11

GENERAL
CHEMISTRY 2
Quarter 4: Module 4 - 6
 Republic of the Philippines
Department of Education
N a t i o n a l C a pi t a l Re g i o n
Sc h o o l s D i v i s i o n O f f i c e o f La s Pi ñ a s C i t y

DEVELOPMENT TEAM OF THE MODULE

WRITERS: MADONNA L. MADRIDANO, Master Teacher I
CHARISMA M. FERRER, Teacher III
MARY ANN M. GUEVARRA, Teacher III

CONSOLIDATOR: CHARISMA M. FERRER, Teacher III

LANGUAGE EDITOR: EMMANUEL B. DELA PEÑA, Teacher I

CONTENT MARITES T. TUDIO, Master Teacher I

VALIDATORS: MARIEL B. BARAGENIO, Teacher III
REX S. LAPID, Teacher III

COVER PAGE AIRA MARI CON M. AUSTERO

ILLUSTRATOR:

TEAM LEADER: DR. RAQUEL M. AUSTERO

Education Program Supervisor

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 Module 4 Electrochemistry

Most Essential Learning Competencies

1. Define oxidation and reduction reactions. (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-169)
2. Balance redox reactions using the change in oxidation number.
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-170)
3. Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-172)

What’s In

Redox Reaction
The term “redox” comes from two concepts involved with electron transfer:
reduction and oxidation. Oxidation is the loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation
state by a molecule, atom, or ion. Reduction is the gain of electrons or a decrease in
oxidation state. Ion-Electron Method is a technique used in balancing redox reaction.
Mnemonic Devices:
“LEO the lion says GER” = Lose Electron Oxidation while Gain Electron
Reduction
or OIL RIG = Oxidation Is Losing (electrons), Reduction Is Gaining (electrons).
LEORA = Lose Electron Oxidation, Reducing Agent
GEROA = Gain Electron Reduction, Oxidizing Agent

Redox reactions are common and vital to some of the basic functions of life,
including photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, and corrosion or rusting.

Rules for Assigning Oxidation States

The oxidation state of an element refers to the number of electrons that an
atom loses or gains when combining with other elements to form compounds. The
guidelines in determining the oxidations state of an atom are as follows:
1. The oxidation state of a free element or an individual atom is 0.
2. The sum of the oxidation states of all atoms in a compound is 0 and in an ion
is equal to its charge.

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 3. Group 1 metals have an oxidation state of +1 and Group 2 an oxidation state
of +2.
4. The oxidation state of fluorine is -1 in compounds.
5. Hydrogen generally has an oxidation state of +1 in compounds except in
hydrides.
6. Oxygen generally has an oxidation state of -2 in compounds except in
hydrogen peroxide.
7. In binary metal compounds, Group 17 elements have an oxidation state of -1,
Group 16 elements of -2, and Group 15 elements of -3.

Note: The sum of the oxidation states in a compound is equal to zero and in
polyatomic ion equal to its charge.

Example 1. Assigning Oxidation States

Determine the Oxidation States of each element in the following reactions:

A. Fe(s) + O2(g) → Fe2O3(g)

B. Ag(s) + H2S→ Ag2S(g) + H2(g)

A. Fe and O2 are free elements; therefore, they each have an oxidation state of 0
according to Rule #1. The product has a total oxidation state equal to 0, and
following Rule #6, O has an oxidation state of -2, which means Fe has an
oxidation state of +3.
B. Ag has an oxidation state of 0, H has an oxidation state of +1 according to
Rule #5, S has an oxidation state of -2 according to Rule #7, and hence Ag in
Ag2S has an oxidation state of +1.

Example 2. Oxidation Reduction Reactions

Which of the following shows reduction reaction? oxidation?

gains 2e-
Cu2+ (aq) + Zn(s) → Cu0(s) + Zn2+(aq)
+2 0 0 +2
loses 2e-

Cu = oxidation number changes from +2 to 0

Zn = changes from 0 to +2

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Cu gains two electron (Reduction) Oxidizing Agent/Oxidant
Zn metal loses two electrons (Oxidation) Reducing Agent/Reductant
Note: Recall your knowledge on rules in assigning oxidation numbers to balance
redox reaction well.

Example 3. Identifying Reduced and Oxidized Elements

Determine which element is oxidized and which element is reduced in the

following reactions (be sure to include the oxidation state of each):

a. Zn + 2H+ → Zn2+ + H2
b. 2Al + 3Cu2+→2Al3+ +3Cu
c. CO32- + 2H+→ CO2 + H2O

Answer:
a. Zn is oxidized (Oxidation number: 0 → +2); H+ is reduced (Oxidation number:
+1 → 0)
b. Al is oxidized (Oxidation number: 0 → +3); Cu2+ is reduced (+2 → 0)
c. This is not a redox reaction because each element has the same oxidation
number in both reactants and products: O= -2, H= +1, C= +4.

If the oxidation number increases, an atom is oxidized, and it is the reducing

agent. If the oxidation number decreases, the atom is reduced, and it is the oxidizing
agent. The atom that is oxidized is the reducing agent, and the atom that is reduced
is the oxidizing agent.

Balancing Redox Reactions: Oxidation State Method

For the oxidation-number-change method, start with the unbalanced

skeleton equation. The example below is for the reaction of iron (III) oxide with
carbon monoxide. This reaction is one that takes place in a blast furnace during the
processing of iron ore into metallic iron.

Fe2O3(s) + CO(g) → Fe(s) + CO2(g)

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Step 1: Assign oxidation numbers to each of the atoms in the equation and write the
numbers above the atom.

Step 2: Identify the atoms that are oxidized and those that are reduced. In the above
equation, the carbon atom is being oxidized since its oxidation increases from +2 to
+4. The iron atom is being reduced since its oxidation number decreases from +3 to
0.

Step 3: Use a line to connect the atoms that are undergoing a change in oxidation
number. On the line, write the oxidation-number change.

The carbon atom’s oxidation number increases by 2, while the iron atom’s
oxidation number decreases by 3. As written, the number of electrons lost does not
equal the number of electrons gained. In a balanced redox equation, these must be
equal. So, the increase in oxidation number of one atom must be made equal to the
decrease in oxidation number of the other.

Step 4: Use coefficients to make the total increase in oxidation number equal to the
total decrease in oxidation number. In this case, the least common multiple of 2 and 3
is 6. So, the oxidation-number increase should be multiplied by 3, while the oxidation-
number decrease should be multiplied by 2. The coefficient is also applied to the
formulas in the equation. So a 3 is placed in front of the CO and in front of the CO 2. A
2 is placed in front of the Fe on the right side of the equation. The Fe 2O3 does not
require a coefficient because the subscript of 2 after the Fe indicates that there are
already two iron atoms.

Step 5: Check the balancing for both atoms and charge. Occasionally, a coefficient
may need to be placed in front of a molecular formula that was not involved in the
redox process. In the current example, the equation is now balanced.

Fe2O3(s) + 3CO(g) → 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)

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Rules in Balancing Redox Reaction Using the Half-Reaction Method
1. Write the two-half reactions from unbalanced equation.
Ex.: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) → ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
Oxidation: Zn0(s) → Zn2+(aq)
Reduction: Cu2+(aq) → Cu0(s)
2. Add electron(s) beside the ion with greater charge (positive integer)
Ox: Zn0(s) → Zn2+(aq) + 2e-
Red: 2e- + Cu2+(aq) → Cu0(s)
Overall rxn: Zn0(s) + Cu2+(aq) → Zn2+(aq) + Cu0(s)

3. Add the two half-reactions and simplify by cancelling similar species on both
sides of the equation. (Overall rxn)

Note:
oxidation = when you add electron on the right side
reduction = when you add electron on the left side

4. Multiply each half-reaction by an integer that will equalize the number of

electrons lost or gained.
Ex.: Zn + Ag+ → Zn2+ + Ag
Ox: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Red: (1e- + Ag+ → Ag) x 2
Ox: Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-
Red: 2e- + 2Ag+ → 2Ag

Overall rxn: Zn + 2Ag+ → Zn2+ + 2Ag

Guidelines in Balancing Basic and Acidic Medium

1. Balance the half reaction other than H and O.
2. For reaction in acidic medium (solution), add H2O to balance O atoms, and
then add H+ to balance H atoms.
3. For basic medium, add H2O molecules to balance the O atoms then add H+
to balance the H atoms.
Now to balance the H+ ions, add equal number of OH- ions to both sides of
the equation(reaction).
4.Combine H+ ions and OH- from the side of the equation where
they both appear. Cancel equal number of H2O molecules from
both sides of the equation.

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 Example 1 (acidic medium)
BrO3- + Zn → Br- + Zn2+

Step 1. Balance first the equation that does not contain O atoms
Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-

6e + 6H+ + BrO3- → Br- + 3H2O

(Zn → Zn2+ + 2e-) x 3

Step 2. Add the charges on both sides. Then subtract charge of reactant and
product.
reactant side = 6 + (-1) = 5
product side = -1 + 0
Get the difference: 5-(-1) = 6 e-

Step 3. Write 6e_ on side with greater charge then multiply by 3 on the other
sides.
6e- + 6H+ + BrO3- → Br- + 3H2O
3Zn → 3Zn2+ + 6e-
________________________________________________________
Overall rxn: 6H+ + BrO3- + 3Zn → 3Zn2+ + Br_ + 3H2O

Example 2. (in basic solution please review the steps and guidelines above)

Fe + ClO- → Fe(OH)2 + Cl-

Answer:
2OH- + Fe → Fe(OH)2 + 2e-
2e- + H2O + ClO- → Cl- + 2OH-
________________________________________
Overall rxn: H2O + ClO- + Fe → Cl- + Fe(OH)2

Other Guidelines for Balancing Redox Equations:

1. Determine the oxidation states of each species.
2. Write each half reaction and for each:
a. Balance atoms that change oxidation state.
b. Determine number of electrons gained or lost
c. Balance charges by using H+ (in acidic solution) or OH- (in basic
solution).
d. Balance the rest of the atoms (H's and O's) using H2O.
3. Balance the number of electrons transferred for each half reaction using
the appropriate factor so that the electrons cancel.
4. Add the two half-reactions together and simplify if necessary.

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Example 3. Balance the following redox reaction.

Step 1. Determine the oxidation states of the species involved.

The charges do not match yet, so this is not a balanced equation. We can use
each half-reaction to balance the charges. Notice that the Cl - ions drop out, as they
are spectator ions and do not participate in the actual redox reaction.

Step 2. Write the half reactions.

Step 2a. Balance the atoms that change their oxidation states.

Step 2b. Determine the number of electrons gained or lost.

Aluminum changes from 0 to III, so three electrons are lost. For hydrogen, the
case is a little different. Hydrogen is going from I to 0. This means that for each
H+ ion that reacts, one electron is needed. Since there are two H + ions that react, two
electrons are needed.

Steps 2c and 2d are not needed in this case as the equations are balanced.

Step 3. Balance the number of electrons transferred.

The common factor for the electrons transferred is 6, so the above

multiplication is performed.

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Step 4. Now the charges and atoms are balanced. To verify this add all of the
charges and atoms on each side. Both the charges and number of atoms
must balance. Note that this reaction is not neutral. Remember that the
spectator ions, Cl-, neutralize the solution.

Balance the following reaction, which occurs in acidic solution.

Step 1. Determine the oxidation states of the species involved.

To determine the oxidation state of Mn in MnO 4-, apply Equation 1 (see Equation 1
above): x + 4(-2) = -1.

Four (4) is from the number of oxygen atoms, -2 is the oxidation state of
oxygen and -1 is the overall charge of the molecule. Which species is oxidized, and
which species is reduced? Mn in MnO4- is reduced while Cl- is oxidized.

Step 2. Write the half reactions.

Step 2a. Mn and Cl are balanced.

Step 2b. Mn changes from VII to II, so five electrons are needed. Cl - loses two
electrons as it goes from I to -I.

Step 2c. The charges are not balanced on this example. Since this is in acidic
solution, use H+ to balance these charges.

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 Remember that the electrons carry a negative charge and must be considered
whenever balancing the charges. Verify that the charges are balanced on each side
of the equation.

Step 2d. Now the oxygen and hydrogen atoms need to be balanced.

Step 3. Balance the number of electrons transferred.

Step 4. Write the net reaction.

Now all charges and number of atoms balance.

Finally, two terms you may run across in the future are oxidizing agent (or oxidant)
and a reducing agent (reductant). An oxidizing agent causes oxidation and is
reduced in the reaction. A reducing agent causes the reduction in the redox reaction.
The reducing agent is oxidized in the reaction. In Example 4 above, MnO 4- is the
oxidizing agent and Cl- is the reducing agent.

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 What’s More

Activity 1: Redox Reaction

Directions: Fill in the blanks with the correct answer.
1. Oxidation-reduction reactions always involve the transfer of one or more _________
from one substance to another.
2. A reducing agent is a chemical that causes the ____________ of another chemical
species by _____________electrons to/from the other species. In the process of
doing so, the reducing agent gets _____________.
3. _______________ is the chemical reaction in which there is a gain of electrons and
it is the opposite of _____________.

https://shailendrakrchemistry.files.wordpress.com/2009/12/oxidation-reduction-fill-in-the-blanks.pdf

Activity 2: Balancing Reox Reactions

Directions: Balance the following equations. Identify the oxidizing agent and
reducing agent.

1. H2S + HNO3 → S + NO + H2O

2. H2SO4 + HBr → SO2 + Br2 + H2O

3. H2SO4 + HI → H2S + I2 + H2O

4. N2O + H2 → H2O + NH3

5. K + KNO3 → N2 + K2O

https://www.livingston.org/cms/lib4/NJ01000562/Centricity/Domain/826/more%20practice%20balancin
g%20redox.pdf

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Activity 3: Galvanic Cell
Directions: Consider the figure below. Answer the following questions:

https://www.ck12.org/book/cbse_chemistry_book_class_xii/section/3.2/

1. Label the parts of the galvanic cell.

2. Identify the reaction occurring in the different parts of the cell.

3. Write the half equations for the reactions occurring in the electrodes.

4. Write the balance overall cell reaction.

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 What I Have Learned
Directions: Use your understanding on this Module 4: Oxidation Reduction
Reactions. Complete the following statements:
1. Oxidation and reduction occur _____________________.

2. _______________ are assigned to each element as a formalism to keep track

of the movement of electrons between species.

3. Simply stated, the gain of electrons is ___________________.

4. During oxidation, the oxidation number of a species becomes ____________.

5. The goal of a redox reaction is to keep the number of electrons lost

____________________.

What I Can Do

Directions: Based on what you have learned from the given topic Oxidation
Reduction Reactions, discuss the following real-life examples of redox
reactions taking place in our environment and homes.

1. Respiration

2. Combustion

3. Photography

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 Module 5 Standard Reduction Potentials

Most Essential Learning Competencies

1. Define reduction potential, oxidation potential, and cell potential
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-176)
2. Calculate the standard cell potential (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-178)
3. Relate the value of the cell potential to the feasibility of using the cell to
generate an electric current (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-179)

What’s In

In a world where virtual learning is a must, batteries of our gadgets must be at

its optimum quality. From the AA-powered wall clock to Li-ion batteries of our cellular
phones, electrochemical cells are useful and economical. Batteries operate through
the electrochemical reactions of many different chemical species. These chemical
species can either lose or gain electron. You have learned from the previous module
that oxidation happens when the half reaction loses one or more electron and
reduction occurs when the half reaction gains electron.
In this module, you will learn about the use of standard reduction potential and
its importance in calculating standard cell potentials.
The following terms used in this topic are defined as below to help you understand
the concept.
Reduction Potential It measures the tendency of a molecule to be
reduced by taking up new electrons.
Oxidation Potential The measure of a material to oxidize or lose
electrons

Cell Potential The measure of the potential difference between

two half cells in an electrochemical cell

Standard Reduction Potential It is the reduction potential of a molecule under

specific, standard conditions.

Anode The positive electrode where oxidation occurs.

Cathode The negative electrode where reduction occurs.

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 Oxidizing agent A substance that can accept electrons from
another substance or increase the oxidation
numbers in another substance

Reducing agent A substance that can donate electrons to another

substance or decrease the oxidation numbers in
another substance

Oxidation It is the half reaction that involves the loss of

electrons.

Reduction It is the half reaction that involves the gain of

electrons

On this part, you will learn how to write an over-all redox reaction and calculating for its
standard cell potential. (Note that you must have a copy of the table for Standard
Reduction Potential at 25OC.)

Here are the steps to calculate the standard cell potential:

1st Step: Identify the half reaction from the standard reduction potential

2nd Step: Identify the oxidizing agent and write its reduction half reaction. (Remember that
the more positive the reduction potential is, the stronger it is as oxidizing agent. Oxidizing
agent gains electron, so the electron must be on the reactant side.)

3rd Step. Reverse the other half reaction in order to present an oxidation reaction of the
reducing agent. Remember that reducing agent loses electron, so the electron must be on
the product side.
Then, to get the standard oxidation potential, simply change the sign of the Eo(V)
from the standard reduction potential table.

4th Step. Add the two half-reaction and make sure that the number of electrons is the same,
if not, think of a coefficient that will make the electron equal with one another.

5th Step. To compute for the Standard Cell Potential, add the reduction potential and
oxidation potential.

Let us try to compute the standard cell potential of this equation:

Cl2 + Ni(s) → Ni2+ + Cl-

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1st Step: Identify the half reaction from the standard reduction potential.

Cl2(g) +2e- → 2Cl-(aq) Eo(V)= 1.36

Ni2+(aq) +2e- → Ni(s) Eo(V)=-0.25

2nd Step: Identify the oxidizing agent and write its reduction half reaction.
(Remember that the more positive the reduction potential is, the stronger it is as
oxidizing agent. Oxidizing agent gains electron, so the electron must be on the
reactant side.)
Half reaction Standard Reduction
Potential

Reduction Cl2(g) +2e- → 2Cl-(aq) Eo(V) = 1.36

3rd Step. Reverse the other half reaction in order to present an oxidation reaction of
the reducing agent. Remember that reducing agent loses electron, so the electron
must be on the product side.

Then, to get the standard oxidation potential, simply change the sign of
the Eo(V) from the standard reduction potential table.

Half reaction Standard Oxidation

Potential
Oxidation Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) +2e- Eo(V) = 0.25

4th Step. Add the two half-reaction and make sure that the number of electrons are
the same, if not, think of a coefficient that will make the electron equal with one
another.
Cl2(g) + 2e- → 2Cl-(aq) Eo(V) = 1.36
Ni(s) → Ni2+(aq) +2e- Eo(V) = 0.25
Cl2(g) + Ni(s) →2Cl-(aq) + Ni2+(aq)

5th Step. To compute for the Standard Cell Potential, add the reduction potential and
oxidation potential.
Eo(V)std cell potential = Eo(V)red + Eo(V)ox
= 1.36 + 0.25
= 1.61

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Now that you have learned how to calculate the standard cell potential based on the
table for Standard Reduction Potential at 25OC. On this part of the lesson, you will
identify if the electrochemical reaction is a galvanic cell or an electrolytic cell. If
E°(V)cell is greater than zero, then the process is spontaneous or a galvanic cell.
However if E°(V)cell is less than zero, then the process is nonspontaneous or an
electrolytic cell.
Here is a table that presents the difference of the two cells.

Galvanic Cells Electrolytic Cells

Spontaneous redox reactions Non-spontaneous redox reactions
convert the chemical energy to an convert the electric energy to a
electric energy chemical energy
Electric energy brings about the
Electric energy is generated by
chemical reaction with the help of an
redox reactions
external source

The cathode is the positive The anode is the positive electrode

electrode and anode is the negative and cathode is the negative
electrode electrode
The process of oxidation takes
Here, the oxidation process occurs
place at the anode and the
at the cathode while the reduction
reduction process occurs at the
process takes place at the anode
cathode

Half cells are set up in different Electrodes are kept in the same
containers and are connected container in a molten or solution
through salt bridges electrolyte

Application lies in purifying copper

Application lies in Batteries
and electroplating

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 What’s More

Activity 1: Unlocking Difficulty

Directions: Define the following terms:

1. reduction potential

2. oxidation potential

3. cell potential

Activity 2: Calculating Standard Cell Potential

Directions: Solve the following problems. Show complete solution.

1. Calculate the standard cell potential of a voltaic cell that uses the Ag / Ag +
and Sn / Sn2+ half-cell reactions. Write the balanced equation for the overall
cell reaction that occurs. Identify the anode and the cathode.

2. Calculate the standard cell potentials of galvanic cells in which the following
reactions take place:

2Cr(s) + 3Cd2+(aq) → 2Cr3+(aq) + 3Cd

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Activity 3: Galvanic or Electrolytic Cell
Directions: Determine whether the cell of the given reaction is galvanic or
electrolytic.

1. Cr3+ (aq) + CO (s) → Cr2+ (aq) + CO2+ (aq)

2. Ca (s) + Cl2 (g) → Ca2+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

3. Cd(s) + Ni2+ (aq) → Cd2+ (aq) + Ni(s)

4. H2O(i) → H+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

What I Have Learned

Directions: : Write T if the statement is true and F if false. Write your answer beside
each number.
___1. In an electrolytic cell, non-spontaneous redox reactions convert the electric
energy to a chemical energy.
___2. In Galvanic cells, the anode is the positive electrode and the cathode is the
negative electrode.
___3. Galvanic cells depend on batteries.
___4. In electrolytic cells, electrodes are kept in the same container in a molten or
solution electrolyte.
___5. In galvanic cells, electric energy brings about a chemical reaction with the help
of an external source.

What I Can Do
Directions: Answer the given question below.

How can standard reduction potential be applied in real world applications?

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 Module 6 Commercial Cells and Batteries

Most Essential Learning Competencies

1. Describe the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries:
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-180)
a. Leclanche dry cell
b. Button batteries
c. Fuel cells
d. Lead storage battery
2. Apply electrochemical principles to explain corrosion
(STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-181)
3. Explain the electrode reactions during electrolysis (STEM_GC11AB-IVf-g-182)
4. Describe the reactions in some commercial electrolytic processes (STEM_GC11AB-
IVf-g-183)

What’s In
A series of combined galvanic cells is called battery which can be used as a
source of direct electric current at a constant voltage. Battery has the same principle as
the galvanic cells but its advantage is its independency as a system which does not need
salt bridges. Here we will discuss several types of batteries that are in widespread use.

The Dry Cell Battery

The cell reactions in a dry cell battery has the following half reactions
Anode: Zn(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2e-
Cathode: 2NH4+(aq) + 2MnO2(s) + 2e- → Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)
Overall: Zn(s) + 2NH4 (aq) + 2MnO2(s) → Zn2+ (aq) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l) + Mn2O3(s)
This equation is just an overview of a complex process. The dry cell produced a voltage of
about 1.5 V.
Among any other dry cell with no fluid component is the Leclanché cell. It is used in
flashlights and transistor radios. The anode consists of a zinc can or container that is in
contact with manganese dioxide (MnO2) and an electrolyte. The electrolyte has ammonium
chloride and zinc chloride in water, this is where the starch is added to thicken the solution
to have a pastelike consistency so it would not leak. The carbon rod is the cathode, which
is soaked in the electrolyte in the center of the cell.
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

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The Button Battery
The cell reactions are
Anode: Zn (Hg) + 2OH-(aq) ¡ ZnO(s) 1 H2O(l) 1 2e-
Cathode: HgO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- →¡ Hg(l) 1 2OH-(aq)
Overall: Zn(g) 1 HgO(s) ¡ ZnO(s) 1 Hg(l)
The button battery is quite expensive than the dry cell. The most common button
battery is the mercury battery which is widely used in medical instruments and other
electronic devices. The mercury battery has a zinc anode (amalgamated with mercury) that
is connected with a strongly alkaline electrolyte that has zinc oxide and mercury (II) oxide.
It is enclosed in a stainless-steel cylinder. The mercury battery gives 1.35 V which is a
more constant voltage than the Leclanché cell. This kind of battery is considered
economical to use for hearing aids and electric watches because it has a higher capacity
and longer life.
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

From Fossil Fuel to Fuel Cells

The major source of energy are the fossil fuels, however, its conversion into
electrical energy is a highly inefficient process.
Take a look at the combustion of methane:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) → CO2 (g) + 2H2O (l) + energy
To produce electricity, the heat formed by the reaction is first used to change water
to steam, which then initiate the turbine to start the generator. A considerable amount of
energy, in the form of heat, is released out of the system at each step. The highest
efficient conversion in most power plant is only about 40 percent of the expected
theoretical yield. Since combustion is a redox reaction, it is more desirable to carry them
out directly by electrochemical means to increase the efficiency of power production. This
can be achieved by a device known as fuel cell, a galvanic cell that requires a continuous
supply of reactants to keep functioning.
The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cell has an electrolyte solution like potassium hydroxide
solution and two inert electrodes. Hydrogen and oxygen gases are bubbled through the
anode and cathode compartments, where the following reactions take place:
Anode: 2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) → 4H2O(l) + 4e-
Cathode: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e2 → 4OH-(aq)
Overall: 2H2(g) + O2(g) → 2H2O(l)
22
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
The Lead Storage Battery
The cell reactions are
Anode: Pb(s) + SO4 2-(aq) → PbSO4(s) + 2e-
Cathode: PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + SO4 2- (aq) + 2e- → PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
Overall: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 4H+(aq) + 2SO4 2-(aq) → 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l)
The lead storage battery is common in automobiles. It consists of six identical cells
joined together in series. The lead anode and a cathode are made of lead dioxide (PbO2)
packed on a metal plate. Both electrodes are immersed in an aqueous solution of sulfuric
acid, which acts as the electrolyte.
There are six cells in the operation of this battery, each of which produces 2 V that is used
to power the ignition circuit of vehicles and its other electrical systems. This kind of battery
can efficiently transport large amounts of current to start up the engine. The difference of
this compared to Leclanché cell and button battery is that it is rechargeable. Recharging
the battery means applying an external voltage at the cathode and the anode to reverse
Corrosion
the normal electrochemical reaction.
Chang, Raymond. Chemistry. 7th ed. Boston: McGraw-Hill, 2002.

Electrochemical Principles of Corrosion

Many of us have seen corrosion of many metal products. Metal monuments which
have built for many years have corroded because they are in outdoor where it can be
exposed with oxygen and moisture.

Corrosion begins at a metal under stress where two pieces of metal are joined or
under a loosely-adhering paint. The metal ions in the moisture film and the electrons
travel to another location where they are carried up by a depolarizer. The most common
depolarizer is Oxygen. Iron (II) ion (Fe2+) reacts with the resulting hydroxide ions to form
the mixture of hydrous iron oxides known as rust.

Atoms in part that have undergone bending or welding (stress) often tend to have
higher free energies making it to become anodic. Below shows the reaction of metal in
anodic process and the reduction of oxygen gas in cathodic steps.

Anode: Fe(s) → Fe2+(aq) + 2e−

Cathode: O2+2H2O+4e−→4OH−

https://chem.libretexts.org/@api/deki/files/257242/20.8.1A.jpg?revision=1&size=bestfit&width=551&height=301

23
Electroplating

Have you ever gleamed by a glitter of jewelry? or Have you bought a jewelry at a
quite low price? There are many things around that may look fancy but surprisingly at a
cheap price. Take a look at some jewelries which are coated with gold. The base metal
alloy of it may be copper or silver which are quite cheaper than the alloy of gold. Another
is the car rim not coated with paint but plated with chrome. These examples are both for
aesthetic purpose of electroplating. Electroplating is the process of coating one metal
onto another by electrolysis. This is also applied for economical use to prevent corrosion.
Some examples of electroplating are copper plating, silver plating, and chromium
plating. Electroplating gives manufacturers an alternative way to achieve quality products
with the use of inexpensive metals such as steel or zinc and then apply different metals
on the outside to give value for appearance, protection, and other properties desired for
the product. It can be noted that electroplating can be done to a metal or even to a
plastic surface.
In this module, you will learn about the science of electroplating which is called
the electrolysis.

https://xaktly.com/Electrochemistry.html

The illustration shows two electrodes with a battery attached to it. Electrodes are
the solid electrical contacts that are immersed in the electrolyte where the current flows
to and from the battery. An electric field which is located in between the two electrodes
has a flow from positive plate to the negative plate. Inside the electric field is a positively
charge ion which adheres to the force that will accelerate it in the direction of the electric
field which is towards cathode. On the other hand, negatively charged ion will plug in to a
force that will accelerate opposite to the direction of the electric field which is towards
anode. The anode is attached to the positive terminal of the battery therefore it has a
positive charge on it. Cathode is attached to the negative terminal of the battery leaving
the electrode negatively charged. The cation (positively charged ion) is attracted to the
negative cathode while the anion is attracted to the positively charged anode.

24
Science of Electroplating

The spoon is made of a cheap metal

which is an electrode connected to the
negative end of the battery. The silver serves
as an electrode on the positive terminal of the
battery. Both electrodes are soaked in a silver
nitrate (AgNO3) solution. When the current
streamed through the solution, the silver metal
is detached from the positive electrode and
adhered on the negative electrode.

https://chem.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplemental_
Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Electrolytic_Cells/Electropla
ting

What’s More

Activity 1: Describe Me!

Directions: Describe the electrochemistry involved in some common batteries:

1. Leclanche dry cell

2. Button batteries

3. Fuel cells

4. Lead storage battery

25
 Activity 2: Electrolysis
Directions: Answer the following questions:

Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-9Gb0PxcGE

What are the specific ions in the electrolysis of molten sodium chloride?

Anion: ______________________________
Cation: ______________________________

Which ion will move towards the

cathode?____________________________________
Which ion will move towards the
anode?_____________________________________
Write the half-reaction for the following reactions in the electrolysis of molten sodium
chloride:
Oxidation: _______________________________
Reduction: _______________________________

26
Activity 3: Picture Analysis
Directions: Examine the pictures as you go slowly through the six steps provided on
the next page. Pause between each step to give you significant time to
think and write.

Step One:
Look deeply at the picture for a good long time. Think and write down the
characteristics and its use in the field where it is most essential.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

27
Step Two:
Write down the common characteristics of the materials in the picture without making
any interpretation about what the picture is trying to say.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Step Three:
Write down the questions you have about this picture that you would need to have
answered before you can begin to interpret it. Formulate as many questions as you
have.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Step Four:
Ask anyone who you think is knowledgeable enough to assist you to try to find some
answers in the questions you have formulated.
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Step Five:
Given the uses and characteristics in step one, how does the common characteristics
in step 2 improve the quality of the material?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

Step Six:
Discuss your interpretation with 2 or 3 adults to validate your observation. What
commercial process is used to make that kind of product?
___________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________

28
 What I Have Learned

Directions: Identify what is being described in each arrowed box below of the
flow diagram to present the concept of electrolysis

Negative ions which are Positively charged

attracted to the electrode that is attached An electrochemical process
positively charged to the battery and is that occurs in the anode.
electrode. immersed into the
electrolyte.

Negatively charged
electrode that is attached to Provides a source of
the battery & is immersed electrical energy,
An electrochemical process
into the electrolyte. pushing electrons onto
that occurs in the cathode.
the cathode & making it
negatively charged.

Positive ions that are attracted to

the negatively charged electrode

29
 What I Can Do
Directions: Consider the given situation and provide what is being asked.
Electroplating

One of the many applications of electrolysis is electroplating. The process is

about thin coating a metal on its surface. The reason for applying this process
includes purifying metal and improving the quality of the material. This improvement
includes safety when use in medical field, durability as it reacts with corrosive
chemicals and beauty as it gives more attractive finish. The metals that are frequently
used in electroplating include silver, gold, copper, nickel, cadmium, chromium and tin.
Some of the many consumer products include silver-plated or gold-plated tableware,
silver or gold-plated jewelry and chrome-plated automobile parts.

Think of a three (3) consumer products where electroplating is used and how this
process has improved its quality.

Consumer Product Quality

1.

2.

3.

30
 Answer Key

MODULE 5
MODULE 4
Activity 1
Activity 1 1. reduction potential
1. electrons a tendency of a chemical species to be
2. oxidation, taking, reduced (b) reduction reduced by gaining an electron
3. reduction, oxidation
2. oxidation potential
Activity 2 the tendency for a species to be oxidized
1. 3H2S + 2HNO3 → 3S + 2NO + 4 H2O at standard conditions
2. H2SO4 + 2HBr → SO2 + Br2 + 2H2O
3. H2SO4 + 8HI → H2S + 4I2 + 4H2O 3. cell potential
4. N2O + 4H2 → H2O + 2NH3 the measure of the potential
5. 10K + 2KNO3 → N2 + 6K2O
difference between two half cells in
Activity 3 an electrochemical cell

Activity 2

1. +0.94 V; Tin is oxidized at the anode,

while silver ion is reduced at the cathode.
2. +0.34V

Activity 3
1. Electrolytic
2. Galvanic
3. Galvanic
4. electrolytic

31
 Answer Key

MODULE 6

Activity 1
1. The Leclanche Dry Cell –

2. Button batteries –

3. Fuel cells

4. Lead Storage Battery

Activity 2
Sodium ions
Chloride ions

Na+
Cl-

Na+ + e- → Na
Cl- → 1/2Cl2 + e-

2NaCl → 2Na(s) + Cl2(g)

Activity 3
Answers may vary

32