Element 9: Managing Emissions to the Water Environment 2018. Last modified by Margaret Smith on Monday, 17 April 2023, 2:03 PM This document was downloaded on Monday, 1 May 2023, 12:16 PMElement 9: Managing Emissions to Water Environment. Learning Outcomes Once you have completed this element you will be able to: 1. Outline the types of pollutants/effiuents likely to be discharged to the water environment. 2. Describe the purpose of monitoring effluent discharges and the measuring techniques used. 3. Outline different potable water and wastewater treatment methods and the situation/s in which each method would be used. Explain the need for sustainable water abstraction. 5, Outline the risks associated with flooding and appropriate control measures - Recommended study time for this element is no less than 8 hoursLearning Outcome 1. Learning Objectives Bs e the types of pollutants/effluents likely to be discharged to the water environment.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 17 In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Discharge of effluent/pollutants to the water environment: + Principal types of water pollutants, © Physical (solids, thermal, radiological). ® Chemical, ®° Biological. * Specific pollutants and the possible damage they can cause to the water environment. © Organic (milk, plant matter) and inorganic substances (iron) and the relationship with oxygen depletion © Total solids (silt), suspended solids and dissolved solids. ® Acids and alkalis. ® Nitrogen compounds and phosphorus compounds. © Hydrocarbons (petrol, oil, grease), persistent organic pollutants (POP), © Pesticides, © Thermal. © Pathogens, parasites. ® Chlorine and chlorine-containing compounds (Trichloroethylene) © Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium). * Point and diffuse sources of pollution, + The causes and effects of eutrophication. * The need to prevent pollution from entering watercourses, including prevention of pollution from fire-fighting water runoff; marking, maintenance and mapping of drainage systems.1.0 - Introduction. Water is essential to life. Therefore, when water becomes polluted, ecosystems and human health can be greatly affected. Water is classed as polluted when it is damaged by contaminants and cannot support human use or biotic communities. There are three different principle classifications of water pollution: * Physical including solids, thermal and radioactive waste. * Chemical including pollutants such as pesticides, metals, solvents, etc. * Biological including disease-causing pathogens such as bacteria, viruses and parasites.1.1 - Specific Pollutants & their Damage to the Water Environment. The following pages will cover specific pollutants and their effects on the water environment: * Organic (milk, plant matter) and inorganic substances (iron) and the relationship with oxygen depletion * Total solids (silt), suspended solids and dissolved solids. * Acids and alkalis. * Nitrogen compounds and phosphorus compounds, * Hydrocarbons (petrol, oil, grease), persistent organic pollutants (POP), * Pesticides, * Thermal * Pathogens, parasites. * Chlorine and chlorine containing compounds (Trichloroethylene). + Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium),1.2 - Organic & Inorganic Materials. Organic materials reduce the amount of oxygen in the water. Bacteria and other organisms (decomposers) break the organic material down into simpler organic and inorganic substances. The bacteria then use oxygen in the process and as their Populations increase, there is an extra demand for dissolved oxygen. Following a significant pollution event of organic materials to a water body, the following events occur in sequenc increase in organic material in river ¥ increase in decomposers ¥ respiratory oxygen demand rr oxygen depleted and different species eliminated according to their tolerances extent of recovery depends on load and ability for self-purification ¥ oxygen increase species recolonisationFigure 1. Shows the sequence of events following the pollution of a water body by organic pollutants. Source: Open University. Inorganic Pollutants. Inorganic materials also cause deoxygenation. For example, ferrous iron drained from mines enters a waterbody. Upon meeting the water in a river/stream, etc. the iron is oxidised to red soluble ferric iron. A process that reduces the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water. The oxidised iron is now suspended in the water so that it also has the impact of reducing light penetration:1.3 - Soli S3x228'Solid waste in waterways can include: * Plastics and litter. * Construction wastes such as grit and silts from cement. * Trade effluents which contain suspended solids. These solids have a range of environmental impacts on waterways including: * Choking wildlife who eat or become entangled with the waste. * Large amounts of solid waste can smother plants and animals. * Blocks light reaching plants and animals below the surface, reducing photosynthesis. * Interferes with the aquatics environments ability to self-purify.1.4 - Acids & Alkalis. Changes in pH in waterbodies can affect the microorganisms living there, which will have a domino effect that can destroy entire aquatic food chains. Most freshwater bodies have a natural pH in the range of 6-8 where photosynthesis by algae and plants increase pH levels but respiration and decomposition can lower pH levels. When pH falls below 6, harmful ecological effects can occur. ‘When pH reaches 5 plankton and mosses invade resulting in the decrease of certain fish populations. Below pH 5 fish populations begin to disappear, bottom beds are covered with undecayed material. Below 4.5 and the minerals in nearby soils are released into the water. This creates a reaction in fish to produce excess mucous which clogs their gills and asphyxiates them. Chronic stress can be caused at these pH levels which may not kill the fish but could lead to smaller weight and size, making them more susceptible to predators and less able to compete for food and habitats. Increases in acidity have the potential to lower calcium levels in female fish resulting in infertility or developmental abnormalities in juveniles, ‘As water becomes more alkali there is an increased risk of ammonia toxicity which affects the wildlife and food production near rivers. High alkaline levels, around 9 cause fish to die, the outer surfaces of their gills, eyes and scales are damaged and they are unable to dispose of metabolic wastes. High pH may also increase the toxicity of other substances, for example, ammonia is ten times. more severe at pH 8 then itis at pH7. It once the pH levels start to move away from the normal range that effects are felt and the greater you move from these norms, the greater the impact and mortality rates will be.1.5 - Nitrogen & Phosphorous. Nitrogen and phosphorous are nutrients that are a natural part of the aquatic environment. They support the growth of algae and aquatic plants, proving food and habitats for fish, shellfish and smaller organisms inhabiting the water. /hen too much nitrogen and phosphorous enters the water, algae growth rates increase at a rate faster than the ecosystem can cope with. Increased algae growth harms the water quality and decreases the amount of oxygen in the water. Large algal blooms can severely decrease or eliminate oxygen from the water, creating illness and death If people come into contact with contaminated fish or shelifish or drink the contaminated water, they can become very i As the algae die off, decomposers break them down which again uses up dissolved oxygen, suffocating fish and other aquatic life. Algae blooms swarm the surface of a water body and block sunlight from reaching lower levels of the water, thereby killing off other plants in the environment, leading to more decomposition and a greater reduction in available dissolved oxygen The algae bloom decrease the aesthetic appeal of water bodies so much so that tourism could be greatly affected, as there becomes a reduced number of tourists wishing to fish or swim in such areas.1.6 - Hydrocarbons & Persistent Organic Pollutants. Hydrocarbons and persistent organic pollutants include petroleum, pesticides or other toxic organic matter. Hydrocarbons can harm the water environment by: * Being toxic to all forms of life. * They inhibit the respiratory function in animals. * Poison animals if they ingest it when trying to clean themselves. * Some form a waterproof film on water which prevents the exchange of oxygen between the water and the atmosphere; damaging marine flora and fauna. * Some destroy the insulating ability of animal fur and the water repellent abilities of birds’ feathers- exposing these animals and birds to harsh elements without the ability to repel water or insulate themselves against the cold. They die from hypothermia. * In adult fish such pollutants can reduce their growth, change their heart respiration rates, cause fin erosion and impair reproduction * Small fish, invertebrates and mammals can be smothered * Coral reefs, wetlands, mangroves, marshes etc are all fragile habitats that provide feeding, breeding and spawning ground for a wide variety of species and they are easily damaged by pollutants. POPs can harm the water environment by: * Passing through the food chain by biomagnification to humans -predators at the top of the food chain are the most at risk. Being toxic to life, Persisting in the environment for long periods. * Having a strong resistance Being able to be transported long distances. Cause disease and abnormalities in certain species of fish, birds and mammals. Cause birth defects in fish, birds and mammals. Affecting the indigenous people who live of the land and ecosystems.1.7 - Pesticides. Pesticides are chemicals used to kill or control pests (e.g. herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, etc.) Water from excessive rainfall and irrigation can wash pesticides into freshwater sources. Here they have the impacts of: * Killing organisms in the water. * Inhibiting or causing reproductive systems to fail + Suppressing aquatic organisms’ immune systems. * Cause cellular and DNA damage. * Cause physical deformities. + Reducing habitats. * Decreasing the number of species in the environment. * Bioconcentration. * Causing egg shells to thin. * Kill zooplankton, which is the main source of food for young fish.1.8 - Thermal Water Pollution. This type of pollution occurs when power plants and industries discharge hot or cold water directly into nearby water bodies; causing rapidly changing water temperatures. Most aquatic organisms have a specific temperature need and are unable to cope with sudden changes. Hot water releases can cause fish metabolisms to speed up which leads to malnutrition as there are not enough food sources for this rapid growth. This leads to fish deaths in the area. Organic matter is decomposed at a faster rate in warmer water. This increases the rate at which oxygen is used up and increases the bacterial levels and organic nutrients present. ‘Aquatic plants grow faster in warmer waters which quickly leads to overpopulated areas and shorter life spans. Algae blooms occur in warmer waters, which choke fish to death by entering their gills and well as cloud the surface of the water, preventing light penetration. When waters become too warm, forced migrations occur. Fish, unable to tolerate the warmer waters, will move out and other species more heat tolerant will move in. This will impact the biodiversity of the area as well as the food chains present. When cooler water is discharged, plankton is Killed off along with many fish and their eggs. As some species die off in the area others start to thrive and take over, again leading to a changing ecosystem.1.9 - Pathogens and Parasites. Pathogens and parasites have the ability to eradicate species, alter food chains and change the biodiversity in an area These pathogens or parasites may come for exotic species introduced into an area of from industrial waste products, and cause damage when they enter the food chain. They can cause diseases such as gastroenteritis or salmonellosis. They can enter drinking water for animals and humans and can cause cholera, typhoid fever and leptospirosis for example.1.10 - Chlorine & chlorine Containing Compounds. Chlorine and chlorine-containing compound such as trichloroethylene have the following impacts on aquatic systems: * Poisonous to fish and other aquatic animals even at low levels. * Can react with other minerals etc to form toxins such as dioxins. * Can cause cancer to the wildlife in or who drink the water. * Decreases the numbers of fish and bird species in the area. * Can cause mutations. * Sterility in animals and fish. * Can lead to a species extinction.; * Has the ability to biomagnify. * Is persistent so remains in the water for long periods, causing harm.1.11 - Heavy Metals. Heavy metals such as mercury and cadmium bioaccumulate in the food chain causing harm at all levels. Heavy metals can: * Cause death to fishes etc as they are toxic. * They are absorbed into the body tissue of fish and transferred to the food chain, to affect humans as well. * Cause high mortality rates in juvenile fish. * Decrease the breeding potential of adults. * Cause anaemic conditions in animals or death in the long term of fish, birds and mammals. * Decreased the developmental growth of plants and juvenile creatures, * Increases the rates of developmental anomalies. * Contaminated sediments exposed worms, crustaceans and insects to toxic metals. Their deaths mean a reduction in food availabilty for larger animals such as fish, etc.1.12- Point & iffuse Pollution Sources. Point source pollution is a single identifiable source of pollution from factories, power plants, etc. which are easy to trace back to the source and easy to control. Diffuse pollution is caused by a variety of activities that have no specific point of discharge. Individually these pollutants may not have an effectimpact on the water environment but when meet other pollutant sources may increase their potential impacts Polluting substances for diffuse polution are not easily tracked back to their origial source. An example of diffuse pollution is acid rain. The pollutants which helped form the acid rain had to have been released somewhere but it was not until the substances became acid rain that they created the impact.1.13 - Causes & Effects of Eutrophication. Eutrophication is caused by excessive nutrients in the water source including nitrates and phosphates. The water now overly enriched with minerals and nutrients causes excessive plant and algae growth which depletes the levels of oxygen in the water. The plants’ growth extends across the surface of the water body decreasing the amount of light penetrating to the bottom plants, reducing/restricting their growth. As the plants on the bottom die off bacteria break them down and releases more nutrients back into the water. As the decomposed materials provide food for bacteria, there is a growth in bacteria ‘which uses up more oxygen in the water as it continues to decompose dead plants and aquatic animals. This causes more algae and plants to die off, creating more nutrients for the bacteria. In some water bodies, all the dissolved oxygen in the water is depleted, which creates anoxic conditions, killing all life in the water. me rent TSS AECL NT cum co ECO1.14 - The Need to Prevent Pollution Entering Watercourses. By preventing the escape of pollutants into the water, organisations are helping the environment, enhancing their reputations as being environmentally conscious operators and they also escape the financial penalties for causing pollution such as fines and clean-up costs. Pollution can be prevented from entering watercourses by: * Having an environmental management system in place which includes policies, procedures, training requirements and emergency plans. * Identifying where drains are on site and creating a drainage plan. * Colour coding all drains depending on their uses e.g. surface water drains, foul drains, etc. * Maintaining the drainage systems to prevent blockages, overflows and being able to identity integrity issues. * Placing substances of the tank. impervious bunds which should accommodate 110% of the contents * Storage areas should be protected from vandalism so stored in lockable compounds, safe from accidental collisions with work vehicles such as forklifts. * Pipework above the ground should be lockable and should overflow into a bunded area to prevent escapes. Pipes should also be protected from damage either deliberate by vandals of accidentally from workplace transport. * Delivery areas should be designated and should be away from drainage areas. Catch pits should be installed with isolating valves and automatic cut off valves to prevent overfiling. * Containment measures such as river booms, containment lagoons and ponds, sacrificial land should all be considered. * The site should have spill kits present which should allow staff to clean up small spills before they can reach drainage areas. Once used they must be disposed of correctly.Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Outline the causes and effects of eutrophication.Self-Marked Answer. Eutrophication is caused by excessive nutrients in the water source including nitrates and phosphates. The water now overly enriched with minerals and nutrients causes excessive plant and algae growth which depletes the levels of oxygen in the water. The plants’ growth extends across the surface of the water body decreasing the amount of light penetrating to the bottom plants, reducing/restricting their growth. ‘As the plants on the bottom die off bacteria break them down and releases more nutrients back into the water. As the decomposed materials provide food for bacteria, there is a growth in bacteria which uses up more oxygen in the water as it continues to decompose dead plants and aquatic animals. This causes more algae and plants to die off, creating more nutrients for the bacteria. In some water bodies, all the dissolved oxygen in the water is depleted, which creates anoxic conditions, killing all life in the water.Learning Outcome 1 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Discharge of effluent/pollutants to the water environment * Principal types of water pollutants. » Physical (solids, thermal, radiological). ° Chemical, © Biological. * Specific pollutants and the possible damage they can cause to the water environment. © Organic (milk, plant matter) and inorganic substances (iron) and the relationship with oxygen depletion ®° Total solids (silt), suspended solids and dissolved solids. © Acids and alkalis. © Nitrogen compounds and phosphorus compounds, © Hydrocarbons (petrol, oil, grease), persistent organic pollutants (POP), ° Pesticides, ° Thermal. © Pathogens, parasites. © Chlorine and chiorine-containing compounds (Trichloroethylene) © Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium). * Point and diffuse sources of pollution. * The causes and effects of eutrophication. * The need to prevent pollution from entering watercourses, including prevention of pollution from fire-fighting water runoff; marking, maintenance and mapping of drainage systems.Learning Outcome 2. Learning Objectives Bs Describe the purpose of monitoring effluent discharges and the measuring techniques used.What will be Covered in Element 2? In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Monitoring of effluent discharges The purpose of water monitoring and effluent discharges. The environmental practitioner's role in monitoring water pollution: © Understanding why and when sampling is required (inclu legislation), © Arranging for specialists to undertake sampling. © Limits of competence. ° Analysis of sampling reports. © Making and implementing recommendations from the analysis of sampling reports. * Purpose of water quality scales i.e. Index. 1g compliance with ‘Sampling of liquid effluents: grab sampling, continuous monitoring, Implementing additional control measures as an outcome of monitoring results. The meaning of and the possible effect on the water environment of the following: ® Dissolved oxygen (DO). ® Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). © Chemical oxygen demand (COD). © Total oxygen demand (TOD). © PH scale. © Total suspended solids. ®° Total dissolved solids. © Turbidity.2.0 - Purpose & Benefits of Water Monitoring. Purpose of Water Monitoring. ‘The fundamental purpose of water monitoring is to collect data necessary for organisations to make informed decisions on how best to manage and improve the environmental risks from emissions to water sources. Benefits of Water Monitoring. Benefits of monitoring emissions to water sources include: * Fulfil compliance with legal, permit or licence requirements. * Allows organisations to quantify their plants’ effectiveness. * Allows organisations to optimise processes to reduce water emissions. * Avoids the need to buy abatement equipment which can be expensive. + Demonstrates a continual improvement in the organisations’ environmental performance. * Identifies opportunities to identify water emissions levels and determine the costs of releases. * Identifies opportunities to reduce water emissions and the associated costs as part of a water management program.2.1 - Role of the Environmental Practitioner in Monitoring Water Pollution. The monitoring of emissions to water sources is often undertaken by the organisations’ environmental practitioner. Environmental practitioners should have a good understanding of relevant legislation to be able to determine if the organisation is compliant or not. An understanding of legislation may also provide the practitioner guidance on when monitoring is required. An environmental practitioner will understand the reason why the monitoring of emissions to water sources is undertaken and the benefits of reducing emissions. They will be able to relay this information to the organisation to ensure monitoring is undertaken when required, The environmental practitioner should have a clear understanding of their own limitations so that they only undertake monitoring activities that they are capable and competent to do. ‘Where the practitioner may lack the necessary skills, arrangements should be made for an external specialist to be brought in. The environmental practitioner will be useful in determining what is, required so that the correct specialist is engaged. The findings from monitoring will be analysed and evaluated by the environmental practitioner so that they can determine any weaknesses or issues that need to be reported back to management, so that management can see how well they are performing. ‘When reporting back, the practitioner should produce a report, highlight the issues that need management attention and suggesting appropriate and realistic actions/recommendations and timescales to implement them2.2 - Biotic Index. The biotic index is a scale used for showing the quality of an aquatic environment based on the types of organism's present. Ithhas a measurement scale of -10 and covers four water quality measures - excellent, good, fair and poor. Samples of macroinvertebrates are collected from portions of a sample area and separated into groups of similar organisms. Mayflies, caddisflies, snails etc are all good organisms to sample as they have a year (give or take) life cycle, do not move great distances and are generally confined to the sample area so if any species are likely to be exposed to any stressors in the environment, it will be them, Indicator Species > fw aK OE Total number of individuals collected Key Number of individuals of a specias folerance rating of a species The overall tolerance of each group is estimated based on their number in the sample. The organisms are then assigned a tolerance value of between 0-10 that pertains to that group's known sensitivity to organic pollutants, If they are thriving, then this shows the quality of the environment has not deteriorated. If their numbers are low or non-existent, this shows that some impacts have occurred to the environment. The water quality is then grades based on the diversity and abundance of water flora and fauna, The final quality level is reached by multiplying the number of each species by the tolerance value assigned to that speciesEons Stonefly nymph Class! ee Pollution sensitive ‘Freshwater shrimp: Class i “De Moderately tolerant ‘ubifex worm tess r Poluton tolerant eres Average ‘Some pollution Earner ‘Moderate organic ‘pollution tkely2.3 - Grab Sampling & Continuous Monitoring. Grab sampling Grab sampling is a sampling technique where a single sample or measurement is taken at a specific time or over a short time period This type of sampling provides an immediate sample but only represents the performance at that point in time. ‘Samples are usually collected by a container or telescopic sampler. Continuous monitoring, Continuous monitoring often uses computer-based monitoring devices which take constant readings of the effluent water quality. It is set up to ensure that certain parameters are met If these parameters are exceeded, then the monitoring system sends out an alarm which is often linked to the wastewater system. The effluent system is then shut down and prevented from being released until rectified.2.4 - Implementing Additional Controls. Water quality monitoring will determine if water quality has been affected by pollutants. If organisations are undertaking their own water quality assessments on the wastewater they are releasing, and the levels are higher than is permitted to be released, they will need to implement additional controls to reduce the risks of pollution. if government agencies are undertaking quality checks of local water bodies as part of their routine operations and discover that water quality has been affected by a pollutant, they will ry and identify the source of that pollutant and may review their systems and processes and require that they implement more stringent controls. Organisations found to be a source of pollution will likely be subject to a fine and the clean-up costs for the water environment they have polluted,2.5 - Dissolved Oxygen (DO). Dissolved oxygen is the level of unbound free oxygen in the water. Itis used as an output measure of water quality due to its influence on the organisms living in the water. Dissolved oxygen is necessary for many lifeforms including fish, invertebrates, plants and bacteria (decomposers). Animals use the dissolved oxygen in the water for respiration. Dissolved oxygen is also produced in the aquatic environment as a by-product when plankton, algae, plants etc photosynthesise, Without dissolved oxygen in the water plants and animal life would not be able to be sustained,2.6 - Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD). Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen (DO) used by aerobic microorganisms to break down (decompose) the organic material present in the water over a specific time period. This is also used to assess water quality as it provides an index to assess the effects that wastewater will have on the water receiving it, The higher the BOD value, the greater the amount of organic matter present for oxygen-consuming bacteria. If the rate of dissolved oxygen consumption is higher than that supplied during photosynthesis, unfavourable conditions can occur. Reduced levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to aquatic stress making the environment unsuitable for sustaining life.2.7 - Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Chemical oxygen demand (COD) is the measure of the amount of oxygen that can be consumed by reactions used to oxidise soluble and particulate matter. This is an important water quality measure as itis similar to the BOD as it provides an index to assess the effect discharged wastewater will have on an environment. The higher the COD levels means a greater amount of oxidisable organic material present which can reduce dissolved oxygen levels. A reduction in dissolved oxygen levels can lead to anaerobic conditions and harm aquatic life. COD testing is often used as an alternative to BOD due to the shorter length of testing time needed2.8 - Total Oxygen Demand (TOD). The Total Oxygen Demand (TOD) defines the total oxygen demand of the water environment (represented by a sample). It measures all the organic and inorganic compounds present in the sample. It is based on the same idea as the COD, which is that all organic compounds shall be oxidised completely to determine the oxygen demand required. The sample is thermally oxidised in an oven at 1,200 and the emerging oxygen is directly measured, BOD, COD and TOD all provide measures of potential oxygen depletion that can result from pollutants.2.9 - pH Scale. The pH scale identifies water samples that are acidic or alkaline. The pH scales goes from 0-14 - with 7 being neutral, 0-6 being increasingly acidic and 8-14 being increasingly alkaline. If the pH of the water is too high or too low, aquatic organisms living within it can die. The pH of the water can also affect the solubility and toxicity of chemicals and heavy metals present. ‘As pH moves away from the preferred range 6-8, stress is caused in the environment and this reduces hatching and survival rates. Discharge permits and consents for wastewater effluent may state the pH levels required for the water, to be safely released without harm to the environment. Two common methods of measuring the pH of a water sample include pH meters and litmus Paper.2.10 - Total Solids (Suspended & Dissolved). Total Suspended Solids. Total suspended solids (TSS) are the dry weight of solid particles present in a water sample. They have particles sizes of more than 2 microns (particles less than 2 microns are considered to be dissolved solids). TSS are a significant factor for water clarity. The more solid particles that are present means that the water clarity will be reduced. TSS can sink to the bottom of watercourses as sediment and can smother organisms, eggs and plants present. TSS interfere with the waters’ ability to self-purify. Both organic and inorganic particles of all size can contribute to suspended solid concentrations. Total Dissolved Solids. Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) are minerals, salts, metals, etc. dissolved in the water. This would include calcium, potassium, chlorides, sulphates, etc. Ahigh concentration of TDS's in the water or lower pH levels is indicative of harmful contaminants present in the water.2.11 - Turbidity. Turbidity is a measure of the clarity of the water source. Cloudiness of the water is caused by particles such as clay, silt, fine organic and inorganic compounds and microscopic organisms. To measure turbidity, a light is shined through a sample and the amount of light received back to a light sensor is measured. High levels of turbidity mean that less light can penetrate the water. This will reduce productivity and decrease habitat quality for aquatic life. Particles in the water provide a means for other pollutants such as metals and bacteria to become attached and persist. Turbidity measurements are used as an indicator of potential pollutants present in the water. Low Turbidity - -Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Outline the role of the environmental practitioner in monitoring water pollution.Self-Marked Answer. The monitoring of emissions to water sources is often undertaken by the organisations’ environmental practitioner. Environmental practitioners should have a good understanding of relevant legislation to be able to determine if the organisation is compliant or not. An understanding of legislation may also provide the practitioner guidance on when monitoring is required. An environmental practitioner will understand the reason why the monitoring of emissions to water sources is undertaken and the benefits of reducing emissions. They will be able to relay this information to the organisation to ensure monitoring is undertaken when required, The environmental practitioner should have a clear understanding of their own limitations so that they only undertake monitoring activities that they are capable and competent to do. Where the practitioner may lack the necessary skills, arrangements should be made for an external specialist to be brought in. The environmental practitioner will be useful in determining what is, required so that the correct specialist is engaged The findings from monitoring will be analysed and evaluated by the environmental practitioner so that they can determine any weaknesses or issues that need to be reported back to management, so that management can see how well they are performing. ‘When reporting back, the practitioner should produce a report, highlight the issues that need management attention and suggesting appropriate and realistic actions/recommendations and timescales to implement them.Learning Outcome 2 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Monitoring of effluent discharges: The purpose of water monitoring and effluent discharges. The environmental practitioner's role in monitoring water pollution: Understanding why and when sampling is required (including compliance with legislation). Arranging for specialists to undertake sampling. Limits of competence. Analysis of sampling reports. Making and implementing recommendations from the analysis of sampling reports, Purpose of water quality scales i.e. Biotic Index. ‘Sampling of liquid effluents: grab sampling, continuous monitoring. Implementing additional control measures as an outcome of monitoring results. The meaning of and the possible effect on the water environment of the following: Dissolved oxygen (DO). Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). Chemical oxygen demand (COD). Total oxygen demand (TOD). PH scale. Total suspended solids. Total dissolved solids. Turbidity.Learning Outcome 3. Learning Objectives Bs Outline different potable water and wastewater treatment methods and the situation/s in which each method would be usedWhat will be Covered in Learning Outcome 37 In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Potable water and wastewater treatment methods and the situations when they would be used: * The range of engineering control measures to eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless releases of polluting matter to watercourses and the situations where they would be used: ® Preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatment including storm flow separation; screening; grit removal (grit chambers): fitration; membrane filtration (micro, ultra and nano/reverse osmosis filtration including percolating/trickling filters and rotating biological contactor); dissolved air flotation; sedimentation; use of activated carbon; air stripping; constructed wetlands; aeration; anaerobic digestion; aerobic digestion (including activated sludge); disinfection sumps and oil separators. * Different methods for the desalination of water abstracted from the water environment i.e. multi-stage flash, distillation, reverse osmosis, vapour compressor. * The advantages and disadvantages of desalination.3.0 - Waste Treatment. Wastewater is treated as a means of protection or for recovery purposes. When caustic contaminant in the wastewater enters sewer pipes, they can corrode and damage the pipes, therefore, the treatment aims to neutralise such contaminants and protect the pipes. If toxic contaminant enters a sewage treatment plant, they could impact on the microorganisms used there to biodegrade other contaminants, therefore, all toxic components should be treated before reaching the plant. Itis cost effective to recover valuable raw materials from wastewater; therefore, some industrial wastewater facilities are designed to allow materials to be recovered and reused,3.1 - Waste Treatment Process. There can be four stages of treatment for waste water which include: * Preliminary treatment. * Primary treatment. * Secondary treatment. * Tertiary (advanced) treatment. Prel inary Treatment. Here the objective is to remove alll coarse solid and other large materials from the water. Examples of preliminary treatment include grit removal and coarse screening. Primary Treatment. The objective with primary treatment is to remove all settleable organic and inorganic solids through sedimentation. Materials that will float are also removed at this stage, usually by skimming the waste water. Secondary treatment. This level of treatment is to remove residual organic and suspended solids using aerobic biological treatment processes. Tertiary treatment. Tertiary treatment is undertaken when secondary treatment has not removed constituents that must be removed. Examples of constituents that must be removed include nitrogen, phosphorus and heavy metals.3.2 - Treatment Methods. There is a range of engineering control measures that can eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless releases of polluting matter to watercourses. For this qualification, the following will be covered * Storm flow separation; * Screening; * Grit removal (grit chambers); * Filtration; ‘* Membrane filtration (micro, ultra and nano/reverse osmosis filtration including percolating/trickling filters and rotating biological contactor). * Dissolved air flotation. * Sedimentation. * Use of activated carbon. © Air stripping * Constructed wetlands, * Aeration * Anaerobic digestion. * Aerobic digestion3.3 - Storm Water Separation. In this separator, stormwater flows through the structure which has a settling or separation unit attached. Inside the structure, a swirling vortex is created or water plunges into the main sump where floatables (trash, debris, etc.) and settleables are removed. rT rey Lb wn) rs au ae a Orain Figure 1. An example of a stormwater separator. Source CDS Technologies Inc.3.4 - Screening. The screening process involves spaced bars or meshes to physically remove the coarse solids from the waste water including plastic bottles, rags, etc. Figure 2. An example of a waste water screening system.3.5 - Grit Removal (Grit Chambers). ‘A tit chamber is a long narrow chamber around 10-18 meters long and 1-1.3 meters deep that are designed to slow the flow of water at a constant velocity so that organic materials flow through and heavier solids such as sand, grit, etc. will settle out of the flow. This process removes inorganic particles and prevents them from causing damage to wastewater treatment facilities. Figure 3. An example of a grit chamber used to remove grit from wastewater.3.6 - Filtration - Membrane Filtration. Membrane filtration uses a membrane which filters out any contaminants whilst letting the water pass through. There are 4 main types of filter: Microfilters, Ultrafilters. Nano filters. Reverse osmosis filters. Microfilters remove the larger particles such as sediments sized form 0.1 - 10 microns, Ultrafitters remove smaller particles than the microfilter including microorganisms, sized between 0.1 and 0.01 microns. Nano filters use pressure to remove smaller particles such as salts and viruses sized between .01 and 0.001 microns across the membrane. Reverse osmosis filters, like nano filters, use high pressure to transfer the liquid across the membrane. The particles filtered by this membrane range for 0.001-0.0001 microns. The resultant water after, reverse osmosis filtration is basically pure water. It removes all organic molecules as well as viruses and most minerals.Wale — Monovalent Multvalsnl Virus Baclotia Suspend Tons ‘ons Solids ‘Water Monovalent Multivalent Viruses. Bacteria Suspended Tons ons Solids or SSS SO Water Monovalent Multvalent Viruses. Bacletia Suspended lone one Solids Narotiaon AS SSS Weler — Monovalent Mullvalent Viuses Baclerla Suspended Tons ons Solids | Reverse Osmosis ee Figure 4. Example of the different types of filter and the particles it prevents and allows to pass.3.7 - Percolating/Trickling Filters. This system consists of a fixed bed of rocks, gravel, ceramics etc over which wastewater or sewage flows downwards until it reaches a layer of biofilm. Here it is absorbed or adsorbed. The biofilm layer thickens over time and is eventually becomes part of the liquid flow to become secondary sludge. Rotating Domed Influent Enclosure Distributer BSS RSS RH ‘eeececececoneceren RSS Recycle Sludge Pump Figure 5. An example of a trickling filter.3.8 - Rotating Biological Contactor. A rotating biological contactor is a biological treatment process for wastewater. Course materials, sand and grit are removed through screening followed by settling. In this process, a series of closely spaced parallel discs are mounted upon a sheff that rotates above the wastewater surface. The discs contain microorganisms that cause biological degradation of the pollutants into the wastewater. The treated water is then discharged to the environment. one mmc Media discs acl - i oo Media disc Media TTT or panel support Se’ 35-40% Side View Front view" Optional air distributor pipe Figure 6. An example of a rotating biological contactor.3.9 - Dissolved Air Flotation. In this process, suspended materials such as oils and solids are removed using dissolved air. Pressure dissolves the air in the wastewater. The air is the released, at atmospheric pressure, into a flotation tank. As the air releases, it forms tiny bubbles which attach to the suspended materials making them float to the surface. ‘Skimming processes can then be used to remove the contaminants. Borate Sutton DAF Unit Pree Figure 7. An example of a dissolved air flotation system. Source: JWC Environmental.3.10 - Sedimentation. In the sedimentation process, gravity is used to remove suspended particles out of wastewater. In the sedimentation tank, suspended solids that have a gravity equivalent to or similar with the level of the water, remain suspended whilst the heavier ones will settle at the bottom of the tank, to be removed. Figure 8. An example of a sedimentation tank showing larger particles settling whilst smaller one's flow through the tank in the wastewater.3.11 - Use of Activated Carbon. Organic pollutants such as chlorine and fluorine can be removed from wastewater using activated carbon filters which absorb the contaminants. Other contaminants such as metals and inorganic pollutants are not effectively removed by this process, so its use would depend on the type of pollutants which need to be removed. There will also be maintenance issues with the fiter, which will need to be replaced or cleaned once it reaches maximum capacity.3.12 - Air Stripping. Air stripping is used for the removal of volatile compounds in wastewater. In this process, the volatile compounds are transferred from the water into an air stream. The processes for this usually use packed towers or tray towers which operate with water flowing in from the top and air being blown in from the bottom. The wastewater entering from the top flows through the packing material where the volatile compounds are absorbed/adsorbed. The up flowing air then picks up these compounds and carries them to the top of the stripper and out. The resultant air flow will contain hazardous pollutants which will need to be correctly treated before the air can be released. Air out . Demister Contaminated water in ——> Water distributor Packing ——> Water outFigure 9. An example of an air stripper used to remove volatile compounds from wastewater.3.13 - Constructed Wetlands. These wetlands use nature such as vegetation, soils and organisms to remove pollutants from wastewater. The wetlands act as a biofiter for a variety of pollutants such as organic matter, heavy metals, etc. ‘Water flows through the gravel or sand bed of the wetlands where microorganisms exist due to the substrate provided by the vegetation (roots, leaves, stems, etc.). ‘The microorganisms break down organic matter and plants remove some pollutants themselves. The vegetation also has a dual role of providing the microbes with a source of carbon when they decay. Figure 10. An example of a constructed wetland.3.14 - Aeration. ‘The aeration process is used to remove nutrients from the wastewater. ‘The wastewater enters a tank where microorganisms are mixed into the water to break down the nutrients. Dissolved oxygen is pumped into the tanks at the correct levels for microorganism productivity. Riser pipe Header pipe Air pipe Air diffusion plate Flowmeter Air filter (> - Air diffusion system Blower Aeration tank Figure 11. An example of an aeration tank. Source: Metawater.3.15 - Anaerobic Digestion. Waste sludge is passed to a digester where the biodegradable material is broken down by microorganisms. ‘The by-product of this process is biogas (a mix of methane, carbon dioxide and other trace contaminant gases), which can be reused as part of the process to warm the waste sludge as it enters the digester. The digestion process can reduce the number of solids in the waste but does take some time for the process to be completed. Anaerobic Digestion Re-circulated Figure 12. An example of an anaerobic digester. Source Prosonix.3.16 - Aerobic Digestion. The aerobic process is designed to reduce the volume of sewage sludge using bacterial processes. Oxygen is injected into the sewage/wastewater and the mix is then combined with organisms, producing a biological floc (a mixture of bacteria and protozoa). The floc breaks down the organic matter, reducing the content of the sewage/wastewater. The resultant sludge is comprised largely of saprotrophic bacteria. As there is no new organic material for the biological floc to feed on, they die out and act as a food source for the saprotrophic bacteria. The excess sludge is then transferred to a settling tank where it is settled out and removed. Air Treated Water Raw Water Clarifier-Settler Aeration Tank Recycle Sludge Waste Sludge To Sludge Treatment Figure 13. An example of aerobic digestion; activated sludge.3.17 - Disinfection Sumps. Disinfection sumps are used as the final stage of wastewater treatment, to remove microbial contaminants. ‘Wastewater is pumped into the disinfection sump/tank where the water is disinfected by one of a variety of methods, including the use of ozone, chlorine or Ultra Violet radiation, to remove any remaining microbial pollutants. ‘Water Senor Signal e.g Dissolved Gaone, 00, Trbiy Figure 14. An example of a disinfection sump. Source: Treatment Plant Operator.3.18 - Oil Separators. Oil separators are used to remove cil and suspended solids from wastewater using gravity. The water enters the separator where the suspended solids will sink to the bottom under gravity and become a layer of sediment and can be removed. The lighter oil then floats to the top of the separator where it can be continually skimmed off and reprocessed if possible or disposed of. ‘The wastewater is held in the layer between the sediment and oil and can be transferred out. Figure 15. An example of an oil separator.3.19 - Desalinisation. Where freshwater is scarce, saline water can be used, however, to produce water suitable for human consumption and for use in agriculture, the water must be desalinised. Desalinisation is the process whereby the saline water has its minerals, mainly salts, removed. The methodsitechniques of desalinisation include’ * Multi-stage flash distillation. Electrodialysis. * Reverse osmosis. * Vapour compression distillation, The most popular method is multi-stage flash distillation. In this process, seawater is sent through multiple evaporation chambers where portions are flashed into steam, due to the lower ambient pressure. Vapour from each chamber is condensed, creating fresh water which is pumped away leaving the salts behind. Electrodialysis. Here an electric current drives ions across a permeable membrane separating the salt from the seawater. Reverse Osmosis. As previously discussed, reverse osmosis uses pressure to push water through a permeable membrane, which leaves behind minerals including salts. Vapour Compression n. | this distillation system, vapour produces heat as it is rapidly compressed. Some of this heated, compressed vapour is then recycled through tubes in a reduced pressure chamber, where its heat energy is used to boil and evaporate saltwater.3.20 - Advantages & Disadvantages of Desai: ation. The table below shows some of the advantages and disadvantages of the desalinisation process. Advantages Provides potable water. Provides water to agriculture Provides safe water quality. Uses a tried and tested technology which is effective. Preserves the current freshwater supplies Salt water is an unlimited source. Helps protect habitats due to less impact to groundwater. Disadvantages By-products which must be disposed of e.g. chemicals Used to clean water Brine by-product pumped back into the ocean, but species are not able to adjust to such an immediate change in salinity which can also reduce oxygen levels in the water. Can be acidic to pipes and digestive system if by-products of the chemical used in the process get through Requires large amounts of power to operate, not as efficient as other processes. High costs to build and operate (energy use)Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Outline how a rotating biological contactor works.Self-Marked Answer. A rotating biological contactor is a biological treatment process for wastewater. Course materials, sand and grit are removed through screening followed by settling. In this process, a series of closely spaced parallel discs are mounted upon a shelf that rotates. above the wastewater surface. The dises contain microorganisms that cause biological degradation of the pollutants into the wastewater. The treated water is then discharged to the environment.Learning Outcome 3 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Potable water and wastewater treatment methods and the situations when they would be used: * The range of engineering control measures to eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless releases of polluting matter to watercourses and the situations where they would be used. © Preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatment including storm flow separation; screening; grit removal (grit chambers); filtration; membrane filtration (micro, ultra and nano/reverse osmosis filtration including percolating/trickling filters and rotating biological contactor); dissolved air flot entation; use of activated carbon; air stripping; constructed wetlands; aeration; anaerobic digestion; aerobic digestion (including activated sludge); disinfection sumps and oil separators. * Different methods for the desalination of water abstracted from the water environment i.e. multi-stage flash, distillation, reverse osmosis, vapour compressor. * The advantages and disadvantages of desalination.Learning Outcome 4. Learning Objectives Explain the need for sustainable water abstraction.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 47 In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Abstraction from the water environment: The need for sustainable water abstraction and the consequences of non-equitable use i.e. impact on downstream users. The meaning of and purpose of water neutral developments. The purpose of a general water balance equation. Water stress: © Definition. © Water exploitation index (calculation - water abstraction + long-term available annual resource); waming threshold (20%).4.0 - The Need for Sustainable Water Abstraction. wit an ever-increasing population comes the increasing demand for water. The water that is removed is very rarely returned to its original source, therefore, over- abstraction can lead to harmful impacts on aquatic life and the ecosystems and food chains that they support. (Over-abstraction can have the following impacts: Rivers dry up completely. Reduction in aquatic life. Saltwater intrusion when abstracting groundwater in coastal areas. Destruction of wetlands relying on river flow. Aquifers dry up resulting in less water available. Less water for human and agricultural uses. If groundwater is over abstracted there is less water to feed rivers and streams ete and they will flow at reduced levels or could themselves dry up. This would have devastating impacts on areas downstream that would rely on this source of water to maintain their ecosystems. Decreased water downstream could result in: A reduction in aquatic biodiversity. Migration of wildlife to areas with a more abundant supply of water. Changes in the food chain. * Extinction of some species.4.1 - Water Neutral Developments. Water neutrality refers to increasing water efficiency and sustainability. Its purpose is to ensure that developments’ projected water demands are offset/balanced with water efficiency measures. This ensures that the amount of water consumed is no larger than the amount of water that can be conserved, It aims to reduce water usage, through efficiency, so that it can be returned to the community and nature. The term water neutral originates from the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development and follows on from schemes such as carbon neutral to reduce our carbon and water footprints.4.2 - Water Balance Equation. The water balance equation is a numerical analysis of an organisations water inputs against its water outputs. To determine if an organisation is water neutral they must identify all the ways water enters the site. This information can be obtained from reviewing previous water bills, or from water meter readings, for example. The input data can then be compared to the output data, which should determine the ways in which water leaves the site, which include wastewater and atmospheric discharges. ‘An organisation that has completed its water balance equation will be better equipped to identify potential areas where water could be saved or used more efficiently. Examples of ways that an organisation can reduce their water consumption include: Fixing leaking or faulty taps/pipes. Install reduced water flush toilets. Reuse grey water from sinks to flush toilets, water gardens, vehicle washing, etc. Low flow taps.4.3 - Water Stress. Water stress occurs when there is an inability to meet human and ecological demands for freshwater. This can occur at certain periods or may be due to the poor quality of water, restricting its use. Water stress is based on the unavailability of water and/or poor water quality, due to eutrophication or saline intrusion, etc. Water Exploitation Index (WEI). A country's water exploitation index, otherwise known as the withdrawal ratio, is the mean annual total of freshwater abstracted as a percentage of the long-term average freshwater, available for abstraction. The long-term average freshwater available is calculated using the below equation: Long-term average precipitation - long-term average evapotranspiration + long-term average inflow from neighbouring countries. The water exploitation index (WE!) can show the pressure that water abstraction puts on water resources. It can also help identify countries that are or could face water stress due to high abstraction rates in relation to the water resources is has. The waming threshold is defined at 20% (this is the difference between a stressed area and a non- stressed one). Sever stress is a region of having a WE! of more than 40%. In such areas the demand for water will be high, leading to strong competition. WATER STRESS BY AG Cee eee ee ee eg eae et ¥ erento Tae Ce perce reerSelf-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Identity the impacts of over-abstraction.Self-Marked Answer. (Over-abstraction can have the following impacts: * Rivers dry up completely. + Reduction in aquatic life. * Saltwater intrusion when abstracting groundwater in coastal areas. * Destruction of wetlands relying on river flow, * Aquifers dry up resulting in less water available. * Less water for human and agricultural uses.Learning Outcome 4 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Abstraction from the water environment: * The need for sustainable water abstraction and the consequences of non-equitable use i.e. impact on downstream users. * The meaning of and purpose of water neutral developments. * The purpose of a general water balance equation. + Water stress. © Definition, © Water exploitation index (calculation - water abstraction + long-term available annual resource); warning threshold (20%)..Learning Outcome 5. Learning Objectives Outline the risks associated with flooding and appropriate control measures.What is Covered in Learning Outcome 5? In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Risk assessment of flood areas, consequences of and control measures for flooding: * Consequences of flooding © Direct effects i.e. damage to property/equipment/stock, loss of income, business continuity, increasing insurance premiums, pest infestations, health issues. ® Indirect effects i.e. damage to roads and other infrastructure, clean-up costs/removal of debris, general health and safety issues. * Factors to be taken into account when assessing the risk from flooding: © Identification of sources of possible flooding i.e. groundwater, coastal, river and surface water, reservoir failure, failure of storage systems. © Typical climate in the area. ®° Historical site data. ® Location of floodplains © Possible severity of damage to property and local habitats/eco-systems. Data from flood modelling andior flood maps. © Climate change, including sea level rise, * Control and mitigation measures: © Maintenance of existing control measures i.e. pumping stations capable of dealing with demand, holding tanks. © Emergency plans: up-to-date and regular drills carried out. © Monitoring updates from national/international environmental bodies. © Use of forestry and land management to increase water retention capacity. © Use of sustainable urban drainage systems for new and redevelopment projects. ° Flooding to be considered when designing new buildings. © Local flood defences: * Building of flood walls/defences/barriers. = Use of sandbags. = Use of constructed wetlands.5.0 - Flooding. The consequences of flooding can be either direct or indirect, Direct consequences include: + damage to property/equipment/stock - which may delay orders and need replacing. * loss of income from lost business which may result in redundancies. * business continuity - if an organisation does not have a business contingency plan then a flood could cause such significant damage that may result in the organisation ceasing to trade, permanently. * increased insurance premiums - after a flood event, insurance premiums will increase after the insurance company has paid out for the repairs, etc. to recoup their costs. However, in areas which are prone to flooding, flood insurance may not be available, therefore should a flood occur, the organisation would need to cover all costs. * Pest infestations - insects and rodents whose homes have been flooded may seek refuge in buildings. If flood waters contained sewage, this could also attract flies to the organisation * health issues - the risk of waterborne diseases increases in flood events, including leptospirosis and malaria. Indirect effects include: + damage to roads and infrastructure - if roads or other transport links to and from the organisation are damaged during a flood, businesses may struggle to receive vital deliveries or send out products. * Clean-up costs/removal of debris - floodwaters can cause significant damage to businesses and infrastructure which will need to be cleaned up and safely removed for disposal * General health and safety issues - flooding can cause injuries and even deaths. However, there are also other safety concems during the clean-up of a potentially unsafe arealood Risk. ‘considered: ‘come from a variety of lure, failure of ' — ‘ypical climate in the area - some areas are prone to flooding especially those which experience high rainfall levels. Historical site data - using historical flood data can help determine the probabilities of future events along with estimates of the likely damage and locations. Possible severity of damage to property and local habitats/ecosystems - damages to property can be estimated using historical data as well as insurance data. The likely environmental impacts of sensitive habitats and ecosystems need to be established to determine the correct control measures to put in place. Data from flood modelling and/or flood maps - flood modelling and flood maps can be used to help determine the locations and scale of flooding, considering all geographical, geological and hydrological data, to predict floods. Climate change (sea level increase) - the impacts of climate change need to be considered in a flood assessment to determine the possibilities of future likely flood events. Sea level increases should be considered as these would result in low lying coastal areas at higher risk of flooding.5.2 - Flood Control & Mitigation Measures. Maintenance of existing control measures. Itis essential that control measures already in place are adequately maintained so that should a flood occur they would operate effectively. Such control measures include pumping stations and holding tanks. Pumping stations direct water away when large amounts of water enter a watercourse, preventing flooding downstream so they need to be operational when needed.5.3 - Emergency Plans. Emergency plans should include planning for flooding events as well as other emergencies. These plans should include what to do in the event of a flood, to prevent health, safety and environmental risks as well as ensuring the security of the organisation. The emergency plans need to be kept up to date and regularly tested through drills so that everyone knows what to do in case of such an event.5.4 - Flood Updates. Organisations that are at risk of flooding needs to ensure that they monitor all national international environmental bodies bulletins, websites, broadcasts, helplines, etc to ensure that they remain up to date on any potential flood risk. These organisations can provide updates as to the potential for flooding as well as increases in storm levels which may indicate an increased chance of flooding. Being aware of potential flood threats will allow organisations to proactively instigate their emergency plan, activating any flood control measures which may reduce any business impacts the flood may have.5.5 - Forestry & Land Management. How land is managed can increase or decrease the risk and impacts of flooding Floodplains were created to allow flood waters to dissipate into the ground and reduce its velocity, helping to prevent damage to buildings/businesses, etc. However, many floodplains have now been built on, decreasing the amount of water that could be absorbed and increasing the amount of water that can run off. Forested areas can intercept rainfall and absorb rainwater and runoff, reducing the amount of water reaching downstream and if not reducing the likelihood of flooding, then to reduce the amount of water involved in the flood and therefore its effects. Urban areas increase the risk of flooding due to all the impermeable surfaces which allow increased volumes of runoff. Poor land management techniques in agriculture make changes to the soil structures, enabling them to hold less water, allowing more water to runoff into rivers.5.6 - Urban Drainage Systems. Urban areas require sustainable urban drainage systems which allow runoff to mimic its natural drainage process, reducing the quantity of runoff from developments. ‘When new developments are proposed and go for planning permission from local authorities, often a requirement that the plans include sustainable urban drainage systems for the application to be passed5.7 - New Building Design. New buildings can be designed to be resistant to flooding or at least designed to reduce any impacts from a flood The flood risk can be avoided firstly by not building in areas prone to flooding or build on raised ground. ‘Areas around new buildings can be landscaped to reduce the flow of water to a building, possibly directing it away. Buildings can be constructed of low permeable materials which will slow the progress of water into a building, allowing occupants enough time to remove valuable items from the ground floor, out of the risk of harm/damage. if water must enter a building, then its impacts can be minimised by including flood-resilient design features such as damp proofing, thicker walls, hard floor surfacing such as tile or concrete and having pumps on site to pump water out These measures aim to drain away water and allow the building to dry quicker.5.8 - Local Flood Defences. Local flood defences can include the following: * Floodwalls/barriersidefences. * Sandbags. * Constructed wetlands. The building of flood walls/defences/barriers. hese defences prevent floodwaters from overflowing and causing harm. They, unfortunately, allow floodwaters to build up higher than they would have done naturally, so if they eventually are breached, the amount of water released is higher and has a greater velocity. These defences work better when combined with other water flow reduction methods. Sandbags are commonly used to try and prevent floodwaters entering areas or buildings however these are only temporary solutions. Use of Constructed Wetlands.pecific areas can be set aside as wetlands. Constructed wetlands are engineered wetlands that use soil, vegetation etc that decreases the intensity of peak flows by temporarily storing and slowly releasing flood water.Self-Marked Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Outline the factors that would need to be considered when looking at the risk of flooding.Self-Marked Answer. When determining the risk of flooding, the following factors should be considered: * Identification of sources of possible flooding - flooding can come from a variety of sources such as groundwater, coastal water, rivers, reservoir failure, failure of storage systems so al such sources need to be considered. * Typical climate in the area - some areas are prone to flooding especially those which experience high rainfall levels. * Historical site data - using historical flood data can help determine the probabilities of future events along with estimates of the likely damage and locations. * Possible severity of damage to property and local habitats/ecosystems - damages to property can be estimated using historical data as well as insurance data. The likely environmental impacts of sensitive habitats and ecosystems need to be established to determine the correct control measures to put in place. * Data from flood modelling and/or flood maps - flood modelling and flood maps can be used to help determine the locations and scale of flooding, considering all geographical, geological and hydrological data, to predict floods. * Climate change (sea level increase) - the impacts of climate change need to be considered in a flood assessment to determine the possibilities of future likely flood events. Sea level increases should be considered as these would result in low lying coastal areas at higher risk of floodingLearning Outcome 5 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Risk assessment of flood areas, consequences of and control measures for flooding: * Consequences of flooding: © Direct effects i.e, damage to property/equipment/stock, loss of income, business continuity, increasing insurance premiums, pest infestations, health issues. ® Indirect effects i.e. damage to roads and other infrastructure, clean-up costs/removal of debris, general health and safety issues. + Factors to be taken into account when assessing the risk from flooding. © Identification of sources of possible flooding i.e. groundwater, coastal, river and surface water, reservoir failure, failure of storage systems. © Typical climate in the area. ° Historical site data. © Location of floodplains. © Possible severity of damage to property and local habitats/eco-systems. © Data from flood modelling and/or flood maps. © Climate change, including sea level rise. * Control and mitigation measures. © Maintenance of existing control measures i.e. pumping stations capable of dealing with demand, holding tanks. © Emergency plans: up-to-date and regular drills carried out. © Monitoring updates from national/international environmental bodies. ° Use of forestry and land management to increase water retention capacity. © Use of sustainable urban drainage systems for new and redevelopment projects. © Flooding to be considered when designing new buildings. © Local flood defences: * Building of flood walls/defences/barriers. = Use of sandbags. = Use of constructed wetlands.Element 9 - Lesson Summary. eT 1s) In this element we have covered: Discharge of effluent/pollutants to the water environment: * Principal types of water pollutants: © Physical (solids, thermal, radiological) © Chemical © Biological. * Specific pollutants and the possible damage they can cause to the water environment: © Organic (milk, plant matter) and inorganic substances (iron) and the relationship with oxygen depletion © Total solids (silt), suspended solids and dissolved solids, © Acids and alkalis. © Nitrogen compounds and phosphorus compounds, ° Hydrocarbons (petrol, oil, grease), persistent organic pollutants (POP). ° Pesticides. © Thermal. © Pathogens, parasites. © Chlorine and chlorine-containing compounds (Trichloroethylene), © Heavy metals (mercury, cadmium). * Point and diffuse sources of pollution. * The causes and effects of eutrophication. * The need to prevent pollution from entering watercourses, including prevention of pollution {rom fire-fighting water runoff; marking, maintenance and mapping of drainage systems. Monitoring of effluent discharges: + The purpose of water monitoring and effluent discharges. * The environmental practitioner's role in monitoring water pollution: © Understanding why and when sampling is required (including compliance with legislation), ® Arranging for specialists to undertake sampling. © Limits of competence© Analysis of sampling reports. » Making and implementing recommendations from the analysis of sampling reports. Purpose of water quality scales i.e. Biotic Index. ‘Sampling of liquid effluents: grab sampling, continuous monitoring. Implementing additional control measures as an outcome of monitoring results. The meaning of and the possible effect on the water environment of the following’ ® Dissolved oxygen (DO). ® Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD). © Chemical oxygen demand (COD). © Total oxygen demand (TOD). © PH scale. © Total suspended solids. ° Total dissolved solids. © Turbidity. Potable water and wastewater treatment methods and the situations when they would be used: * The range of engineering control measures to eliminate or, where not possible, reduce or render harmless releases of polluting matter to watercourses and the situations where they would be used, © Preliminary, primary, secondary and tertiary treatment including: storm flow separation; screening; grit removal (grit chambers); filtration; membrane filtration (micro, ultra and nano/reverse osmosis fitration including percolating/trickling filters and rotating biological contactor); dissolved air flotation; sedimentation; use of activated carbon; air stripping; constructed wetlands; aeration; anaerobic digestion; aerobic digestion (including activated sludge); disinfection sumps and oil separators. ‘= Different methods for the desalination of water abstracted from the water environment i.e. multi-stage flash, distillation, reverse osmosis, vapour compressor. * The advantages and disadvantages of desalination. Abstraction from the water environment The need for sustainable water abstraction and the consequences of non-equitable use i.e. impact on downstream users. The meaning of and purpose of water neutral developments. The purpose of a general water balance equation. Water stress: ° Definition. © Water exploitation index (calculation - water abstraction + long-term available annual resource); waming threshold (20%). Risk assessment of flood areas, consequences of and control measures for flooding;* Consequences of flooding © Direct effects i.e. damage to property/equipment/stock, loss of income, business continuity, increasing insurance premiums, pest infestations, health issues. © Indirect effects i.e. damage to roads and other infrastructure, clean-up costs/removal of debris, general health and safety issues. * Factors to be taken into account when assessing the risk from flooding: © Identification of sources of possible flooding i.e groundwater, coastal, river and surface water, reservoir failure, failure of storage systems. © Typical climate in the area. © Historical site data. © Location of floodplains © Possible severity of damage to property and local habitats/eco-systems. © Data from flood modelling and/or flood maps. © Climate change, including sea level rise, * Control and mitigation measures: © Maintenance of existing control measures i.e. pumping stations capable of dealing with demand, holding tanks. © Emergency plans: up-to-date and regular drills carried out. © Monitoring updates from national/international environmental bodies. © Use of forestry and land management to increase water retention capacity. © Use of sustainable urban drainage systems for new and redevelopment projects. ° Flooding to be considered when designing new buildings © Local flood defences: * Building of flood walls/defences/barriers. = Use of sandbags. = Use of constructed wetlands.Question to Submit to Tutor. Please find below a question to submit to a tutor for feedback on your answer and understanding of the command word. Click on the submit button to bring up the email address to send your answer to. A local resident has complained that a small stream is being polluted by oil from a company's manufacturing site. Outline the practical and managerial means that could be used to prevent such pollution (10).