BASIC COMPUTER STRUCTURE

 A computer accepts digital information, processes it per a set of instructions, and

provides the results.
 It consists of a Central Processing Unit (CPU), Main Memory, and an Input and
Output (I/O) system.

1) COMPUTER SYSTEMS:
 The basic main components are:
1. A central processing unit (CPU).
2. A memory, comprising both ‘read/write’ and ‘read only’ devices (commonly called
RAM and ROM, respectively). {Semiconductor}
3. A means of providing input and output (I/O) (for example, a keypad for input and
a display for output).

 Functions of the CPU are provided by a single very large-scale integrated (VLSI) -
microprocessor chip, this chip is equivalent to many thousands of individual
transistors.
 The basic components of the system (CPU, RAM,ROM and I/O) are linked together
using a multiple wire connecting system known as a BUS.

Types of BUS

Address bus Data bus Control bus

(Used to specify memory (bus on which data (which provides timing and

locations) is transferred between devices.) control signals through

(Unidirectional) (Bidirectional) the system. ) (Unidirectional)

 Bits-0,1 , bytes 8 bits, nibble- string of 4 bits ,word – combination of 16 bits
 The largest hexadecimal address that can appear on a 24-bit address bus - FFFFF

 Memory storage devices

1.) Memory is the location where information is kept while not in current use.
2.) Memory is usually measured by the number of bytes it can hold.
3.) It is measured in Kilos, Megas and lately Gigas. A Kilo in computer language is 210 =1024.
So, a KB (KiloByte) is 1024 bytes. Mega is 1024 Kilos and Giga is 1024 Mega.
4.) Types of memory

5.) RAM(Random Access Memory)-

a) Refers to a memory device in which data may be retrieved from all locations with equal
ease.
b) Volatile-data lost when power is gone, The semiconductor RAM within a microprocessor
system provides storage for the transient data and variables that are used by programs.
c) Dynamic memories (Used as main memory but slower than SRAM) The important
difference between the two types is that dynamic memories require periodic refreshing
if they are not to lose their contents.
d) Static memories (Used as cache & is faster than DRAM) do not need refreshing and can
be relied upon to retain their memory until such time as new data is written or the
power supply is interrupted (in which case all data is lost).

6.) ROM (Read Only Memory)-

a) The semiconductor ROM within a microprocessor system provides storage for the
program code, as well as any permanent data that requires storage & is Non-volatile.
b) Can only be read not written, has PROM, EPROM, EEROM.
c) PROM-Programable ROM (After programming the data cannot be changed)
d) EPROM-Erasable PROM (manufactured with a window that allows light to fall upon the
semiconductor memory cell matrix, it may be erased by exposure to a strong ultraviolet
light source over a period of several minutes, or tens of minutes. (UV light)
e) EEPROM-Electrically Erasable PROM (After programming data can be erased in small
portions of chips by using electric field).
 BUS System in Aircraft
a) The computer systems used on modern aircraft are becoming increasingly sophisticated,
frequently requiring powerful 32- and 64-bit processors capable of manipulating large
amounts of data in a small time.
b) Avionics computer comprises a number of identical-sized cards mounted in a frame and
linked together at the rear of the card frame by tracks on a printed circuit board
mounted at right angles to the cards.
c) Bus arbitration is required in order to avoid bus contention.
d) A bus arbitration system based on the physical location of cards is referred to as serial
arbitration
e) The processor instruction HLT is classed as: a control instruction

 Aircraft integrated data system

a) The aircraft integrated data system (AIDS) collects and records operational data to
permit detailed analysis of aircraft performance and maintenance requirements
b) The data is acquired by the digital flight data acquisition unit (DFDAU) and preserved for
future reference by a quick access recorder (QAR).

CPU
 The microprocessor central processing unit (CPU) forms the heart of any microprocessor or
microcomputer system computer and, consequently, its operation is crucial to the entire
system.
 The primary function of the microprocessor is that of fetching, decoding and executing
instructions resident in memory.
 The main parts of a microprocessor CPU are:
1. registers for temporary storage of addresses and data;
2. an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) that is capable of performing arithmetic and logical
operations;
3. a unit that receives and decodes instructions;
4. a means of controlling and timing operation within the system.
1.) Accumulator
a.) The accumulator functions both as a source and as a destination register for many of the
basic microprocessor operations.
b.) As a source register it contains the data that will be used in a particular operation, while as a
destination register it will be used to hold the result of a particular operation.

2.) Instruction registers

a.) The instruction register provides a temporary storage location in which the current
microprocessor instruction is held while it is being decoded.
b.) On the first part of each machine cycle, the instruction is fetched and decoded.
c.) The instruction is executed on the second (and subsequent) machine cycles. Each machine
cycle takes a finite time (usually less than a microsecond) depending upon the frequency of
the microprocessor’s clock
d.) The data bus buffer is a temporary register through which bytes of data pass on their way
into and out of the microprocessor. (bidirectional)
e.) Data can be transferred from one bus to another by means of a bus bridge
3.) Stack pointer -(Temporary storage of data) (in external read/write memory)
a.) The stack pointer is simply a register containing the address of the last used stack
location.
b.) When the time comes to suspend a particular task in order to briefly attend to
something else, most microprocessors make use of a region of external random access
memory (RAM) known as a stack.
c.) When the main program is interrupted, the microprocessor temporarily places in the
stack the contents of its internal registers together with the address of the next
instruction in the main program.
d.) When the interrupt has been attended to, the microprocessor recovers the data that has
been stored temporarily in the stack, together with the address of the next instruction
within the main program.

4.) Instruction pointer (o/p on Address bus)

a.) The instruction pointer (or program counter) allows the microprocessor to keep track of
where the instruction is within the program.

5.) Control unit

a.) The control unit is responsible for organising the orderly flow of data within the
microprocessor as well as generating, and responding to, signals on the control bus.
b.) The control unit is also responsible for the timing of all data transfers.
c.) This process is synchronised using an internal or external clock signal.

6.) Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) -(A byte of data is to be inverted)

a.) The ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations.
b.) operations provided by the ALU usually include addition, subtraction, logical AND, logical OR,
logical exclusive-OR, shift left, shift right, etc.
c.) The result of most ALU operations appears in the accumulator.
d.) Has 2 i/ps , one is derived from the accumulator while the other is taken from the internal
data bus via a temporary register.

7.) Status register

a.) The status register (flag register or condition code register) contains a number of individual
bits that are set or reset according to the outcome of an ALU operation. (These bits are
referred to as flags)

8.) Clocks
a.) The clock used in a computer system is simply an accurate and stable square wave
generator.
b.) In most cases the frequency of the square wave generator is determined by a quartz crystal.
c.) One complete clock cycle is sometimes referred to as a T-state.

 Pipelining – Easier Programming

 Segmentation is used with x86 processors in order to: extend the addressing range.