Hazards are threats to life, properties, and environment.

During an earth- quake, ground shaking is the

main hazard. It can cause destruction of properties and environment as well as injuries and death.

common secondary hazards of an earthquake:

1. Ground displacement, Faulting, Ground rapture 2. Structural Collapse

3. Liquefaction 4. Tsunami

5.Seiche 6. Landslides, Avalanches, Rock falls

The Philippine archipelago is seated on the western corner of the Pacific Ring of Fire, in which frequent
seismic and volcanic activities happen. According to the Department of Science and Technology-
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (DOST-PHIVOLCS), the country is prone to
earthquakes as it lies between two major tectonic plates, the Philippine Sea Plate and the Eurasian Plate.
The Philippine Sea Plate is moving towards the Philippine archipelago at the rate of about 7cm/year.

Around 20 earthquakes are registered daily, though most are too weak to be felt. The last major
earthquakes were the 1990 Luzon earthquake and the 2013 Bohol earthquake.

An earthquake is the feeble shaking to violent trembling of the ground produced by the sudden
displacement of rocks or rock materials below the earth's surface Sudden displacements along fault
fissures in the solid and rigid layer of the earth generate tectonic earthquakes, Those induced by rising
lava or magma beneath active volcanoes generate volcanic earthquakes. (PHIVOLCS)

The tectonic origin of an earthquake happens if the tectonic edges or fault lines move suddenly wherein
the underground plane of rocks breaks suddenly causing the jolt. This jolt is measured by the
seismograph, an instrument that detects and records earthquakes.

Seismicity - the occurrence or frequency of earth- quakes in a certain region

Magnitude is a quantitative measure of the size and energy released at the source of the earthquake. It
is determined from measurements of the seismographs. The Richter Scale measures the amount of
seismic energy released by an earth- quake.

Intesity measures the strength of shaking produced by the earthquake at a certain location. It is
determined from effects on people, human structures, and the natural environment. It is the severity of
earthquake shaking that is assessed using a descriptive scale - the Modified Mercalli Scale. (GNS Scienc
Magnitude Typical Maximum Modified Mercalli Abbreviated Modified Mercalli Intensity
Intensity Scale
1.0 - 3,0
I I. Not felt except by a very few under
specially favorable conditions

3.0 – 3.9
II-III II. Felt only by a few persons at rest,
specially on upper floors of buildings

III. Felt quite noticeably by persons

indoors especially on upper floors of
buildings: ( recognized as an earthquake
by some people: causes standing motor
and cars to rock slightly vibrations are
similar to the passing of a truck duration
is estimated

4.0 – 4.9
IV - V IV Felt indoors by many, outdoors by
few during the day at night, same were
awakened dishes. windows doors
disturbed and walls make cracking
sound sensation like heavy truck striking
o building: standing motor cars rocked
noticeably

V Felt by nearly everyone awakened

many broke some dishes and windows.
overturned objects: may stop pendulum
clock

5.0 – 5.9
VI - VII
VI. Felt by all, many were frightened:
moved some heavy furniture: a few
instances of fallen plaster slight damage.

6.0 - 6.9
VII. Domage negligible in buildings of
VII - IX
good design and construction: slight to
moderate in well-built ordinary
structures. considerable damage in
poorly built or badly designed structures

VIII Sight damage in specially designed

structures considerable damage in
ordinary substantial buildings with
partial collapse damage great in poorly
built structures fall of chimneys. factory
stacks columns monuments, walls
overturned heavy furniture

IX. Considerable damage in specially

designed structures well-designed frame
structures thrown out of plumb great
damage in substantial buildings, with
partial collapse buildings shifted off
foundations
X or higher
7.0 X. Destroyed some well-built wooden
structures most masonry and frome
structures with Foundations bent rails

XI Few of any (masonry) structures

remain stan ding: destroyed bridges,
bent rais

XII Totol damage distorted bees of sight

and level. thrown objects me the die
from the severity af the earthquake
 Effects of Earthquake Hazards

The main hazard of an earthquake is ground shaking or vibration which can cause the following:

Structural Collapse - There is severe ground shaking. Low a

nd tall buildings, towers, and posts may tilt, split, topple, or collapse. The foundation of road, railroad
tracks, and bridges may break. Water pipes and other utility installations may get dislocated. Dams and
similar structures may break and cause flooding. Other forms of mass movement may be generated.

Fire - After seismic events, there could be damage to piping and tanks which contain combustible
materials (gas or liquid) which can spark into an 'inferno' from a damaged electrical line. There will also
be an impairment of the fire fighting system like pipes and tanks which are used to pump water during
fire. Fire walls and fire alarm systems will also be breached and destroyed.

Liquefaction- Soil liquefaction describes a phenomenon whereby a saturated or partially saturated soil
substantially loses its strength and stiffness in response to an applied stress, usually an earthquake
shaking or other sudden change in stress condition causing it to behave like liquid. Liquefaction prone
areas can be found in beach zones. sandspits, sandhars, tombolos, wide coastal plains, deltaic plains,
floodplains abandoned river meanders, former lake beds, former or existing marshlands and
swamplands, and areas underlain by sandy lahar deposits. (PHIVOLCS)

Landslide - A landslide is the movement of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. It results from the failure
of the materials which make up the hill slope and are driven by the force of gravity. Landslides are also
known as landslips. slumps, or slope failure. Other forms of movement similar to landslide are rock fall
and avalanche.

Flood - Due to damaged man-made structures like dams, aqueducts, levees along a river, and main water
pipes, the water from the river or the reservoir floods the area, damaging buildings, and sometimes
sweeping away or drowning people.

Hazardous chemical spill/s - These are spills from broken pipes and tanks that contain chemicals. This can
also happen when a ship carrying chemicals is destroyed by a tsunami.

Tsunami - This is a giant wave resulting from earthquake, volcanic eruption, meteor impact, or any sort
of major displacement of water in the ocean. Tsunamis have so much energy, thus they can travel several
miles inland. Seiches, on the other hand, are standing waves that oscillate generated by seismic or
atmospheric disturbance on an enclosed or partially enclosed body of water such as lake, bay, or gulf.

Radioactivity from damaged nuclear power - This is a result of structural damage due to ground shaking
involving a facility that contains radioactive isotopes or due to flooding of reactor by tsunami water
(Fukushima Reactor meltdown, 2011).

Amplitude, in physics, is the maximum displacement or distance moved by a point on a vibrating body or
wave measured from its equilibrium position. It is equal to one-half the length of the vibration path.
 VOLCANIC HAZARDS
Volcanoes of the Philippines

The Philippines belongs to the Pacific Ring of Fire, meaning it has numerous active volcanoes. The following are the
ten most active volcanoes in the country.

1. Mt. Mayon (Albay) - erupted at least 51 times since 1616

2. Taal Volcano (Batangas) - erupted 33 times since 1572

3. Mt. Kanlaon (Negros Oriental) - erupted at least 30 times since 1886

4. Mt. Bulusan (Sorsogon) - erupted at least 16 times from 1852

5. Mt. Makaturing (Lanao Del Sur) - erupted 10 times since 1882

6. Mt. Calayo or Musuan Peak Volcano (Bukidnon) - erupted 2 times between 1866 and 1887

7. Hibok-Hibok (Camiguin) - erupted 5 times since 1827

8.Smith Volcano (Cagayan) - erupted 6 times

9. Mt. Banahaw (Quezon) - erupted 3 times since 1730

10. Mt. Pinatubo (Zambales) - erupted last 1991 which was known to be the 2nd largest eruption of the 20th century. It had
milder eruptions last 1992 and 1993.

VOLCANIC HAZARDS

1. Pyroclastic Density Currents - These are gravity-driven, rapidly moving, ground-hugging mixtures of rock
fragments and hot gases. They form a dense fluid that moves along the ground with an upper part that is less
dense as particles fall toward the ground. Low concentration density flows are called "pyroclastic surges" which can
expand over hill and valley-like hurricanes. Temperatures can reach as hot as 900°C.

2. Lahars - These are parts of the family of fluid debris flows, composed of mixtures of water and particles of all
sizes, from clay-size to gigantic boulders Lahars are composed of volcanic particles and originate directly or
indirectly from volcanic action. They can be formed by hot pyroclastic surges or flows entering watershed systems
or flowing over snow and ice; by eruptions through crater lakes; by heavy rains on loose volcanic debris, that is, any
process by which volcanic particles can become saturated by water and move downslope.

3. Debris-flow Avalanches - Massive avalanches usually occur on very steep volcanoes and due to the collapse of
an unstable slope. The two general types of debris avalanches are "cold" and "hot." A "cold" debris avalanche is
caused by an unstable slope, whereas a "hot" debris avalanche is caused by volcanic activity

Lava Flows - Lava flows rarely threaten human life because they usually move slowly a few centimeters per hour for
silicic flows to several km/hour for basaltic flows.

Methods for controlling paths of lava flows:

1. constructing barriers and diversion channels; 2. cool advancing front with water; and

3. disruption of source or advancing front of lava flow by explosives.

Tephra falls and Ballistic Projectiles formed on land - They consist of pyroclastic fragments of any size and origin
and are synonymous to "pyroclastic materials." Tephra ranges in size from ash (<2 mm) to lapilli (2-64 mm) to
blocks and bombs (>64 mm). Densities vary greatly from that of pumice (<0.5)) to solid pieces of lava. A material
may be juvenile (formed from magma involved in the eruption) or accidental (derived from pre-existing rock).

Adsorption - Is the adhesion in an extremely thin layer of molecules (gases, solutes, liquids) to the surface of solid
bodies that they have come in contact with.

Volcanic Gas-Magma - is a molten rock containing dissolved gases that are released to the atmosphere during an
eruption. It lies close to the surface from hydrothermal systems. The most abundant volcanic gas is water vapor;
other important gases are carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, sulfur oxides, hydrogen sulfide, chlorine, and fluorine.

Tsunamis - These are long-period sea waves or wave trains generated by a sudden displacement of water. They
travel at very high speeds through deep water as low broad waves and build to great heights as they approach the
shallow bottom of shores. Most are caused by fault displacements on the sea floor, but many have been caused by
volcanic actions.