) = 75

(3) (6) (5) + (1) (3) (5) = 105

PERMUTATION
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 1. The number of permutations of n distinct objects is n!
PERMUTATION
EXAMPLE
How many permutations do the letters “ABC” have?
PERMUTATION
EXAMPLE
ABC ACB BAC BCA CAB CBA

PERMUTATION
EXAMPLE
3! = 6
PERMUTATION
EXAMPLE
3! = 6
EXAMPLE
How many permutations can be made from the letters of the word “COLUMNS”
PERMUTATION
EXAMPLE
3! = 6
EXAMPLE
How many permutations can be made from the letters of the word “COLUMNS”
7! = 5040
PERMUTATION
PRACTICE
1) How many ways can 6 people be lined up on a bus?
2) If a certain 3 persons insist on following each other, how many ways are
possible?
3) If a certain 2 persons refuse to follow each other, how many ways are
possible?
PERMUTATION
PRACTICE
6! = 720
possible?
possible?
PERMUTATION
PRACTICE
6! = 720
possible?
4! 3! = 144
possible?
PERMUTATION
PRACTICE
6! = 720
possible?
4! 3! = 144
possible?
6! – 5! 2! = 480
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 2. The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
𝒏−𝒓 !
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
𝒏−𝒓 !
EXAMPLE
The two-letter permutations of the letters “ABC” are
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
𝒏−𝒓 !
EXAMPLE
AB AC BA BC CA CB
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
𝒏−𝒓 !
EXAMPLE
AB AC BA BC CA CB
𝟑!
3 𝑷𝟐 = =6
𝟑−𝟐 !
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
𝒏−𝒓 !
PRACTICE
1) In a 100-m dash marathon, 80 runners compete for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place. How many
different ways can the runners finish 1st, 2nd, and 3rd ?
2) How many numbers with four distinct digits are possible using the digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9?
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑷𝒓 =
𝒏−𝒓 !
PRACTICE
1) In a 100-m dash marathon, 80 runners compete for 1st, 2nd, and 3rd place. How many
different ways can the runners finish 1st, 2nd, and 3rd ?
𝟖𝟎𝑷𝟑 = 𝟒𝟗𝟐, 𝟗𝟔𝟎

2) How many numbers with four distinct digits are possible using the digits 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 9?
𝟕𝑷𝟒 = 𝟖𝟒𝟎
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 3. The number of permutations of n distinct objects arranged in circle is
𝒏−𝟏 !
PERMUTATION
𝒏−𝟏 !
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 different trees be planted in a circle?
PERMUTATION
𝒏−𝟏 !
EXAMPLE
In how many ways can 5 different trees be planted in a circle?
𝟓 − 𝟏 ! = 24
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 4. The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n1 are of one kind,
n2 of a second kind, …, nk of a kth kind is
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
How many distinct permutations can be made from the letters of the word
a) “STATISTICS”
b) “INFINITY”
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
a) “STATISTICS” = (S=3, T=3, A=1, I=2, C=1)
b) “INFINITY”
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎!
a) “STATISTICS” = (S=3, T=3, A=1, I=2, C=1) = 𝟑! 𝟑! 𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟏!
= 𝟓𝟎, 𝟒𝟎𝟎
b) “INFINITY”
PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎!
= 𝟓𝟎, 𝟒𝟎𝟎
b) “INFINITY” = (I=3, N=2, F=1, T=1, Y=1)

PERMUTATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎!
= 𝟓𝟎, 𝟒𝟎𝟎
𝟖!
b) “INFINITY” = (I=3, N=2, F=1, T=1, Y=1) = 𝟑! 𝟐! 𝟏! 𝟏! 𝟏!
= 𝟑, 𝟑𝟔𝟎
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 5. The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with n1
elements in the first cell, n2 elements in the second cell, and so on is
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 5. The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into r cells with n1
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
A college plays 12 football games during a season. In how many ways can the team end
the season with 7 wins, 3 losses, and 2 ties?
PERMUTATION
THEOREM 5. The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into k cells with n1
𝒏!
𝒏𝟏 ! 𝒏𝟐 ! … 𝒏𝒌 !
EXAMPLE
A college plays 12 football games during a season. In how many ways can the team end
the season with 7 wins, 3 losses, and 2 ties?
𝟏𝟐!
= 𝟕𝟗𝟐𝟎
𝟕! 𝟑! 𝟐!
COMBINATION
COMBINATION
THEOREM 6. The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r at a time is
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
COMBINATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
EXAMPLE
How many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8 equally qualified recent
graduates for openings in an engineering firm?
COMBINATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
EXAMPLE
How many ways are there to select 3 candidates from 8 equally qualified recent
graduates for openings in an engineering firm?
𝟖!
8𝑪𝟑 =
𝟖−𝟑 !𝟑!
= 𝟓𝟔
COMBINATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
PRACTICE
From a group of 6 men and 4 women, how many committees of size 3 are possible?
a) With no restrictions
b) With 1 man and 2 women
c) With 2 men, 1 woman, & a certain man must be on the committee?

COMBINATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
PRACTICE
a) With no restrictions = 10𝑪𝟑 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎
b) With 1 man and 2 women =
c) With 2 men, 1 woman, & a certain man must be on the committee =

COMBINATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
PRACTICE
b) With 1 man and 2 women = (𝟔𝑪𝟏)(𝟒𝑪𝟐) = 𝟑𝟔
c) With 2 men, 1 woman, & a certain man must be on the committee =

COMBINATION
𝒏!
𝒏𝑪𝒓 =
𝒏 − 𝒓 ! 𝒓!
PRACTICE
b) With 1 man and 2 women = (𝟔𝑪𝟏)(𝟒𝑪𝟐) = 𝟑𝟔
c) With 2 men, 1 woman, & a certain man must be on the committee = (𝟓𝑪𝟏)(𝟒𝑪𝟏) = 20
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
EXPERIMENT - the process that results in one and only one of many observations.
PROBABILITY
OUTCOMES - they are the many observations.

PROBABILITY
SAMPLE SPACE - the collection of outcomes for an experiment.

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
Determine the sample space in each experiment
Rolling a die once

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
Rolling a die once = S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
Tossing a coin twice

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
Tossing a coin twice = S = {HH, HT, TH, TT}

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
Choosing a letter from the word “mathematics”

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
Choosing a letter from the word “mathematics” = S = {m, a, t, h, e, i, c, s}

PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
A newly married couple is planning to have three children
a) List the elements of the sample space S1 using letter M for male and F for female
b) Define a second sample space S2 where the elements represent the # of females
PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
a) S1 = {MMM, MMF, MFM, MFF, FMM, FMF, FFM, FFF}
b) Define a second sample space S2 where the elements represent the # of females
PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
a) S1 = {MMM, MMF, MFM, MFF, FMM, FMF, FFM, FFF}
b) S2 = {0, 1, 2, 3}
PROBABILITY
PROBABILITY
EVENT - the subset of the sample space.

PROBABILITY

SIMPLE EVENT - the event containing only one element.
COMPOUND EVENT - the union of simple events.
MUTUALLY EXCLUSIVE - they cannot occur together.
INDEPENDENT - the occurrence of one does not affect the other.
NULL SPACE - the subset that contains no element.
PROBABILITY

PRACTICE
a) List the elements corresponding to the event A that the first child is a female.
b) List the elements corresponding to the event B that there are 2 females.
c) List the elements corresponding to the event C that at least 2 are males
PROBABILITY

PRACTICE
a) A = {FMM, FMF, FFM, FFF}
b) List the elements corresponding to the event B that there are 2 females.
PROBABILITY

PRACTICE
b) B = {MFF, FMF, FFM}
PROBABILITY

PRACTICE
c) C = {MMM, MMF, MFM, FMM}
PROBABILITY
OPERATION WITH EVENTS

INTERSECTION - denoted by the symbol AᴖB, is the event containing elements that are
common to A and B
UNION - denoted by the symbol AᴗB, is the event containing elements that
belong to A or to B or both
COMPLEMENT - denoted by the symbol A’, is the event containing all elements that
are not in A
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
S1 = {MMM, MMF, MFM, MFF, FMM, FMF, FFM, FFF}

a) List the elements corresponding to the event A’

b) List the elements corresponding to the event AᴖB
c) List the elements corresponding to the event BᴗC
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE

a) A’ = {MMM, MMF, MFM, MFF}

b) List the elements corresponding to the event AᴖB
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE


b) AᴖB = {FMF, FFM}
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE


b) AᴖB = {FMF, FFM}
c) BᴗC = {MMM, MMF, MFM, FMM, MFF, FMF, FFM}
PROBABILITY
The probability that an event E will occur is n/N
𝒏(𝑬)
P(E) =
𝑵
Where n(E) = number of sample points in E
N = total no. of sample points in the sample space
PROBABILITY
𝒏(𝑬)
P(E) =
𝑵
EXAMPLE
Find the errors in each of the following statements:
a) The probabilities that an automobile salesperson will sell 0, 1, 2 or 3 cars on any
given day are 0.19, 0.38, 0.29, and 0.15, respectively.
b) The probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.40 and the probability that it will not
rain tomorrow is 0.52.
PROBABILITY
𝒏(𝑬)
P(E) =
𝑵
EXAMPLE
a) The sum of the probabilities (0.19, 0.38, 0.29, and 0.15) is greater than 1.
b) The probability that it will rain tomorrow is 0.40 and the probability that it will not
rain tomorrow is 0.52.
PROBABILITY
𝒏(𝑬)
P(E) =
𝑵
EXAMPLE
a) The sum of the probabilities (0.19, 0.38, 0.29, and 0.15) is greater than 1.
b) The two given events are complementary so their sum must be equal to 1
PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
Choose a number at random from 1 to 13. What is the probability that
a) The number is even?
b) The number is less than 5?
c) The number is greater than 6?
If a card is drawn from an ordinary deck, find the probability of drawing

a) An ace
b) A spade
c) A face card
If 3 books are picked at random from a shelf containing 5 novels, 3 book of poems, 2
dictionaries, what is the probability that
a) A novel, a book of poem, and a dictionary are selected?
b) The three book of poems are selected?
c) 2 novels and 1 book of poem are selected?
PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
a) P(even) = 6/13
b) P(<5) = 4/13
c) P(>6) = 7/13

a) An ace
b) A spade
c) A face card
PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
a) P(even) = 6/13
b) P(<5) = 4/13
c) P(>6) = 7/13

a) P(ace) = 4/52 = 1/13
b) P(spade) = 13/52 = 1/4
c) P(face card) = 12/52 = 3/13
PROBABILITY
PRACTICE
a) P(even) = 6/13
b) P(<5) = 4/13
c) P(>6) = 7/13

a) P(ace) = 4/52 = 1/13
b) P(spade) = 13/52 = 1/4
c) P(face card) = 12/52 = 3/13
a) P(N,P,D) = (5C1)(3C1)(2C1)/(10C3) = 30/120 = 1/4
b) P(3P) = (3C3)/(10C3) = 1/120
c) P(2N, P) = (5C2)(3C1)/(10C3) 30/120 = 1/4
PROBABILITY
RULES ON PROBABILITY
Theorem 1 (Addition Rule): If A and B are any two events, then
P(AᴗB) = P(A) + P(B) – P(AᴖB)

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
In a high school computer class there are 15 juniors and 10 seniors. Four juniors and five
seniors are boys. If a student is selected at random, then what is the probability of
selecting a junior or a boy?
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
In a high school computer class there are 15 juniors and 10 seniors. Four juniors and
five seniors are boys. If a student is selected at random, then what is the probability of
P(Junior) = 15/25 P(Boy) = 9/25 P(JuniorᴖBoy) = 4/25

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE

PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
P(JᴗB) = P(J) + P(B) – P(JᴖB) = 15/25 + 9/25 – 4/25 = 20/25 = 4/5

PROBABILITY
Theorem 1.1 (Addition Rule): If A and B are mutually exclusive, then
P(AᴗB) = P(A) + P(B)

Theorem 1.2 (Addition Rule): If A1, A2, … An are mutually exclusive, then
P(A1ᴗA2ᴗ…An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + … P(An)

PROBABILITY

P(A1ᴗA2ᴗ…An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + … P(An)

EXAMPLE
If A and B are mutually exclusive events and P(A) = 0.6, P(B) = 0.3, find
a) P(AᴗB)
b) P(A’)
c) P(AᴖB’)
PROBABILITY

P(A1ᴗA2ᴗ…An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + … P(An)

EXAMPLE
a) P(AᴗB) = P(A) + P(B) = 0.6 + 0.3 = 0.9
b) P(A’)
c) P(AᴖB’)
PROBABILITY

P(A1ᴗA2ᴗ…An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + … P(An)

EXAMPLE
a) P(AᴗB) = P(A) + P(B) = 0.6 + 0.3 = 0.9
b) P(A’) = 1 – P(A) = 1 – 0.6 = 0.4
c) P(AᴖB’)
PROBABILITY

P(A1ᴗA2ᴗ…An) = P(A1) + P(A2) + … P(An)

EXAMPLE
a) P(AᴗB) = P(A) + P(B) = 0.6 + 0.3 = 0.9
b) P(A’) = 1 – P(A) = 1 – 0.6 = 0.4
c) P(AᴖB’) = P(A) = 0.6
PROBABILITY
Theorem 2 (Complement Rule): If A and A’ are complementary events, then
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
In a college graduating class of 100 students, 54 studied mathematics, 69 studied
history, and 35 studied both mathematics and history. If one of these students is
selected at random, find the probability that
a) The student took mathematics or history

b) The student did not take any of these courses
c) The student took history but not mathematics
PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100

PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100

PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100

PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100

PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100
a) P(MᴗH)
PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100
a) P(MᴗH) = P(M) + P(H) – P(MᴖH) = 54/100 + 69/100 – 35/100 = 22/25

PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100
a) P(MᴗH) = P(M) + P(H) – P(MᴖH) = 54/100 + 69/100 – 35/100 = 22/25

b) P(MᴗH)’
PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100
a) P(MᴗH) = P(M) + P(H) – P(MᴖH) = 54/100 + 69/100 – 35/100 = 22/25

b) P(MᴗH)’ = 1 - P(MᴗH) = 3/25
PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100
a) P(MᴗH) = P(M) + P(H) – P(MᴖH) = 54/100 + 69/100 – 35/100 = 22/25

b) P(MᴗH)’ = 1 - P(MᴗH) = 3/25
c) P(HᴖM’)
PROBABILITY
P(A) + P(A’) = 1
EXAMPLE
P(M) = 54/100 P(H) = 69/100 P(MᴖH) = 35/100
a) P(MᴗH) = P(M) + P(H) – P(MᴖH) = 54/100 + 69/100 – 35/100 = 22/25

b) P(MᴗH)’ = 1 - P(MᴗH) = 3/25
c) P(HᴖM’) = P(MᴗH) – P(M) = 22/25 – 54/100 = 17/50
PROBABILITY
Theorem 3 (Multiplication Rule): If in an experiment, the events A and B can both
occur, then,
P(AᴖB) = P(A) x P(B/A)
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
CONDITIONAL PROBABILITY
The probability of an event B occurring when it is known that some event A has occurred.
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE
In Metro Manila, 48% of all teenager owns a skateboard and 39% of all teenagers own a
skateboard and roller blades. What is the probability that a teenager owns roller blades
given that the teenager owns a skateboard?
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE
In Metro Manila, 48% of all teenager owns a skateboard and 39% of all teenagers own a
skateboard and roller blades. What is the probability that a teenager owns roller blades
given that the teenager owns a skateboard?
P(R/S) = P(RᴖS)/P(S) = 0.39/0.48 = 0.8125

PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE
An individual is picked at random from a group of 52 athletes. Suppose 26 of the athletes

are female and 6 of them are swimmers. Also, there are 10 swimmers among males.
a) Given that the individual picked is female, find the probability that she is a swimmer
b) Given that the individual picked is a swimmer, find the probability that he is a male
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

a) P(S/F)
b) Given that the individual picked is a swimmer, find the probability that he is a male
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

a) P(S/F)
b) P(M/S)
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

P(M) = 26/52 P(F) = 26/52 P(FᴖS) = 6/52 P(MᴖS) = 10/52
a) P(S/F)
b) P(M/S)
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

P(M) = 26/52 P(F) = 26/52 P(FᴖS) = 6/52 P(MᴖS) = 10/52
a) P(S/F)
b) P(M/S)
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

P(M) = 26/52 P(F) = 26/52 P(FᴖS) = 6/52 P(MᴖS) = 10/52
a) P(S/F) = P(SᴖF)/P(F) = (6/52)/(26/52) = 6/26 = 3/13
b) P(M/S)
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

P(M) = 26/52 P(F) = 26/52 P(FᴖS) = 6/52 P(MᴖS) = 10/52
a) P(S/F) = P(SᴖF)/P(F) = (6/52)/(26/52) = 6/26 = 3/13
b) P(M/S) = P(MᴖS)/P(S) = (10/52)/(16/52) = 10/16 = 5/8
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE

P(M) = 26/52 P(F) = 26/52 P(FᴖS) = 6/52 P(MᴖS) = 10/52
a) P(S/F) = P(SᴖF)/P(F) = (6/52)/(26/52) = 6/26 = 3/13
b) P(M/S) = P(MᴖS)/P(S) = (10/52)/(16/52) = 10/16 = 5/8
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE
The probability that the stock market goes up on Tuesday is 0.6. Given that it goes up on
Tuesday, the probability that it goes up on Wednesday is 0.3. Find the probability that the
market goes up on both days.
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE
Tuesday, the probability that it goes up on Wednesday is 0.3. Find the probability that the
market goes up on both days.
P(TᴖW)
PROBABILITY
occur, then,
EXAMPLE
Tuesday, the probability that it goes up on Wednesday is 0.3. Find the probability that
the market goes up on both days.
P(TᴖW) = P(T) x P(W/T) = (0.6)x(0.3) = 0.18

PROBABILITY
Theorem 4.1 (Independence Rule): Two events A and B are independent if and only if
P(A/B) = P(A) and P(B/A) = P(B)
Theorem 4.2 (Independence Rule): If A and B are independent events, then
P(AᴖB) = P(A) x P(B)
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
The probability that Carlo will pass a certain course is 0.90 and the probability that Rina
will pass the same course is 0.83. If we assume independence for both events,
a) What is the probability that only Carlo will pass the course
b) What is the probability that neither will pass the course
c) What is the probability that at least one will pass the course
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
a) P(CᴖR’)
b) What is the probability that neither will pass the course
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
a) P(CᴖR’)
b) P(C’ᴖR’)
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
a) P(CᴖR’)
b) P(C’ᴖR’)
c) P(CᴗR)
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
P(C) = 0.90 P(R) = 0.83
a) P(CᴖR’)
b) P(C’ᴖR’)
c) P(CᴗR)
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
P(C) = 0.90 P(R) = 0.83
a) P(CᴖR’) = P(C) x P(R’) = (0.90)x(1-0.83) = 0.153
b) P(C’ᴖR’)
c) P(CᴗR)
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
P(C) = 0.90 P(R) = 0.83
a) P(CᴖR’) = P(C) x P(R’) = (0.90)x(1-0.83) = 0.153
b) P(C’ᴖR’) = P(C’) x P(R’) = (1-0.90)x(1-0.83) = 0.017
c) P(CᴗR)
PROBABILITY
EXAMPLE
P(C) = 0.90 P(R) = 0.83
a) P(CᴖR’) = P(C) x P(R’) = (0.90)x(1-0.83) = 0.153
b) P(C’ᴖR’) = P(C’) x P(R’) = (1-0.90)x(1-0.83) = 0.017
c) P(CᴗR) = P(C) + P(R) – P(CᴖR) = 0.90 + 0.83 – (0.90)x(0.83) = 0.983
Probability Distributions
RANDOM VARIABLE
RANDOM VARIABLE
RANDOM VARIABLE
A rule that assigns a number to each outcome

RANDOM VARIABLE

RANDOM VARIABLE
Denoted by UPPERCASE letters (X, Y, Z, etc.)

RANDOM VARIABLE
EXAMPLE
a) The number of goals a football player can score in a season
b) The average number of shots taken by a basketball player in a season
c) The number of yellow balls drawn if two balls are drawn in succession without
replacement from a basket containing 4 yellow balls and 3 green balls.
RANDOM VARIABLE
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
replacement from a basket containing 4 yellow balls and 3 green balls. Z = {0, 1, 2}
RANDOM VARIABLE
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
RANDOM VARIABLE
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
RANDOM VARIABLE
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
whole numbers with decimals
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
RANDOM VARIABLE
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
RANDOM VARIABLE
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
FINITE INFINITE
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
RANDOM VARIABLE
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
FINITE INFINITE
EXAMPLE
X = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
Y = {0, 0.1, 0.2, …}
PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTIONS
A table listing all possible values that a random variable can take and
their corresponding probabilities
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
CUMULATIVE PROBABILITY
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
The partial sum of the probability distributions. Denoted by F(x)

X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
The partial sum of the probability distributions . Denoted by F(x)

F(3) = P(X <= 3) = P(0) + P(1) + P(2) + P(3)
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12

F(3) = P(X <= 3) = 0.10 + 0.05 + 0.40 + 0.20 = 0.75
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
F(x) 0.10 0.15 0.55 0.75 0.88 1.00

F(3) = P(X <= 3) = 0.10 + 0.05 + 0.40 + 0.20 = 0.75
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
P(X) 0.10 0.05 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.12
F(x) 0.10 0.15 0.55 0.75 0.88 1.00

F(3) = P(X <= 3) = 0.10 + 0.05 + 0.40 + 0.20 = 0.75
Cumulative Distribution Function (CDF)
EXAMPLE
A) Throw a pair of dice, and take X to be the sum of the numbers facing up. Construct a
probability distribution.

F(3) = P(X <= 3) = 0.10 + 0.05 + 0.40 + 0.20 = 0.75
F(x) - Cumulative Distribution Function
EXAMPLE
A) Throw a pair of dice, and take X to be the sum of the numbers facing up. Construct a
probability distribution.
X 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
P(X) 1/36 2/36 3/36 4/36 5/36 6/36 5/36 4/36 3/36 2/36 1/36
F(x) 1/36 3/36 6/36 10/36 15/36 21/36 26/36 30/36 33/36 35/36 36/36

F(3) = P(X <= 3) = 0.10 + 0.05 + 0.40 + 0.20 = 0.75
F(x) - Cumulative Distribution Function
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
DISCRETE CONTINUOUS
- Discrete Uniform - Normal Distribution

- Binomial
- Multinomial
- Hypergeometric
- Multivariate Hypergeometric
- Negative Binomial
- Geometric
- Poisson
DISCRETE UNIFORM
DISCRETE UNIFORM
This is the simplest probability distribution where the random variable assumes
each of its values with an equal probability.
DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk

DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk
The mean and variance of the discrete uniform distribution are
𝒌 𝒌 𝟐
𝒊=𝟏 𝑿𝒊 𝒊=𝟏(𝑿𝒊 −𝝁)
𝝁= 𝝈𝟐 =
𝒌 𝒌
DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk
𝒌 𝒌 𝟐
𝝁= 𝝈𝟐 =
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
A construction engineer is chosen from a roster of 15 engineers to supervise a certain project
by picking a tag at random from a box containing 15 tags numbered from 1 to 15.
a) Find the formula for the probability distribution of X representing the number on the tag
that is picked
b) What is the probability that the number on the tag picked is less than 9?
c) What is the mean and variance of the random variable X?
DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk
𝒌 𝒌 𝟐
𝝁= 𝝈𝟐 =
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
that is picked = P(x,15) = 1/15 for x = 1, 2, …, 15
b) What is the probability that the number on the tag is less than 9?
DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk
𝒌 𝒌 𝟐
𝝁= 𝝈𝟐 =
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
b) What is the probability that the number on the tag is less than 9? P(X<9) = 𝟖𝒊=𝟏 𝑷(𝒙)
DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk
𝒌 𝒌 𝟐
𝝁= 𝝈𝟐 =
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
b) What is the probability that the number on the tag is less than 9? P(X<9) = 8/15
DISCRETE UNIFORM
P(x,k) = 1/k for x = x1, x2, x3,… xk
𝒌 𝒌 𝟐
𝝁= 𝝈𝟐 =
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
b) What is the probability that the number on the tag is less than 9? P(X<9) = 8/15
c) What is the mean and variance of the random variable X? 𝝁 = 8, 𝝈𝟐 = 280/15
BINOMIAL
BINOMIAL
The probability distribution that has only 2 outcomes, success or failure, for any n
repeated independent trials. The probability of success (p) and failure (q) remains
the same from trial to trial.
BINOMIAL
B(x,n,p) = (nCx)(pxqn-x) for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒑 𝝈𝟐 = 𝒏𝒑𝒒
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
The probability that a patient recovers from a delicate heart operation is 0.85. What is the
probability that exactly 6 of the next 8 patients having this operation survive?
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
B(x,n,p)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
B(6,n,p)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
B(6,8,p)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
B(6,8,0.85)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
B(6,8,0.85) = (8C6)(0.856)(0.152) = 0.238

BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
A home security system is designed to have a 99% reliability rate. Suppose that nine homes
equipped with this system experience an attempted burglary, find the probability that
a) At least one of the alarm is triggered
b) More than seven of the alarms are triggered
c) Eight or fewer alarms are triggered
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
equipped with this system experience an attempted burglary, find the probability of that
a) At least one of the alarm is triggered = P(X≥1) = 1 – P(X=0) = 1 – B(0,9,0.99)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
a) At least one of the alarm is triggered = P(X≥1) = 1 – P(X=0) = 1.000
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
b) More than seven of the alarms are triggered = P(X>7) = 𝟗𝒊=𝟖 𝑩(𝒙, 𝟗, 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
b) More than seven of the alarms are triggered = P(X>7) = 𝟗𝒊=𝟖 𝑩(𝒙, 𝟗, 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗) = 0.997
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
c) Eight or fewer alarms are triggered = P(X≤8) = 𝟖𝒊=𝟎 𝑩(𝒙, 𝟗, 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗)
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
c) Eight or fewer alarms are triggered = P(X≤8) = 𝟖𝒊=𝟎 𝑩(𝒙, 𝟗, 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗) = 0.086
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
c) Eight or fewer alarms are triggered = P(X≤8) = 1 – P(X=9) = 0.086
BINOMIAL
EXAMPLE
c) Eight or fewer alarms are triggered = P(X≤8) = 1 – B(9,9,0.99) = 0.086
MULTINOMIAL
The probability distribution that has more than 2 outcomes for any n repeated
independent trials.
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
M(x1, x2,… xk; p1, p2… pk , n) = 𝒑𝟏 𝒙𝟏 𝒑𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒑𝒌 𝒙𝒌
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
𝒊=𝟏 𝒙𝒊 =𝒏 and 𝒊=𝟏 𝒑𝒊 =𝟏
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
A card is drawn from a well-shuffled deck of 52 playing cards, the result recorded and the
card replaced. If the experiment is repeated 5 times, what is the probability of obtaining 2
spades and 1 heart?
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
spades and 1 heart?
Possible events: a spade is drawn, a heart card is drawn, neither a spade or a heart is drawn
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
spades and 1 heart?
PS = ¼, PH = ¼, PN = ½
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
spades and 1 heart?
PS = ¼, PH = ¼, PN = ½ , INDEPENDENT
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
spades and 1 heart?
PS = ¼, PH = ¼, PN = ½ , INDEPENDENT, X1 = 2, X2 = 1, X3 = 2
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
spades and 1 heart?
M(2,1,2; ¼, ¼, ½, 5)
MULTINOMIAL
independent trials.
𝒏!
𝒙𝟏 !𝒙𝟐 !…𝒙𝒌 !
𝒌 𝒌
EXAMPLE
spades and 1 heart?
15/128
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
The binomial distribution that represents the probability of the kth success on the
xth trial
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial
B*(x,k,p) = (x-1 C k-1)(pkqx-k) for x = k, k+1, k+2,…

NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
A provincial television survey reveals that almost 30% of the people living in that province
approved the immediate arrest of their congresswoman regarding the election fraud. Find
the probability that the 8th person randomly asked in that province is a) the 5th one who
approved of the arrest; b) the third one who disapproved of the arrest.
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30)

NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30) = 0.029

NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30) = 0.029
b) k = 3,
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30) = 0.029
b) k = 3, and p = 0.70,
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30) = 0.029
b) k = 3, and p = 0.70, x = 8
NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30) = 0.029
b) k = 3, and p = 0.70, x = 8 -> B*(8,3,0.70)

NEGATIVE BINOMIAL
xth trial

EXAMPLE
a) k = 5, and p = 0.30, x = 8 -> B*(8,5,0.30) = 0.029
b) k = 3, and p = 0.70, x = 8 -> B*(8,3,0.70) = 0.018

GEOMETRIC
A special case of the negative binomial distribution where the first success occurs
on the xth trial
GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
The probability that an engineering graduate passes the licensure exam is 0.65. Find the
probability that the engineering graduate will pass the examination a) on the 4th try; b)
before the 3rd try
GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4
GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65
GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65 -> G(4, 0.65)

GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65 -> G(4, 0.65) = 0.028

GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65 -> G(4, 0.65) = 0.028
b) x = 1 and 2
GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65 -> G(4, 0.65) = 0.028
b) x = 1 and 2 and p = 0.65

GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65 -> G(4, 0.65) = 0.028
b) x = 1 and 2 and p = 0.65 -> G(1, 0.65) + G(2, 0.65)

GEOMETRIC
on the xth trial
G(x,p) = (pqx-1) for x = 1, 2, 3,…

EXAMPLE
before the 3rd try
a) x = 4 and p = 0.65 -> G(4, 0.65) = 0.028
b) x = 1 and 2 and p = 0.65 -> G(1, 0.65) + G(2, 0.65) = 0.8775

HYPERGEOMETRIC
If the number of elements in the population is large relative to the sample size, the
probability will follow binomial distribution. However, if the population size is
small relative to the sample size, the probability will follow hypergeometric
distribution.
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
(𝒌 𝑪 𝒙)(𝑵−𝒌 𝑪 𝒏−𝒙)
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝟐 𝑵−𝒏 𝒌 𝒌
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
𝑵−𝟏 𝑵 𝑵
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
What is the probability that a waitress will refuse to serve alcoholic beverages to only 2
minors if she randomly checks the IDs of 5 students from among 9 students of which 4 are
not of legal age?
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(x; N,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(2; N,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(2; 9,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(2; 9,5,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(2; 9,5,4)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(2; 9,5,4) = (4C2)*(5C3)/(9C5)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
not of legal age?
H(2; 9,5,4) = (4C2)*(5C3)/(9C5) = 0.476
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
From a lot of 10 missiles, 4 are selected at random and fired. If the lot contains 3 defective
missiles that will not fire, what is the probability that
a) All 4 will fire?
b) At most 2 will not fire?
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(x; N,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; N,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,4,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,4,7)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,4,7) = 1/6
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,4,7) = 1/6
b) At most 2 will not fire? H(x; N,n,k)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,4,7) = 1/6
b) At most 2 will not fire? 𝑥=2 𝑥=0 H(x; 10,4,3)
HYPERGEOMETRIC
distribution.
H(x; N,n,k) = for x = 0, 1, 2,… n
(𝑵 𝑪 𝒏)
𝝁 = 𝒏𝒌/𝑵 𝝈 = 𝒏( )(𝟏 − )
EXAMPLE
a) All 4 will fire? H(4; 10,4,7) = 1/6
b) At most 2 will not fire? 𝑥=2 𝑥=0 H(x; 10,4,3) = 29/30
POISSON
The distribution that represents the number of outcomes during a given time
interval or in a specified region.
POISSON
𝒆−λt (λt)𝒙
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
λ is the average number of outcomes per unit time or region

POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
On the average, a certain intersection results in 3 traffic accidents per month. What is the
probability that on any given month at this intersection
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur?

b) Less than 3 accidents will occur?
c) At least 2 accidents will occur?
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur? P(x; λt)

POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur? P(5; λt)

POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur? P(5; 3t)

POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur? P(5; 3x1)

POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur? P(5; 3x1) =
𝟓!
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
a) Exactly 5 accidents will occur? P(5; 3x1) = = 0.101
𝟓!
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
𝟓!
𝒙=𝟐
b) Less than 3 accidents will occur? 𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; λt)
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
𝟓!
b) Less than 3 accidents will occur? 𝒙=𝟐
𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; 3x1) = 0.423
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
𝟓!
𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; 3x1) = 0.423

c) At least 2 accidents will occur? P(x≥2)
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
𝟓!
𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; 3) = 0.423

c) At least 2 accidents will occur? P(x≥2) = 1 - 𝒙=𝟏
𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; 3)
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝒆−3 (3)𝟓
𝟓!
𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; 3) = 0.423
c) At least 2 accidents will occur? P(x≥2) = 1 - 𝒙=𝟏
𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(x; 3) = 0.801
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
A local drugstore owner knows that, on average, 100 people per hour stop by his store.
a) Find the probability that in a given 3-minute period, nobody enters the store
b) Find the probability that in a given 3 minute period, more than 5 people enter the store
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0 P(0; 5)
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0 P(0; 5) = 0.0067
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0 P(0; 5) = 0.0067
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒙 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 =𝟓
𝒉𝒓 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0 P(0; 5) = 0.0067
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒙 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 =𝟓 x>5
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0 P(0; 5) = 0.0067
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓 𝒙=𝟓
λt = 𝒙 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 =𝟓 x>5 1- 𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(𝒙, 𝟓)
POISSON
P(x; λt) = for x = 0, 1, 2,…
𝒙!
EXAMPLE
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓 𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏 𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 = 𝟓 x=0 P(0; 5) = 0.0067
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝟏 𝒉𝒓
λt = 𝒉𝒓
𝒙 𝟔𝟎 𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒙𝟑𝒎𝒊𝒏 =𝟓 x>5 0.384
DISCRETE PROBABILITY
DISTRIBUTIONS
EXAMPLE
A restaurant chef prepares a tossed salad containing, on average, 5 vegetables. Find the
probability that the salad contains more than 5 vegetables
a) On a given day;
b) On 3 of the next 4 days
c) For the first time in April on April 5

DISTRIBUTIONS
EXAMPLE
a) On a given day; Poisson distribution
b) On 3 of the next 4 days; Binomial distribution
c) For the first time in April on April 5; Geometric distribution

DISTRIBUTIONS
EXAMPLE
a) On a given day; Poisson distribution

𝒙=𝟓
P(x>5) = 1 - 𝒙=𝟎 𝑷(𝒙, 𝟓) = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟖𝟒
b) On 3 of the next 4 days; Binomial distribution

B(3; 4, 0.384) = 0.140
c) For the first time in April on April 5; Geometric distribution
G(5; 0.384) = 0.055
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
It is a theoretical symmetric distribution used to describe many variables that are
approximately normal (may not be perfectly normal)
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
NORMAL CURVE
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
NORMAL CURVE
A) It is BELL-SHAPED;
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
NORMAL CURVE
A) It is BELL-SHAPED; B) The total area under the curve is 1 (100%);
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
NORMAL CURVE
A) It is BELL-SHAPED; B) The total area under the curve is 1 (100%); C) SYMMETRIC
about the MEAN;
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
NORMAL CURVE
about the MEAN; D) TAILS extend but NEVER MEET the X-AXIS;
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
NORMAL CURVE
about the MEAN; D) TAILS extend but NEVER MEET the X-AXIS; E) MOCTs are
IDENTICAL
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙−𝝁 𝟐
𝒏 𝒙; 𝝁, 𝝈 = 𝒆𝟐( 𝝈 )
𝟐𝝅𝝈
AREAS UNDER THE NORMAL CURVE
It is equal to the probability that the normal random variable X assumes
a value between x = X1 and x = X2.
It is equal to the probability that the normal random variable X assumes
a value between x = X1 and x = X2.
𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏(𝒙−𝝁)𝟐
P 𝑿𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝑿𝟐 = 𝒙𝟏
𝒆𝟐 𝝈 𝒅𝒙
𝟐𝝅𝝈
STANDARD NORMAL DISTRIBUTION
It is a special case of normal probability distribution having mean equal to 0 and
standard deviation equal to 1.
It is a special case of normal probability distribution having mean equal to 0 and
standard deviation equal to 1.
The areas under the standard normal curve are given in the table of Z values.
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Given the normal distribution with µ = 30 and σ = 6, find
a) The normal-curve area to the right of x = 17
b) The normal-curve area to the left of x = 22
c) The normal-curve area between x = 32 and x = 41
d) The value of x that has 80% of the normal-curve area to the left
e) The two values of x that contain the middle 75% of the normal curve area
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑿−µ
𝒁=
σ
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝟏𝟕 − µ
𝒁=
σ
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝟏𝟕 − 30
𝒁=
6
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝒁 = −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏 − 𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟓
SAMPLE PROBLEMS

𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟓𝟎
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟐. 𝟏𝟕 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟖𝟓
0.0918
0.3371
35.04
23.1 and 36.9
APPLICATIONS
1) The life span of oil-drilling bits depends on the type of rock and soil that the drill
encounters, but it is estimated that the mean length of life is 75 hours. Suppose an
oil exploration company purchases drill bits that have a life span that is
approximately normally distributed with a mean life equal to 75 hours and
standard deviation equal to 12 hours,
a) What proportion of the company’s drill bits that will fail before 60 hours of
use?
b) What proportion will last at least 60 hours?
c) What proportion will have to be replaced after more than 90 hours of use?
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝑿−µ
𝒁=
σ
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁=
12
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
𝑿−µ
𝒁=
σ
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟎 − 75
𝒁=
12
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 > 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 > 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟏 − 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
APPLICATIONS
use? µ = 75 and σ = 12
𝟔𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 < −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
𝑨 𝒁 > −𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟖𝟗𝟒𝟒
𝟗𝟎 − 75
𝒁= = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓
12
𝑨 𝒁 > 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟓𝟔
APPLICATIONS
1) A lawyer commutes daily from his suburban home to his midtown office. The
average time for a one-way trip is 24 minutes, with a standard deviation of 3.8
minutes. Assume the distribution of trip times to be normally distributed.
a) What is the probability that a trip will take at least ½ hour?
b) If the office opens at 9:00AM and he leaves his house at 8:45AM daily, what
percentage of the time is he late for work?
c) If he leaves the house at 8:35AM and coffee is served at the office from
8:50AM until 9:00AM, what is the probability that he misses the coffee?
d) Find the length of time above which we find the slowest 15% of the trips.
e) Find the probability that 2 of the next 3 trips will take at least ½ hour.
APPLICATIONS
1) A lawyer commutes daily from his suburban home to his midtown office. The
average time for a one-way trip is 24 minutes, with a standard deviation of 3.8
minutes. Assume the distribution of trip times to be normally distributed.
a) What is the probability that a trip will take at least ½ hour?

0.0571
b) If the office opens at 9:00AM and he leaves his house at 8:45AM daily, what
percentage of the time is he late for work?
0.9911 or 99.11%
c) If he leaves the house at 8:35AM and coffee is served at the office from
8:50AM until 9:00AM, what is the probability that he misses the coffee?
0.3974
d) Find the length of time above which we find the slowest 15% of the trips.
27.952 minutes
e) Find the probability that 2 of the next 3 trips will take at least ½ hour.
0.0092
Hypothesis Testing
Inferential Statistics
It offers varied tools and techniques that help the researcher draw valid and reliable
inferences or generalizations about the population on the basis of the sample.
Statistical Hypothesis
It is a statement, assertion or claim about the nature of a population.
Null hypothesis, Ho Alternative hypothesis, H1


No difference, no relationship, or There is difference, relationship
no significant effect or significant effect
EXAMPLE
State the null and alternative hypotheses in each situation.
a) A researcher thinks that if expectant mothers use vitamin pills, the birth weight of
babies will increase. The average weight of the population is 8.2 pounds.
b) An engineer hypothesizes that the mean number of defects can be decreased in a

manufacturing process of compact disks by using robots instead of humans for certain
tasks. The mean number of defective compact disks per 100 is 18.

EXAMPLE
Ho: The average weight of babies is 8.2 pounds.

Ho: The mean number of defective compact disk per 100 is 18.

EXAMPLE
H1: The average weight of babies is higher than 8.2 pounds.
H1: The mean number of defective compact disk per 100 is lower than 18.

Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis Testing
It is a rule or procedure that leads to a decision to accept or reject the hypothesis when
the experimental sample values are obtained.
Hypothesis Testing
Decision Errors
Hypothesis Testing
Decision Errors
They are the possible errors that can be done when making a decision about a
proposed hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing
Decision Errors
proposed hypothesis
Hypothesis Testing
Decision Errors
proposed hypothesis
Type I Error, α Type II Error, β

Hypothesis Testing
Decision Errors
proposed hypothesis

When we reject the null When we accept the null
hypothesis when in fact, it is true hypothesis when in fact, it is false
Decision Ho is true Ho is false
Accept Ho Correct decision Type II error
Reject Ho Type I error Correct decision
Decision Errors
proposed hypothesis

When we reject the null When we accept the null
hypothesis when in fact, it is true hypothesis when in fact, it is false
EXAMPLE
Suppose that an allergist wishes to test the hypothesis that at least 30% of the public is
allergic to some cheese products. Explain how the allergist could commit
a) Type I error
b) Type II error
EXAMPLE
a) Type I error
The allergist could commit a type I error if he will conclude that fewer than
30% of the public are allergic to some cheese products when in fact, 30% or more are
allergic.
b) Type II error
The allergist could commit type II error if he will conclude that at least 30% of
the public are allergic to some cheese products when in fact, fewer than 30% are
allergic.
EXAMPLE
a) Type I error
The allergist could commit a type I error if he will conclude that fewer than
30% of the public are allergic to some cheese products when in fact, 30% or more are
allergic.
b) Type II error
The allergist could commit type II error if he will conclude that at least 30% of
the public are allergic to some cheese products when in fact, fewer than 30% are
allergic.
Level of Significance
It is the probability of making a Type I or alpha error in a test. It is the maximum
probability of rejecting the Null Hypothesis when in fact it is true.
A 5% significance level implies that we are 95% confident that we made the right decision
Tailed Tests
Tailed Tests
It implies the location of the rejection region for the test statistic
Tailed Tests
Tailed Tests
One-tailed Two-tailed
Tailed Tests
One-tailed Two-tailed
When test statistic is located at When test statistic is located on
only one extreme both sides of the parameter
EXAMPLE

EXAMPLE

ONE-TAILED TESTS
Steps in Hypothesis Testing
1. State the null hypothesis and the alternative
hypothesis
2. Choose a level of significance
3. Choose the appropriate test statistic and establish
the critical region
4. Compute the value of the test statistic
5. Make a decision
- Reject Ho of the test statistic has a value in the
critical region
- Otherwise, Accept Ho
6. Make a conclusion
HYPOTHESIS TESTS (SINGLE MEAN)
About a Population Mean: About a Population Mean:

Large Samples Small Samples

It is the test statistic used It is the test statistic used

for large samples (n≥30) for small samples (n<30)

It is the test statistic used It is the test statistic used

for large samples (n≥30) for small samples (n<30)
𝑿−𝝁 𝑿−𝝁
𝒁= 𝒕=
𝝈/ 𝒏 𝒔/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
• The TIV Telephone Company provides long-distance telephone service in
an area. According to the company’s records, the average length of all
long-distance calls placed through this company in 2009 was 12.44
minutes. The company’s management wanted to check if the mean length
of the current long-distance calls is different from 12.44 minutes. A sample
of 150 such calls placed through this company produced a mean length of
13.71 minutes with a standard deviation of 2.65 minutes. Using the 5%
significance level, can you conclude that the mean length of all current
long-distance calls is different from 12.44 minutes?
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
minutes. The company’s management wanted to check if the mean
length of the current long-distance calls is different from 12.44 minutes.
A sample of 150 such calls placed through this company produced a mean
length of 13.71 minutes with a standard deviation of 2.65 minutes. Using
the 5% significance level, can you conclude that the mean length of all
current long-distance calls is different from 12.44 minutes?
𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁 Critical region: Z<-1.96 or Z > 1.96

𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏 Z = 5.87
HO: µ = 12.44 mins
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏 Z = 5.87
HO: µ = 12.44 mins Decision: Reject Ho
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒁=
𝝈/ 𝒏 Z = 5.87
HO: µ = 12.44 mins Decision: Reject Ho
H1: µ ≠ 12.44 mins
Conclusion: The mean length of time is different from
α = 0.05 12.44 mins, in fact, it is higher than 12.44 mins
EXAMPLE
• Grand Auto Corporation produces auto batteries. The company claims that
its top-of –the-line Never Die batteries are good, on average, for at least
65 months. A consumer agency protection tested 15 batteries to check the
claim. It found that the mean life of these 15 batteries to be 63 months
with a standard deviation of 2 months. At the 5% significance level, can
you conclude that the claim of the company is true? Assume that the life
of such a battery has an approximately normal distribution.
EXAMPLE
65 months. A consumer agency protection tested 15 batteries to check
the claim. It found that the mean life of these 15 batteries to be 63
months with a standard deviation of 2 months. At the 5% significance
level, can you conclude that the claim of the company is true? Assume
that the life of such a battery has an approximately normal distribution.
EXAMPLE
65 months. A consumer agency protection tested 15 batteries to check
the claim. It found that the mean life of these 15 batteries to be 63
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
• Grand Auto Corporation produces auto batteries. The company claims
that its top-of –the-line Never Die batteries are good, on average, for at
least 65 months. A consumer agency protection tested 15 batteries to
check the claim. It found that the mean life of these 15 batteries to be 63
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 65 months
H1: µ < 65 months
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 65 months
H1: µ < 65 months
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 65 months
H1: µ < 65 months
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁 Critical region: t < -1.761 with v = 15-1 = 14

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 65 months
H1: µ < 65 months
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 65 months
H1: µ < 65 months
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏 t = -3.87
HO: µ = 65 months
H1: µ < 65 months
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏 t = -3.87
HO: µ = 65 months
Decision: Reject Ho
H1: µ < 65 months
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏 t = -3.87
HO: µ = 65 months
Decision: Reject Ho
H1: µ < 65 months
Conclusion: The claim of the company is invalid
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
• A past study claims that teenagers in Manila spend an average of 18 hours
a week on playing DOTA. A researcher wanted to test this claim. She took a
sample of 10 adults and asked them about the time they spend on playing
DOTA. Their responses (in hours) are as follows: 14, 25, 22, 38, 16, 26, 19,
23, 41, 33. Assume that the times spent on playing DOTA by all teenagers
are normally distributed. Using the 5% significance level, can you conclude
the claim of the earlier study is true?
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
• A past study claims that teenagers in Manila spend an average of 18
hours a week on playing DOTA. A researcher wanted to test this claim.
She took a sample of 10 adults and asked them about the time they spend
on playing DOTA. Their responses (in hours) are as follows: 14, 25, 22, 38,
16, 26, 19, 23, 41, 33. Assume that the times spent on playing DOTA by all
teenagers are normally distributed. Using the 5% significance level, can
you conclude the claim of the earlier study is true?
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 18 hours
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 18 hours
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁
𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 18 hours
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿−𝝁 Critical region: t < -2.262 or t >2.262 with v = 10-1 = 9

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏
HO: µ = 18 hours
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
𝒔/ 𝒏 𝑿 = 𝟐𝟓. 𝟕 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔, s = 9.044 hours, t = 2.69
HO: µ = 18 hours
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
HO: µ = 18 hours
Decision: Reject Ho
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE

𝒕=
HO: µ = 18 hours
Decision: Reject Ho
H1: µ ≠ 18 hours
Conclusion: The claim of the past study is not true.
α = 0.05
HYPOTHESIS TESTS (TWO MEANS)
About the difference About the difference

between Two between Two
About the difference Population Means:
Population Means: between Two
Large and Independent Small and Independent
Population Means: Samples: Unequal
Samples Small and Independent Variances
Samples: Equal
Variances

between Two Population between Two Population
Means: About the difference Means:
Large and Independent between Two Population Small and Independent
Samples Means: Samples: Unequal Variances
Small and Independent
It is the test statistic
Samples: Equal Variances It is the test statistic
used for large samples
(n≥30) used for large samples
It is the test statistic (n<30)
used for large samples σ1 ≠ σ 2
(n<30)
σ1 = σ 2

between Two Population between Two Population
Means: About the difference Means:
Large and Independent between Two Population Small and Independent
Samples Means: Samples: Unequal Variances
Small and Independent
It is the test statistic
Samples: Equal Variances It is the test statistic
used for large samples
(n≥30) used for large samples
It is the test statistic (n<30)
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 ) used for large samples σ1 ≠ σ 2
𝒁= (n<30)
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
σ1 𝟐σ2 𝟐 σ1 = σ 2 𝒕=
+
𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐 𝒔1𝟐 s2𝟐
𝒕=
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 ) 𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1𝟐 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
EXAMPLE
• A manufacturer claims that the average tensile strength of thread A
exceeds the average tensile strength of thread B by at least 12 kg. To test
this claim, 50 pieces of each type of thread are tested under similar
conditions. Type A thread had an average tensile strength of 86.7 kg with a
SD of 6.28 kg, while type B thread had an average tensile strength of 77.8
kg with a SD of 5.61 kg. Test the manufacturer’s claim using a 0.05 level of
significance.
EXAMPLE
significance.
EXAMPLE
significance.
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
EXAMPLE
significance.
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
EXAMPLE
significance.
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
EXAMPLE
significance.
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
significance.
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 ) Critical region: Z< -1.645
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
conditions. Type A thread had an average tensile strength of 86.7 kg with
a SD of 6.28 kg, while type B thread had an average tensile strength of
77.8 kg with a SD of 5.61 kg. Test the manufacturer’s claim using a 0.05
level of significance.
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐 Z = -2.603
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐 Z = -2.603
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
Decision: Reject Ho
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝒁=
σ 1𝟐 σ 2 𝟐 Z = -2.603
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐
Decision: Reject Ho
HO: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 12 kg
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 < 12 kg Conclusion: The manufacturer’s claim is
α = 0.05 invalid. In fact, the average tensile strength
of A exceeds that of B by less than 12 kg.
EXAMPLE
• A sample of 14 cans of Brand A diet soda gave the mean number of 23
calories per can with a SD of 3 calories. Another sample of 16 cans of
Brand B diet soda gave the mean number of 25 per can with a SD of 4
calories. At the 5% significance level, can you conclude that the mean
numbers of calories per can are different for these two brands of diet
soda? Assume that the SD for two populations are equal.
EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕=
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1𝟐 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕=
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1𝟐 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕=
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1𝟐 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
Ho: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 = 0 calories
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 ≠ 0 calories
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕=
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1𝟐 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕=
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1𝟐 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕= t<-2.048 and t>2.048 with v = 14+16-2 = 28
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕= t<-2.048 and t>2.048 with v = 14+16-2 = 28
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2 𝟏 𝟏
+
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕= t<-2.048 and t>2.048 with v = 14+16-2 = 28
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2 𝟏 𝟏
+ t = -1.531
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕= t<-2.048 and t>2.048 with v = 14+16-2 = 28
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2 𝟏 𝟏
+ t = -1.531
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
Decision: Accept Ho
α = 0.05
EXAMPLE
𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟐 − (𝝁𝟏 − 𝝁𝟐 )
𝒕= t<-2.048 and t>2.048 with v = 14+16-2 = 28
𝟐 𝟐
(𝒏𝟏 −1)s1 +(𝒏𝟐 −1)s2 𝟏 𝟏
+ t = -1.531
𝒏𝟏 + 𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒏𝟏 𝒏𝟐
Decision: Accept Ho
H1: 𝜇1 − 𝜇2 ≠ 0 calories Conclusion: There is no significant
difference between the mean calories of
α = 0.05 the two brands of diet soda
MooreIntro-3620056 ips_tables October 6, 2010 13:30
T-2 Tables
Probability
Table entry for z is

the area under the
standard Normal curve
to the left of z. z
TABLE A
Standard Normal probabilities
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
−3.4 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0003 .0002
−3.3 .0005 .0005 .0005 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0004 .0003
−3.2 .0007 .0007 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0006 .0005 .0005 .0005
−3.1 .0010 .0009 .0009 .0009 .0008 .0008 .0008 .0008 .0007 .0007
−3.0 .0013 .0013 .0013 .0012 .0012 .0011 .0011 .0011 .0010 .0010
−2.9 .0019 .0018 .0018 .0017 .0016 .0016 .0015 .0015 .0014 .0014
−2.8 .0026 .0025 .0024 .0023 .0023 .0022 .0021 .0021 .0020 .0019
−2.7 .0035 .0034 .0033 .0032 .0031 .0030 .0029 .0028 .0027 .0026
−2.6 .0047 .0045 .0044 .0043 .0041 .0040 .0039 .0038 .0037 .0036
−2.5 .0062 .0060 .0059 .0057 .0055 .0054 .0052 .0051 .0049 .0048
−2.4 .0082 .0080 .0078 .0075 .0073 .0071 .0069 .0068 .0066 .0064
−2.3 .0107 .0104 .0102 .0099 .0096 .0094 .0091 .0089 .0087 .0084
−2.2 .0139 .0136 .0132 .0129 .0125 .0122 .0119 .0116 .0113 .0110
−2.1 .0179 .0174 .0170 .0166 .0162 .0158 .0154 .0150 .0146 .0143
−2.0 .0228 .0222 .0217 .0212 .0207 .0202 .0197 .0192 .0188 .0183
−1.9 .0287 .0281 .0274 .0268 .0262 .0256 .0250 .0244 .0239 .0233
−1.8 .0359 .0351 .0344 .0336 .0329 .0322 .0314 .0307 .0301 .0294
−1.7 .0446 .0436 .0427 .0418 .0409 .0401 .0392 .0384 .0375 .0367
−1.6 .0548 .0537 .0526 .0516 .0505 .0495 .0485 .0475 .0465 .0455
−1.5 .0668 .0655 .0643 .0630 .0618 .0606 .0594 .0582 .0571 .0559
−1.4 .0808 .0793 .0778 .0764 .0749 .0735 .0721 .0708 .0694 .0681
−1.3 .0968 .0951 .0934 .0918 .0901 .0885 .0869 .0853 .0838 .0823
−1.2 .1151 .1131 .1112 .1093 .1075 .1056 .1038 .1020 .1003 .0985
−1.1 .1357 .1335 .1314 .1292 .1271 .1251 .1230 .1210 .1190 .1170
−1.0 .1587 .1562 .1539 .1515 .1492 .1469 .1446 .1423 .1401 .1379
−0.9 .1841 .1814 .1788 .1762 .1736 .1711 .1685 .1660 .1635 .1611
−0.8 .2119 .2090 .2061 .2033 .2005 .1977 .1949 .1922 .1894 .1867
−0.7 .2420 .2389 .2358 .2327 .2296 .2266 .2236 .2206 .2177 .2148
−0.6 .2743 .2709 .2676 .2643 .2611 .2578 .2546 .2514 .2483 .2451
−0.5 .3085 .3050 .3015 .2981 .2946 .2912 .2877 .2843 .2810 .2776
−0.4 .3446 .3409 .3372 .3336 .3300 .3264 .3228 .3192 .3156 .3121
−0.3 .3821 .3783 .3745 .3707 .3669 .3632 .3594 .3557 .3520 .3483
−0.2 .4207 .4168 .4129 .4090 .4052 .4013 .3974 .3936 .3897 .3859
−0.1 .4602 .4562 .4522 .4483 .4443 .4404 .4364 .4325 .4286 .4247
−0.0 .5000 .4960 .4920 .4880 .4840 .4801 .4761 .4721 .4681 .4641
MooreIntro-3620056 ips_tables October 6, 2010 13:30
Tables T-3
Probability
Table entry for z is the

area under the
standard Normal curve
to the left of z. z
TABLE A
Standard Normal probabilities (continued)
z .00 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05 .06 .07 .08 .09
0.0 .5000 .5040 .5080 .5120 .5160 .5199 .5239 .5279 .5319 .5359
0.1 .5398 .5438 .5478 .5517 .5557 .5596 .5636 .5675 .5714 .5753
0.2 .5793 .5832 .5871 .5910 .5948 .5987 .6026 .6064 .6103 .6141
0.3 .6179 .6217 .6255 .6293 .6331 .6368 .6406 .6443 .6480 .6517
0.4 .6554 .6591 .6628 .6664 .6700 .6736 .6772 .6808 .6844 .6879
0.5 .6915 .6950 .6985 .7019 .7054 .7088 .7123 .7157 .7190 .7224
0.6 .7257 .7291 .7324 .7357 .7389 .7422 .7454 .7486 .7517 .7549
0.7 .7580 .7611 .7642 .7673 .7704 .7734 .7764 .7794 .7823 .7852
0.8 .7881 .7910 .7939 .7967 .7995 .8023 .8051 .8078 .8106 .8133
0.9 .8159 .8186 .8212 .8238 .8264 .8289 .8315 .8340 .8365 .8389
1.0 .8413 .8438 .8461 .8485 .8508 .8531 .8554 .8577 .8599 .8621
1.1 .8643 .8665 .8686 .8708 .8729 .8749 .8770 .8790 .8810 .8830
1.2 .8849 .8869 .8888 .8907 .8925 .8944 .8962 .8980 .8997 .9015
1.3 .9032 .9049 .9066 .9082 .9099 .9115 .9131 .9147 .9162 .9177
1.4 .9192 .9207 .9222 .9236 .9251 .9265 .9279 .9292 .9306 .9319
1.5 .9332 .9345 .9357 .9370 .9382 .9394 .9406 .9418 .9429 .9441
1.6 .9452 .9463 .9474 .9484 .9495 .9505 .9515 .9525 .9535 .9545
1.7 .9554 .9564 .9573 .9582 .9591 .9599 .9608 .9616 .9625 .9633
1.8 .9641 .9649 .9656 .9664 .9671 .9678 .9686 .9693 .9699 .9706
1.9 .9713 .9719 .9726 .9732 .9738 .9744 .9750 .9756 .9761 .9767
2.0 .9772 .9778 .9783 .9788 .9793 .9798 .9803 .9808 .9812 .9817
2.1 .9821 .9826 .9830 .9834 .9838 .9842 .9846 .9850 .9854 .9857
2.2 .9861 .9864 .9868 .9871 .9875 .9878 .9881 .9884 .9887 .9890
2.3 .9893 .9896 .9898 .9901 .9904 .9906 .9909 .9911 .9913 .9916
2.4 .9918 .9920 .9922 .9925 .9927 .9929 .9931 .9932 .9934 .9936
2.5 .9938 .9940 .9941 .9943 .9945 .9946 .9948 .9949 .9951 .9952
2.6 .9953 .9955 .9956 .9957 .9959 .9960 .9961 .9962 .9963 .9964
2.7 .9965 .9966 .9967 .9968 .9969 .9970 .9971 .9972 .9973 .9974
2.8 .9974 .9975 .9976 .9977 .9977 .9978 .9979 .9979 .9980 .9981
2.9 .9981 .9982 .9982 .9983 .9984 .9984 .9985 .9985 .9986 .9986
3.0 .9987 .9987 .9987 .9988 .9988 .9989 .9989 .9989 .9990 .9990
3.1 .9990 .9991 .9991 .9991 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9992 .9993 .9993
3.2 .9993 .9993 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9994 .9995 .9995 .9995
3.3 .9995 .9995 .9995 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9996 .9997
3.4 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9997 .9998
t Table
cum. prob t .50 t .75 t .80 t .85 t .90 t .95 t .975 t .99 t .995 t .999 t .9995
one-tail 0.50 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.025 0.01 0.005 0.001 0.0005
two-tails 1.00 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.002 0.001
df
1 0.000 1.000 1.376 1.963 3.078 6.314 12.71 31.82 63.66 318.31 636.62
2 0.000 0.816 1.061 1.386 1.886 2.920 4.303 6.965 9.925 22.327 31.599
3 0.000 0.765 0.978 1.250 1.638 2.353 3.182 4.541 5.841 10.215 12.924
4 0.000 0.741 0.941 1.190 1.533 2.132 2.776 3.747 4.604 7.173 8.610
5 0.000 0.727 0.920 1.156 1.476 2.015 2.571 3.365 4.032 5.893 6.869
6 0.000 0.718 0.906 1.134 1.440 1.943 2.447 3.143 3.707 5.208 5.959
7 0.000 0.711 0.896 1.119 1.415 1.895 2.365 2.998 3.499 4.785 5.408
8 0.000 0.706 0.889 1.108 1.397 1.860 2.306 2.896 3.355 4.501 5.041
9 0.000 0.703 0.883 1.100 1.383 1.833 2.262 2.821 3.250 4.297 4.781
10 0.000 0.700 0.879 1.093 1.372 1.812 2.228 2.764 3.169 4.144 4.587
11 0.000 0.697 0.876 1.088 1.363 1.796 2.201 2.718 3.106 4.025 4.437
12 0.000 0.695 0.873 1.083 1.356 1.782 2.179 2.681 3.055 3.930 4.318
13 0.000 0.694 0.870 1.079 1.350 1.771 2.160 2.650 3.012 3.852 4.221
14 0.000 0.692 0.868 1.076 1.345 1.761 2.145 2.624 2.977 3.787 4.140
15 0.000 0.691 0.866 1.074 1.341 1.753 2.131 2.602 2.947 3.733 4.073
16 0.000 0.690 0.865 1.071 1.337 1.746 2.120 2.583 2.921 3.686 4.015
17 0.000 0.689 0.863 1.069 1.333 1.740 2.110 2.567 2.898 3.646 3.965
18 0.000 0.688 0.862 1.067 1.330 1.734 2.101 2.552 2.878 3.610 3.922
19 0.000 0.688 0.861 1.066 1.328 1.729 2.093 2.539 2.861 3.579 3.883
20 0.000 0.687 0.860 1.064 1.325 1.725 2.086 2.528 2.845 3.552 3.850
21 0.000 0.686 0.859 1.063 1.323 1.721 2.080 2.518 2.831 3.527 3.819
22 0.000 0.686 0.858 1.061 1.321 1.717 2.074 2.508 2.819 3.505 3.792
23 0.000 0.685 0.858 1.060 1.319 1.714 2.069 2.500 2.807 3.485 3.768
24 0.000 0.685 0.857 1.059 1.318 1.711 2.064 2.492 2.797 3.467 3.745
25 0.000 0.684 0.856 1.058 1.316 1.708 2.060 2.485 2.787 3.450 3.725
26 0.000 0.684 0.856 1.058 1.315 1.706 2.056 2.479 2.779 3.435 3.707
27 0.000 0.684 0.855 1.057 1.314 1.703 2.052 2.473 2.771 3.421 3.690
28 0.000 0.683 0.855 1.056 1.313 1.701 2.048 2.467 2.763 3.408 3.674
29 0.000 0.683 0.854 1.055 1.311 1.699 2.045 2.462 2.756 3.396 3.659
30 0.000 0.683 0.854 1.055 1.310 1.697 2.042 2.457 2.750 3.385 3.646
40 0.000 0.681 0.851 1.050 1.303 1.684 2.021 2.423 2.704 3.307 3.551
60 0.000 0.679 0.848 1.045 1.296 1.671 2.000 2.390 2.660 3.232 3.460
80 0.000 0.678 0.846 1.043 1.292 1.664 1.990 2.374 2.639 3.195 3.416
100 0.000 0.677 0.845 1.042 1.290 1.660 1.984 2.364 2.626 3.174 3.390
1000 0.000 0.675 0.842 1.037 1.282 1.646 1.962 2.330 2.581 3.098 3.300
z 0.000 0.674 0.842 1.036 1.282 1.645 1.960 2.326 2.576 3.090 3.291
0% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 95% 98% 99% 99.8% 99.9%
Confidence Level
t-table.xls 7/14/2007

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INTRODUCTION TO

ENGINEERING DATA ANALYSIS

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON - PROBABILITY SAMPLING

PROBABILITY SAMPLING NON-PROBABILTY SAMPLING

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

6. Check the total number of observations

1. Decide on the number of class intervals (k)

6. Check the total number of observations

Weight (in kg) Frequency

1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class

1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class Class

1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class Class <Cf >Cf

1. Class Boundaries – average Weight f Class Class <Cf >Cf Relative

Frequency Histogram Pie Chart

< Ogive > Ogive

 Understand the summation notation

The most common symbol or notation used in

𝑋𝑖 + 𝑌𝑖 = (𝑋1 +𝑌1 ) + (𝑋2 +𝑌2 ) + ⋯ + (𝑋𝑛 +𝑌𝑛 ) =

PROPERTIES OF SUMMATION NOTATION

∑ 2𝑋1 + 2𝑋2 + 2𝑋3 + 2𝑋4 + 2𝑋5 + 2𝑋6

(𝑎3 + 5)2 + (𝑎4 + 5)2 +(𝑎5 + 5)2 +(𝑎6 + 5)2

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑋1 = 2, 𝑋2 = −1, 𝑋3 = 4, 𝑋4 = 0, 𝑋5 = 3, 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑

MEDIAN When the data are arranged in decreasing or

MODE It is the value which occurs most often or with

WEIGHTED MEAN COMBINED MEAN

NO. OF STUD GRADE

Test Score No. of Students

Test Score No. of Students

Test Score No. of Students

𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝒌 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝒅𝒆𝒄(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)

𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)

𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝑳𝑺 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝑯𝑺 − 𝑳𝑺)

𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓 𝑸𝒌 = 𝟑𝟑 + 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓(𝟑𝟓 − 𝟑𝟑)

𝑳𝑸𝟏 = 𝟏𝟐. 𝟓 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟕𝟕. 𝟒𝟕

 Calculate the different measures of dispersion

“how spread out”

MEASURES OF ABSOLUTE MEASURES OF RELATIVE

𝟏𝟎𝟖 𝟏, 𝟑𝟖𝟕, 𝟖𝟓𝟒 − (𝟏𝟐, 𝟐𝟎𝟒)𝟐

COEFFICIENT OF VARIATION STANDARD Z SCORE

- is used to compare the variability of - measures how many standard

SAMPLE POPULATION SAMPLE

a) Absolute dispersion STATISTICS

𝑪𝑶𝑽 𝑺𝑻𝑨𝑻 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑪𝑶𝑽 𝑨𝑳𝑮𝑬𝑩 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟒

Z 𝐒𝐓𝐀𝐓 = −𝟎. 𝟑𝟕𝟓 Z 𝐀𝐋𝐆𝐄𝐁 = −𝟎. 𝟐𝟔𝟑

Negatively Skewed Mesokurtic

Positively Skewed Leptokurtic