Element 4: Environmental Risk Evaluation & Control 20 Last modified by Margaret Smith on Tuesday, 28 July 2020, 1:34 PM This document was downloaded on Monday, 1 May 2023, 12:11 PMElement 4: Environmental Risk Evaluation & Control. Learning Outcomes. Once you have completed this element you will be able to: The intended learning outcomes are that candidates will be able to: 1. Explain the principles of environmental aspect identification 2. Explain the principles of operational planning and control relating to the organisation's significant environmental aspects. 3. Explain the techniques for evaluating environmental aspects arising from workplace activities. 4, Outline the purpose of an environmental impact assessment and environmental statement in relation to large developments. Recommended study time for this element is no less than 14 hours.Learning Outcome 1. Learning Objectives Za Explain the principles of environmental aspect identification.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 17 Pri iples of environmental aspect ide ication with reference to 15014001:2015 Meaning of: © Source, pathway, receptor model. © Environmental aspect (element of an organisation's activities or products or services that can interact with the environment). © Environmental impact (any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organisation's environmental aspects). The relationship between environmental aspects and environmental impacts. Aspects and impacts within the control of the organisation and those that they can influence. Transboundary impacts: distinction between global, transboundary, regional and local environmental effects. Effects and impacts on quality of life: © Nuisances such as noise, dust and odour. © Visual amenity © Transport effects, » Waste from consumer products (packaging). ‘Systematic method for identifying environmental aspects and associated impacts (with reference to ISO 14001:2015). © Identification of and application of life cycle perspective to the organisation's products, services and activities. ® Identify aspects for each of the products, services and activities including inputs and outputs of each. © Decide if these aspects are direct or indirect. © Decide if the aspects are present under, normal, abnormal or emergency situations. © Management of change: assessing environmental aspects resulting from a change of product, plant or process. ® Identify the impacts associated with each of the aspects (including the receptor for each impact) © Evaluate the significance of each of the aspects and their impacts ie. * Data on environmental problems. * Sources of information and advice on environmental risks. = Use of environmental monitoring data to evaluate risk. = Use of biological indicators to evaluate risk. = Uses and limitations of external data sources. = Awareness of the relationships between source, pathway and receptor. © Record the significant findings. » Recommendations and timescales for actions to be taken. © Monitor. ® Review.1.0 - Introduction. The risks to the environment need to be identified and quantified to ensure that suitable control measures can be established to mitigate their effects. The full environmental effects of an activity/task etc can be difficult to determine as there may be multiple effects on multiple receptors.1.1 - Source, Pathway, Receptor Model. To assess the environmental risk, there needs to be an awareness of the relationship between source, pathway and receptor. These are the three essential elements of environmental risk that need to be considered These components can exist independently but only create a risk when they are all inked. The pollution-pathway concept (developed by Holdgate in ‘A Perspective of Environmental Pollution’, 1979) has been used in the study of environmental pollution. The main characteristics of pollution events are described in the following diagram: Environment Source Receptor eg. Industrial Processes, use - Organisms of product Man ~E Ke Pollutant aren eg. Lead Pathway Air, Water, Soil Figure 1: Source, Pathway, Receptor Model. Pollutant: Such as oil, solvents, pesticides, sulphur dioxide. Source: For example, from point or diffuse sources including industrial processes, agricultural processes, waste disposal sites, etc. Pathway (Transport Medium - how does the pollutant reach the receptor): Air, water and soilReceptor (what is affected by the pollution): Ecosystem, flora, fauna, humans, etc. Impact: Change to the environment. The extent to which a pollutant impacts on our environment not only depends upon the material but also the concentrations and quantities. The magnitude of the effect on the receptor may vary according to several factors such as: * The sensitivity of the site. * Biological concentration effects. + Ease and speed of transmission (dependant on the geology and hydrogeology of the land and soil).1.2 - Environmental Aspects & Impacts. Definitions (as per 18014001:2015): | jefinitions” Environmental aspects“an element of an organisation's activities or products or services that can interact with the environment’ Environmental Impact * any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organisation's environmental aspects". The Relationship between Aspect & Impact. The relationship between the environmental aspects and the environmental impacts is a cause and effect relationship, the environmental aspects cause the environmental impacts and the impacts are a result of the aspects on the receptor. For example, carbon dioxide gas released from burning fossil fuels for onsite energy generation is an environmental aspect, leading to the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming (the environmental impact). 1$014001:2015 states that "the organisation shall establish, implement and keep records of procedure(s) a) to identify environmental aspects of its activities, products and services within the defined scope of the environmental management system that is can control and those it can influence, taking into account planned or new developments, or new or modified activities, products and services and b) to determine those aspects that have or can have a significant impact(s) on the environment (i.e. the significant environmental aspects)’. Controlled & Influenced Environmental Aspects & Impacts. Organisations can directly control some of their environmental aspects, however, there may be others which the organisation has no control over but may have some influence. There may even be some environmental aspects that can neither be controlled or influenced by the organisation For example, an organisation has the ability to control the amount of electricity used on site, and can, in some cases, decide where the electricity is bought from, but the organisation would not have any control or influence on how the power company generates its electricity. Under IS014001:2015 organisations should focus on those environmental aspects that it can control or influence. When looking at the influence factor, the organisation needs to determine what it is going to influence, and this is usually based on factors such as: * Legal or contract requirements. * Its size and capability. * Its own environmental policy requirements.1.3 - Transboundary Impacts. Global, Regional and Local Pollution Effects. The environmental systems are inter-related, and an understanding of this interrelationship is fundamental in appreciating the effects of health and safety of people outside the workplace. Changes to the environment, either natural or caused by man, can have impacts on the flora, fauna and human health and these impacts can cross country borders (transboundary). Pollution can affect different areas; be this the workplace, locally, regionally or globally. Local pollution incidents are those which may affect a village or town and can include impacts such as dust, noise, etc. Regional effects will be those faced by a county or even a country such as the pollution of a river or creation of low-level ozone. Global effects are felt across the world and can include impacts such as ozone depletion, global warming, etc. Transboundary impacts are of concern to all countries involved. Therefore, the Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context requires adequate and effective consultations between member countries, to ensure potentially affected parties are notified of any activities with significant adverse environmental impacts. Over the next few pages will be examples/case studies of incidents at a local, regional and global scale to help in this understanding1.4 - Local Environmental Event - Seveso, Italy 1976. Figure 2, Seveso disaster 1379 o, juy 49tn, 1976, Seveso made world headlines when storage vessels at the ICMESA chemical plant ruptured, releasing several kilograms of the Dioxin TCDD (2,3,7,8 — tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin) into the atmosphere. The impacts on the environment from this disaster were: * Locally grown fruits and vegetables were contaminated. * Deaths of herbivores from eating contaminated vegetation. * Slaughter of local animals to prevent damage to the food chain. * Soil contamination. Industrial safety regulations were passed in the European Community in 1982; they were called the Seveso Directive and imposed much harsher industrial regulations. The Seveso Directive Ill was updated in 2015 (or COMAH Regulations 2015 in the United Kingdom).1.5 - A Regional Environmental Event - Basel, Switzerland 1986. Figure 3, Basel Warehouse view after fire in November 1986, a chemical warehouse accident occurred at the Sandoz facility, six miles east of Basel on the left bank of the Rhine. The fire was not discovered quickly and grew rapidly due to the highly flammable chemicals in the warehouse; Attention was focussed on stopping exposure as barrels of flammable chemicals were hurtling through the air. The firefighting was defensive, to begin with, and massive amounts of water were used to stop the spread of the fire. It was estimated that around 20,000 m? of fire water was used to extinguish the fire. The fire resulted in substantial releases of chemicals, which when combined with fire-water drained into the nearby watercourse. Thirty tons of toxic material washed into the Rhine River along with the water used to fight the warehouse blaze. ove epee sve serene wowed By the time the chemicals, mostly pesticides, had travelled 500 miles down the Rhine, around half a million fish were dead, several community water supplies were polluted, and the Rhine's ecosystem was badly damaged with Virtually all marine life and a large proportion of micro-organisms wiped out.The chemical spill drifted slowly downstream from the Swiss border to the North Sea. The spill threatened the North Sea's Winter Cod yield as it contained around 30 tons of chemicals, including insecticides, herbicides, and mercury-containing pesticides. Not only were there significant challenges in fire-fighting tactics emergency response management and crises communications with the two nearby countries (France and Germany), there were also the challenges of air and water pollution in a densely-populated area.1.6 - Global Environmental Event - Icelandic Volcanic Eruption. (On the 14th April 2010, Eyjafjallajokull volcano erupted. The eruption caused two immediate effects: 1. The ice cap near the summit melted causing flooding in southern Iceland. 2. The interaction of magma and the water created a plume of volcanic ash and gases which was carried south-easterly towards Norway, Norther Scotland and Europe. Figure §. Icelandic eruption.Figure 6. - Distance travelled by the Icelandic ash plume; source: Met Office As you can see from Figure 6 - the dust plume travelled quite a large distance from the point source. The ash was then deposited on land and in the oceans. On land where the ash settled, vegetation was unable to receive sunlight until the ash deposits were eventually blown away. In some instances, this took 6 weeks or longer, resulting in the death of plants, impacting not only that particular species but the food chain it belonged to. Scientists from the National Oceanography Centre Southampton, UK, went out to the North Atlantic Ocean to see the impact that the ash had on the aquatic environment. They noted that the plume deposited dissolved iron into the ocean which in turn created a short-term increase in plankton growth. A situation which could easily be repeated in other water sources across the plumes life-cycle (for more information on the results from this scientific study please click here).1.7 - Effects & Impacts on Quality of Life - Nuisances. Nuisance is defined as: ‘Sona jetinitions” Interference with another's use and enjoyment of the environment (including loss of amenity) through something that annoys, bothers or causes damage to that person or their property. Examples include noise, odour and visual intrusion. Nuisances appear in statutory law (Environmental Protection Act 1990 (EPA), Part II) and in ‘common law. Of these, noise nuisance is that which is most commonly encountered in environmental law. Nuisances are matters, which interfere with the normal common law enjoyment of the use of land or property. Statutory nuisances are ‘prejudicial to health or a nuisance’ The Environmental Protection Act 1990 classes the following as nuisances, which may be statutory: * Premises. Dust, steam, smell, et. ‘Smoke. * Animals. * Accumutations or deposits. * Noise, + Fumes and gases, The following two additional statutory nuisances were added to the Environmental Protection Act 1990 by the Clean Neighbourhoods and Environment Act 2005. © Light. * Insects, Most of them have their origin in much older regulations and in the main date back to the Public Health Acts 19751.8 - Nuisance - Noise. Noise is defined as unwanted sound and can cause hearing damage and stress. In industrial settings, exposure to noise can cause tinnitus, noise-induced hearing loss and temporary threshold shift. Noise for humans can disrupt their sleep patterns or make holding conversations difficult, however for wildlife, noise has more severe consequences. Noise can lead to an imbalance between predator and prey; creating obstructions for prey to be detected and predators to be avoided Noisy areas create unusable habitats. This leads to such areas becoming sparsely populated by both plants and animals. A reduction in usable habitats can lead to disruptions in feeding and breeding patterns; leading to the extinction of endangered or vulnerable species. If birds and other pollinating species are no longer present in an ecosystem, plant species that rely on them for reproduction will start to decline, having a great effect on the food chain in that area, ‘As with humans, communications for wildlife becomes harder in noisy environments. This may not seem like a major issue but, for wildlife, communication alerts species to potential attack, to the location of food supplies and to potential mates. So, if environmental noise levels are higher, animals can be killed by predators, may miss out on nourishment or they may miss the possibility of mating, ‘An example of how noise affects mating can be seen from an Australian study undertaken on frog species.1.9 - Nuisance: Odour. (Odour can impact on the quality of the environment and local authorities have a duty to take reasonably practicable steps to investigate any complaints of statutory nuisance. This includes any dust, steam, smell or any other effluvia that arises from industrial, trade or business premises. The duty is defined under section 79 of the Environmental Protection Act 1990. Chemicals and substances released in pollution can have detrimental effects on wildlife due to the odours they produce. ‘Some odours can be repulsive to animals causing them to leave the area either temporarily or permanently. (Odours can hide prey from their predators by distinguishing their scent, causing spikes in prey populations if the odour continues for a long period of time. If animals attract or find their mates using scents, then the scents may be indistinguishable from the odour leading to less successful mating for certain species. ‘Some species use scent to pollinate plants/flowers and if the scents are masked by the odour this can lead to reductions in crop yields and pollinations. ‘An example of this scenario can be found in the honey bee case study below.1.10 - Nuisance - Dusts. Dust may seem like a minor hazard as everyone has experienced dust in their home or workplace without any detrimental effects, but for the environment, the effects can be more severe, based on the amount of dust and its composition Dust on plants/crops. Dust settling on plants can coat plant foliage, shading the plant from UV radiation and clogging pores; preventing photosynthesis and other biological functions. This would lead to reduced plant growth rates as well as a reduction in fruit size and sugar levels in certain crops. Insects feeding on crops may not be overly affected by the introduction of dust but their predators could be; leading to an increase in pests feeding on crops and reduced yields. Pesticides may also find it difficult to penetrate dust layers on plants; reducing their effectiveness in eliminating/decreasing pest numbers. Dust and people. Dust can penetrate nearby homes, causing a nuisance to the residents but can also cause health problems such as hay-fever and allergies. Dust and surface water. Dust can either enter surface waters directly through deposition or can be washed off cropsiplants during precipitation and carried into streams, rivers or lakes. The introduction of dust can decrease the amount of light reaching lower depths by increasing the turbidity (cloudiness/haziness); leading to the reduction of submerged plants and species dependant on them in that ecosystem. Increases in turbidity can affect the ability of fish's gills to absorb dissolved oxygen, ba: suffocating the fish. ally Increases in turbidity can change ecosystems by changing the species that can effectively survive; creating unusable habitats for some. Juvenile fishes can be protected from predators in areas with higher turbidity; as they are harder to locate. This creates increases in this species and decreases in others, as either predators find a new food source, leave the area or die off. Dust and aesthetics. Another aspect of dust nuisance would be aesthetic in nature. The coating of buildings, cars, plants, statues with layers of dust makes a less visually appealing view. Some dust, in combination with water, can also start to erodeldissolve certain materials causing further destruction; continuing to reduce the “perceived” beauty.1.11 - Effects on Quality of Life - Visual Amenity. What is a visual amenity? ‘Deiinitions™ The UK Government defines it as 'the preservation of a view or prospect available to a member of the local community from a public location which is designated as protected. Visual amenity is normally an issue which is managed through planning law under its development control responsibilities, which will be the responsibility of the local authorities. Among other things, these would cover the colour and design of buildings, landscaping, tree-planting, advertising signs, etc. There are other matters, which are visually unacceptable, such as litter or fly tipping. Other matters such as graffiti may be the underlying indicators of deeper social problems but lessen the quality of life. Therefore, measures such as the provision of certain surfaces or planting, which can deter these problems, maybe a planning requirement.1.12 - Effects on Quality of Life - Transport Effects. Road traffic affects people's quality of life, especially those occupying the poorer, disadvantaged groups in society. These groups tend to live closer to the busier roads. In the control of air pollution, transport effects include the emissions of combustion gases, such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen and sulphur oxides (NOx and SOx), particles, and in lesser quantities up to 40 other gases, such as butadiene and benzene. Other effects of traffic should not be overlooked. Included here would be noise, dust, congestion, changes to the landscape, land-take (land used for the building of new roads, etc.) and the effects of refuelling, etc. The overall trend is towards better technology, improved combustion and the use of catalysers for commercial, as well as private vehicles.1.13 - Effects on Quality of Life - Wastes from Consumer Products (Packaging). The environment is the ultimate resource for society, providing air, water, minerals and food. It is also the sink for unwanted by-products of society: Waste. Waste and waste disposal are one of the greatest issues of the 21st century. As our lifestyles change, so do the types and quantities of waste we produce. More takeaway and convenience food, individual portions in supermarkets, ready meals and DIY pre-packaged goods all produce waste in large quantities. The composition of this waste is very different from waste produced a few decades ago when coal fires produced ashes, which, although heavy, were relatively inert. Today's municipal waste is lighter but of greater volume than the ashes of the 1960s and before when coal ash was a major constituent of municipal wastes. Waste today is also more bio-active. This means that when it breaks down, it will tend to decompose to give carbon dioxide and in anaerobic conditions, such as may be found within a landfill site, methane and liquid effluents known as leachates. There are detailed regulations, that lay down the quantities of each type of waste that commercial and industrial packaging users are required to re-use and recycle. Other legislation limits the materials, which may be used in packaging. Detailed regulations also exist for the management of other types of commercial, industrial and hazardous wastes. These regulations gover the transport, documentation, treatment and deposit of all types of wastes, which are the responsibility of the producer under a specific duty of care for waste.1.14 - Environmental Aspect & Impact Identification. The identification of environmental aspects and resultant impacts must include: * Routine activities. * Non-routine activities. * Abnormal circumstances, * Start-up. + Shut-downs + Emergencies. 1$014001:2015 also recognises the requirement for aspects to be considered for the products life cycle (the life cycle perspective) and this includes the consideration of: + Raw material acquisition. * Design. Production and manufacturing processes. Transportation of the product to market/client/customer. Use of the product or service. End of life treatment required and final disposal. The environmental aspects and impacts can be identified during an initial environmental review (IER). The basic approach has three steps: 1. Select an activity/product/service. 2. Determine the aspects and impacts of that activity/product/service, 3. Evaluate the significance of impacts. The determination of the environmental aspects and impacts can be achieved using a basic input- output approach where each significant activity/product/service is considered in terms of their input and output, to determine which ones could interact with the environment.Input-Output Model Sfrveltitsy OE ‘ActivtyProduct Osim Service avrg Figure 8. Input/output model. ‘When looking at the environmental aspects, the organisation should ensure that the following should be considered: + Whether the aspects are direct or indirect (direct impacts are those caused by the organisation whilst indirect impacts are associated with other sources such as suppliers, etc). + Whether the aspects are present under normal, emergency or abnormal situations (e.g. non-routine such as maintenance, etc.). + Whether there will be any new/different aspects created by any changes within the organisation (e.g. change management). Once all the aspects have been considered, the impacts and receptors can then be determined for each of them.1.15 - Evaluate the Significant Aspects & their Impacts. Data on environmental problems. There are many sources of data on environmental problems across mediums such as books, magazines, websites, etc. With the ever-increasing information available on the internet comes increasing concerns over reliability so using reputable sources or double-checking information may be required. One of the problems associated with environmental risks is the lack of knowledge or uncertainty as to the effects of a particular situation. Although there has been a huge growth in understanding of environmental mechanisms, there are still areas of uncertainty. Therefore, to assist with an environmental risk assessment, organisations may need assistance from other sources to familiarise themselves with emission levels for chemicals or the legal limits permitted to be released to water, for example. There are a variety of websites and organisations which collect data which can be used in an organisations environmental risk assessment, According to the Gov.uk website "data is routinely collected on subjects such as land cover, environmental change, precipitation, biodiversity, water flows, geological surveys and the marine environment". A large amount of data can be obtained from official, government or reputable websites on the internet.1.16 - Source of Information & Advice on Environmental Risks. Key sources that can be utilised by organisations to gain important information and advice on environmental topics include: * Environmental legislation. * Government websites. * Local authorities. * Professional bodies. * Industry standards, * Similar industries.1.17 - Environmental Monitoring Data. Data from environmental monitoring is a key tool to help evaluate environmental risk. It will help an organisation to: Understand the environmental impact of an activity. * Determine the efficiency of a process including any equipment that has been installed to control pollution. Generally, understand whether risk controls are adequate. Evaluate compliance with relevant environmental legislation Environmental monitoring can be undertaken pro-actively or reactively. Proactive monitoring takes place to ensure damage does not occur by keeping a track of company emissions; ensuring that emission guidelines are being met. Reactive monitoring occurs after an event to see what level of emissions, etc. were released and the impact it has caused. ‘As with other types of monitoring, the proactive approach is always best. Not only does it prevent incidents occurring but it allows a company to stay within required guidelines - keeping costs down from compensation claims and clean up requirements. How do you know if monitoring is required? It may be a legal requirement of a condition of obtaining a licence to operate so in some circumstances there may not be a choice. There may also be signs of environmental damage (as discussed earlier) but until monitoring is undertaken, it is not known how bad the impacts may be Who undertakes Environmental Monitoring? As discussed previously, there are many different organisations which undertake monitoring. The Government undertakes monitoring of substances such as’ * Carbon monoxide. * Ozone, * Nitrous oxide, ete. ‘A.company can employ a consultant to undertake environmental monitoring on its behalt if the skills are not available within the company. To allow an accurate analysis of data, enough data needs to be collected and this can take time. Monitoring data is used to create an accurate picture of the current status of pollution levels. Thisinitial data can then be used as a baseline to gauge whether further pollution events have occurred or whether control measures are working effectively. The environment is able to cope with certain levels of pollution naturally so itis worth gathering the data to determine what an acceptable level of pollution is; to determine the level at which the environment will no longer be able to cope. Monitoring data allows organisations to track releases and therefore predict future release paths and impacts, based on historical data. By knowing how the environment will react to an event, where substances will go once released, and how they impact the environment will allow control measures to be put in place to eliminate or reduce further release impacts. Use of the data. Many sources of data can be very helpful in highlighting issues or potential issues, however, care is needed to be taken when interpreting data. For example, in Hull, the air quality standard for NOx was 40 mg/m3. The standard for vegetation is 30 mgim3, This data would indicate that NOx levels in Hull are above the standard but when the information is investigated further it was discovered that the monitor was sited in a car park and the NOx is high due to the traffic in the area This shows that there needs to be an understanding of how the data was collected to ensure the correct interpretation of information occurs. Itis recommended to look for corroborative information from other data sources to ensure that the information you have is in line with other studies and not false.1.18 - Use of Biological Indicators to Evaluate Risks. Definitions A biological indicator is an organism or species that shows the health of an environment or ecosystem (in relation to the presence of pollutants) via their responses/changes. ‘Such indicators provide information on the growing effects of pollutants and how long they have been present. What are biological indicators used for? Biological indicators are used to’ * Detect any changes in the environment/ecosystem. * Monitor the presence of any pollutants and its effects. * Monitor the progress of any clean-up activities. * Test substances for the presence of contaminants, What makes a good biological indicator? A good biological indicator will * Respond to disturbances. + Have responses that are a representation of the whole community. * Be native to the ecosystem being studied Be abundant. Be easy to detect. Be well studied to know their tolerances. * Be easy to monitor. A good indicator provides information not only on the presence of a pollutant but on the amount and intensity of the exposure as wellhese indicators are used in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems to determine the overall health of the system. In some micro-organisms, the exposure to contaminants causes new proteins to be produced. These stress proteins can be monitored and used as an early warning system to detect changes in pollution levels. ‘An example of this would be the use of bioluminescent bacteria. These bacteria are used in the testing of water, to detect environmental toxins. When exposed to toxins, the cellular metabolism of the bioluminescent is disrupted; affecting the amount of light produced by the bacteria, Plant Indicators Important clues can be provided about the health of an ecosystem simply by noting the presence or absence of specific plants. ‘An absence of macrophytes (aquatic plants) can indicate that water quality has deteriorated or the turbidity of the water has increased. As these aquatic plants provide oxygen, food and cover for fish, their decline would have impacts on fish populations. On the other side, increased levels of macrophytes may indicate increased nutrient levels which could lead to eutrophication and impact fish populations. Animal Indicators A pollution event in an ecosystem may become apparent by the number of a particular animal species present. if important food sources are contaminated by pollution and reduced, all species dependant on this food source will be affected and decline. This could lead to an opportunistic growth in other species as their predators/competition declines; impacting on the food chain in that ecosystem.The level of pollution can be monitored using the concentrations of toxins present in animal tissue. Birth defect rates can also be monitored to determine the type and amount of pollutant present in the ecosystem/food ch Benefits of biological indicators They inform us of our impacts before it is too late to prevent them from escalating further. They can be used on a range of scales from cellular to ecosystem level. They provide information on population density, ecosystem processes and other changes affected by pollution events. They use biological, physical and chemical components to show pollution events. Disadvantages of biological indicators + Sometimes the results can be inaccurate due to the natural variability of changes due to human impact. * There may be other factors at work which may be affecting populations of a particular species such as diseases, competition, the presence of predators. ‘* Managing an ecosystem to match the requirements of a particular indicator species may be detrimental to other species in that ecosystem that have different habitat requirements. * They are scale dependent; meaning that the biodiversity of a larger species in an ecosystem may not indicate the biodiversity of smaller species. * Using a single species to represent a whole ecosystem and how it reacts can be an oversimplification of what is a complex system so results may not be accurate. The use of biological indicators is only the first step, If results show that pollution may be affecting an ecosystem and causing damage then further testing, sampling and analysis would be required to determine the type and extent of the contaminant before work is undertaken to reduce the impacts and emission levels.1.19 - Uses & Limitations of External Data Sources. Uses for external data sources, External data sources can be useful to provide: * Legal requirements. * Guidance on how to meet legal requirements. * Information on preventing pollution. * Information on current environmental issues. * Up to date information, * Information on a site's history. * Information on any protected areas. * Information on pollution incidents and legal actions. Limitations of external data sources. Whilst there are many benefits from using external data, there are also limitations, which need to. be understood and checked to ensure the gathered data is: * Dependable, * Unbiased + Complete. * Transparent. Relevant. Accurate. Consistent.1.20 - Awareness of the Relationship between Source, Pathway & Receptor. ‘An awareness of the relationship between the source, pathway and receptor is required when evaluating the significance of the environmental aspects and impacts as well as determining the environmental risks The relationship provides the evaluator with a simple framework to use to identify possible pollution sources and then consider all possible routes the source may take if released and identify all the different receptors that may be impacted. ithout an awareness of this relationship, possible pathways and therefore receptors may not be considered. The model allows for all likely scenarios to be considered to ensure a thorough evaluation of the likely environmental risks.1.21 - Record the Significant Findings. The organisation needs to record its significant environmental aspects and impacts. The most common way to record this data is by compiling an aspects and impacts register. The register is an essential piece of an organisations environmental management system under ISO 14001:2015. Itis created to help organisations manage their environmental risks, control environmental efficiencies and provide a positive culture. Most often an aspects and impacts register will contain the following information: * Environmental aspects. * Associated environmental impacts. * The risk rating/significance scoring system. + Whether the aspect is a result of normal, abnormal or emergency situations. However, it can also include: * Applicable legislation to the aspect/impact, * Controls takenito be taken to reduce the impacts.1.22 - Recommendations & Timescales for Action. As the significant aspects and impacts have now been identified and evaluated, there will be recommendations for improvements to reduce the risks. It is usual for such recommendations to be included in an action plan. The action plan may include: + Each recommendation A breakdown of the recommendations into smaller actions. Persons responsible for each action. Timescales for actions to be completed by. Any resource requirements. Priorities for action1.23 - Monitoring. All environmental risks will need to be monitored as part of the environmental management system. Monitoring ensures that: * Current controls are effective in reducing the risk. * The environmental impacts were correctly determined. * That the organisation is compliant.1.24 - Review. The environmental aspects and impacts assessments will need to be reviewed if * Processes/relevant personnel/equipment changes. * An incident occurs. If legislation changes. There have been changes in technology that could assist in reducing risks further. They have not been reviewed recently. Ideally, the environmental assessment should be reviewed no later than annuallySelf-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Identity the areas which need to be included when assessing an organisations’ environmental aspects.Self-Marked Answer. The identification of environmental aspects and resultant impacts must include: * Routine activities. * Non-routine activities. * Abnormal circumstances. © Start-up. * Shut-downs. + Emergencies.Learning Outcome 1 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Principles of environmental aspect ide Meaning of: Source, pathway, receptor model Environmental aspect (element of an organisation's activities or products or services that can interact with the environment). Environmental impact (any change to the environment, whether adverse or beneficial, wholly or partially resulting from an organisation's environmental aspects). The relationship between environmental aspects and environmental impacts. Aspects and impacts within the control of the organisation and those that they can influence. Transboundary impacts: distinction between global, transboundary, regional and local environmental effects Effects and impacts on quality of life: Nuisances such as noise, dust and odour. Visual amenity, Transport effects. ‘Waste from consumer products (packaging). ‘Systematic method for identifying environmental aspects and associated impacts (with reference to ISO 14001:2015) Identification of and application of life cycle perspective to the organisation's products, services and activities Identify aspects for each of the products, services and activities including inputs and outputs of each. Decide if these aspects are direct or indirect. Decide if the aspects are present under, normal, abnormal or emergency situations. Management of change: assessing environmental aspects resulting from a change of product, plant or process Identify the impacts associated with each of the aspects (including the receptor for each impact).Evaluate the significance of each of the aspects and their impacts i.e. = Data on environmental problems. Sources of information and advice on environmental risks. Use of environmental monitoring data to evaluate risk. Use of biological indicators to evaluate risk. Uses and limitations of external data sources. = Awareness of the relationships between source, pathway and receptor. Record the significant findings. Recommendations and timescales for actions to be taken. Monitor, Review.Learning Outcome 2. Learning Objectives Bs Explain the principles of oper: organisation's jonal planning and control relating to the ificant environmental aspects.What will be Covered in Learning Outcome 2? In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: iples of operational planning and control (with reference to ISO 14001:2015): * Meaning of the Best Prat ble Environmental Option (BPEO). ‘* Assessment of control systems to determine the Best Available Techniques (BAT) and the importance of an integrated approach to pollution prevention and control. * Selection of operational control methods (singly or a combination of) to ensure effective operation: © Use of the hierarchy: elimination, substitution, reduction or control © Process design (ie. to prevent error, ensure consistent results). ® Technology to control processes (i.e. engineering controls). ® Use of competent workers. ° Procedures in place to ensure processes are always performed in the same way (systems of work). © Monitoring/measuring to check results (links to Element 5). © Determine use and amount of document information. * Factors affecting the choice of operational control measures: » Long-termishort term. © Applicability. e Practicabilty © Cost, * Possible conflicts between the protection of workers and protection of the environment; reconciliation of such conflicts. * Factors to be considered in the selection of the best solution for an organisation based on relevant risk. * Consideration of fiscal controls i.e. taxes on landfill, taxes on aggregate extraction2.0 - Meaning of Best Practicable Environmental Option. The Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution (RCEP) (the organisation closed in 2011) ‘worked on promoting the concept of the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO), In its twelfth Report in 1998, BPEO has been defined by the RCEP as: Definitions” — »the outcome of a systematic and consultative decision-making procedure which emphasises the protection and conservation of the environment across land, air and water. The BPEO procedure establishes, fora given set of objectives, the option that provides the most benefit or least damage fo the environment as a whole, at acceptable cost, in the long term as well as the short orm The RCEP's twelfth report states that the following consider: a BPEO: Ins should be taken when choosing * That any environmental considerations must be introduced as early as possible, preferably in the planning stage. * To ensure that the identification of alternative options is as complete as possible, they should be diligently and imaginatively sought. + When identifying the potential environmental damage, the unusual and improbable should be considered alongside the familiar and likely. ‘When considering the BPEO, cost should not be an overriding factor. The costs must be acceptable taking into account the monetary costs in addition to the costs to the environment in terms of damage. According to the twelfth report, there are seven steps in selecting the BPEO: * Step 1 - define the objectives of the project/proposal. * Step 2 - generate practicable and environmentally acceptable options for achieving the objective. * Step 3 - quantitively evaluate the environmental advantages and disadvantages of the options, * Step 4 - summarise and present the evaluation findings. * Step 5 - select the preferred option based on risk, impacts and costs, ensuring that the selected option does not produce unacceptable consequences for the environment, * Step 6 - independent team to review the preferred option to ensure environmental impacts have not been overlooked. * Step 7 - implement the preferred option and monitor to ensure it is effective.2.1 - Best Available Technique (BAT). The Best Available Technique (BAT) means the most effective available technique for preventing or minimising emissions and impacts on the environment The Integrated Pollution Prevention & Control Directive (IPPCD) (96/61/EC) applied the BAT concept to the integrated control of pollution to air, water and soil so that the environment as a whole is protected. This requirement is reiterated in the Industrial Emissions Directive (IED) (2010/75/EU). The BAT approach considers an integrated view of the environment. This ensures that all aspects are considered when looking at control measures, rather than a specific aspect such as controlling emissions to water sources. Controlling emissions to a singular aspect could result in emissions to other aspects of the environment occurring, as they were not considered when selecting the control measures. IPPCD/IED specific definition of Best Available Techniques Defini dons “best available techniques’ means the most effective and advanced stage in the development of activities and their methods of operation which indicates the practical suitability of particular techniques for providing the basis for emission limit values and other permit conditions designed to prevent and where that is not practicable, to reduce emissions and the impact on the environment as a whole. (a) “techniques” includes both the technology used and the way in which the installation is designed, built, maintained, operated and decommissioned; (b) “available” techniques means those developed on a scale which allows implementation in the relevant industrial sector, under economically and technically viable conditions, taking into consideration the costs and advantages, whether or not the techniques are used or produced inside the Member State in question, as long as they are reasonably accessible to the operator; (0) “best” means most effective in achieving a high general level of protection of the environment as a whole" Under the IPPCD certain industrial processes require installation permits to operate. Operators of such processes must show that their proposals use the BAT approach to prevent and reduce pollution. The directives, despite requiring the BAT approach, do not specify the use of any technique of specific technology. The BAT can be determined by: * Identify the alternative techniques. * Define the emissions and resource used for each option * Estimate the environmental impacts* Compare options and rank them in order of highest to the lowest level of protection. * Determine the costs of each control option * Identify the option that best fits the BAT approach (based on a cost-benefit analysis). To assist with the BAT approach, the European Commission produces Best Available Technique Reference documents (BREF Notes). These contain the best available techniques for installations.2.2 - Selection of Operational Control Methods. Control strategies for environmental risk follow a similar pattern and approach to those for health and safety risks. There are broad strategies of approaches to be considered which should ideally follow the below hierarchy. Elimination Figure 1. Hierarchy of control as stated in S014001:2015. This can be further broken down into: * Elimination. © Substitution * Reduction or control. * Process design. + Competent workers. * Procedures. + Monitoring/measuring. + Documented information. Elimination: This is usually achieved by stopping a process or substance; without the process/substance being undertaken, the risk is eliminated.Substitution: This is where a harmful substance is replaced with a less harmful version. The imy substitution from a health and safety perspective must be considered as well as the environmental impacts. Reduction: The environmental impacts could be reduced by implementing better processes or plant/equipment which allow for less waste, better energy efficiency and more recovery and recycling opportuni Process Design: Should be designed to ensure that adequate engineering controls are designed into the process to prevent pollution. Use of Competent Workers: Anyone designing and implementing environmental controls must be competent to do so effectively. They must have the required skills, knowledge and experience to be effective and prevent pollution incidents, Procedural Controls: To ensure that all operators are aware of how processes should be performed, there needs to be suitable procedures or safe systems of work for them to follow. Monitoring/Measurin The performance of processes and controls implemented need to be monitored/measured to ensure that they are effective and adequate to eliminate or reduce any environmental risks/impacts. Documented information: Procedures, safe systems of work and other operational information will need to be documented Therefore, there needs to be an adequate system in place to ensure that these documents are readily accessible, controlled and managed to ensure they are always up to date and accurate.2.3 - Factors Affecting Choice of Controls. Factors affecting the choice of operational control measures include: * Long/short term, * Applicability. * Practicability, * Cost. Long/short term. Control measures should ideally be long-term solutions that eliminate the hazard by designing or engineering it out. Where this is not possible, short-term solutions can be put in place, however, these would need to be monitored and updated to longer-term solutions as soon as possible. Applicability. There may be specific legislation that may determine which control measures are relevant or appropriate. For example, certain organisations that undertake industrial processes must implement control measures through the BAT process, to gain relevant permits, Practicability. Control measures that are difficult to use or overly complex are not likely to be used or not used correctly. Therefore, controls must be simple and usable. Documented procedures should contain step by step instructions, that are easy to read and understood in order to be effective, Cost. ‘Some controls measures can be implemented at litte cost but often eliminating the risk completely would involve greater, longer-term controls which will require a greater investment form the organisation. The costs of implementation need to be balanced against the benefits to the environment. Costs alone should not be the deciding factor as to whether a particular control measure is implemented. Organisations would not be able to continue operating if they posed a threat of significant pollution and environmental impact. Control Measures costs are often difficult to justify as the benefits are not seen. The benefits are in not having to pay fines, compensation or clean-up costs after an incident and receiving tax incentives and investment from being an environmentally conscious organisation.2.4 - Possible Conflicts. Profit demands Quality Client demands demands Production demands Cost cutting demands At times health and safety needs can conflict with environmental ones. For example, the use of certain chemicals may pose significant health and safety harm, so often they are substituted for less harmful ones. Unfortunately, whilst this has eliminated the health and safety risks, some substituted chemicals pose significant environmental impacts. Reconciliation of conflicts. When considering control measures, it is essential that health and safety, as well as environmental impacts/benefits, are considered, to ensure workers and the environment are protected. Different disciplines within the organisation need to work together to ensure that multiple needs are met. The organisation will need to identify all possible health, safety and environmental impacts of control measures as early as possible and resolve potential conflicts at this stage. The organisation heeds to ensure that it employs or has access to competent people who can provide advice and guidance across both health and safety and environmental disciplines. Environmental professionals should consider the health and safety implications of their actions and health and safety professionals should consider any environmental impacts,2.5 - Selection of Best Solution. Control measures can be divided into technical, procedural and behavioural controls. Technical controls are the engineering controls which include safety devices, containment, etc. Procedural controls include policies, procedures and safe systems of work which highlight the organisations’ goals and how to undertake tasks/activities safely. Procedural controls would also include the emergency procedures that need to be instigated in the event of an incident. Behavioural controls include the provision of information, training and instructions to help people understand why the controls are needed and the outcomes if they are not adhered to, Government strategies. The Government, through its roles in regulation, has introduced control strategies which affect the way in which industries and the public can act; with environmental protection in mind. All laws and relevant fiscal requirements may be considered as control strategies. These can be considered under the following headings: Legislation - the Acts and Regulations which govern the management to the environment. They include requirements for planning, permits, licences and consents as well as the conditions for them. Fiscal remedies - take the form of levies or taxes and are designed to encourage a certain patter of more sustainable behaviour. Charges - to cover costs, for example, the charges for permits and authorisations to operate. Targets - such as recovery and recycling targets can be incorporated into legislation2.6 - Consideration of Fiscal Controls. Fiscal controls can be either positive or negative. They are implemented through legislative policies and are based on prices rather than targets or specific changes that should be aimed for. Examples of fiscal controls include: * Taxes such as climate change levy, landfill tax, aggregate tax and electricity tax. The climate change levy taxes energy generated by fossil fuels. The landfill tax is a levy on waste going to landfill. The aggregates levy adds tax to aggregates dug from land or sea (aims to encourage recycling of aggregates instead of excavating for new) and some countries apply taxes to the amount of electricity produced whilst others tax the production and importation of electricity + Emissions trading scheme - aims to control substance emissions by capping the amount which can be released. If the cap is exceeded countries can buy extra form countries that have not reached their limits. This benefits those emitting less by allowing them to sell excess whilst financially punishing those forgoing over. * Tax credits - given to organisations with clean production activities, for example, those using a renewable source of electricity production. * Subsidies - for organisations that are researching and developing newer, cleaner technologies.Self-Marked Practice Question. Please find below a self-marked question for you to attempt. The answer will be on the next page for you to see how well you did, so no peeking! Identity the steps needed to determine the best available technique (BAT).Self-Marked Answer. The BAT can be determined by: * Identifying alternative techniques. * Define the emissions and resource used for each option. * Estimate the environmental impacts. * Compare options and rank them in order of highest to the lowest level of protection. * Determine the costs of each control option. * Identify the option that best fits the BAT approach (based on a cost-benefit analysis).Learning Outcome 2 Summary. SUMMAR In this learning outcome we have covered: Principles of operational planning and contro! (with reference to ISO 14001:2015): * Meaning of the Best Practicable Environmental Option (BPEO). * Assessment of control systems to determine the Best Available Techniques (BAT) and the importance of an integrated approach to pollution prevention and control * Selection of operational control methods (singly or a combination of) to ensure effective operation. ® Use of the hierarchy: elimination, substitution, reduction or control © Process design (i. to prevent error, ensure consistent results). © Technology to control processes (i.e. engineering controls). © Use of competent workers. ® Procedures in place to ensure processes are always performed in the same way (systems of work). © Monitoring/measuring to check results. © Determine use and amount of document information. * Factors affecting the choice of operational control measures: © Long-term/short term. ° Applicability ° Practicability. © Cost, * Possible conflicts between the protection of workers and protection of the environment; reconciliation of such conflicts. ‘+ Factors to be considered in the selection of the best solution for an organisation based on relevant risk. * Consideration of fiscal controls i.e. taxes on landfill, taxes on aggregate extraction.Learning Outcome 3. Learning Objectives Bs Explain the techniques for evaluating environmental aspects arising fromWhat will be Covered in Learning Outcome 37 In this learning outcome, the following will be covered: Evalu: n of environmental aspects and impacts: Cost-benefit analysis: ° Cost-benefit analysis as applied to environmental aspects and impacts. * Environmental modelling: © Principles and application of environmental modelling © Limitations of environmental modelling. Life cycle analysis. ° Cradle-to-grave concept. © Principles and techniques of life cycle analysis. © Benefits of a circular economy (i.e. alternative to linear economy: keep resources in Use for as long as possible; extract maximum value whilst in use. © Recover and regenerate products/materials at end of each life) * Assessment of environmental toxicity © The meaning of Predicted No Effect Concentration (PNEC). © Principles of environmental toxicity and ecotoxicity testing3.0 - Evaluation of Environmental Aspects & Impacts. Once the environmental hazards have been identified, the actions required need to be justified and be seen to be cost effective, To do this the risks to the environment need to be evaluated. This is not an easy task as the risks to the environment are often difficult to evaluate as not all outcomes are reasonably foreseeable. ‘Sometimes measures put in place are well intended but can still ead to losses unexpectedly People think they are doing the right thing, but it can still go wrong, An example of this can be seen in the Desmoulins’ Whorl Snail case study. SS -3.1 - Estimating the Probability of Events. In environmental risk assessment, there are situations/occurrences that will happen i.e. the building of a dam will lead to a loss of habitat in the flooded area. These situations/ocourrences have a probability of 1. Most events will not be definite, so the probability needs to be estimated. There are techniques that can be used to help in determining these probabilities: * Historical information analysis. * Synthesise analysis. * Magnitude estimation. These will now be discussed in a more detail Historical information analysis involves looking at past experiencesidata on the reliability of components to determine a future probability of occurrence. ‘Synthesised analysis is used to determine probabilities for operational or process failure. This method involves using logic diagrams to show the spread of events and faults through a system. Examples of this type of analysis include fault tree analysis and event tree analysis. Fault tree analysis (FTA) assesses the probability of system failures in the absence of actual historical data, using the failure rates of the system's components. The FTA takes an undesired event and describes how it might have occurred, working backwards from the top main event. Probabilities are created for each component which is used to work out the probability of the top event occurring. Event tree analysis (ETA) takes an event and assesses the pathway of the event to see the probabilities of success and failure along the way to the end event. The ETA helps identify Potential issues that may arise in a system to prevent events from occurring rather than reacting to an event. SE Magnitude estimation. Due to a level of uncertainty, it can be hard to estimate the magnitude of an events consequences. Where there is no specific guidance available, a simple scale can be used. A sample of such as scale can be seen below:Rating Negligible Moderate Severe very Severe extremely Severe Description Less than lethal effects in individuals. Does not cause a change In the structure or size of a population Effects occur at the population level. Effects are on ecosystems that are not regarded as being of high value. Local extinctions (depending on species} and local dysfunction of communities and ecosystems, Global extinctions (depending on species) and widespread effec on the functioning of communities and ecosystems, Impacts on the funcioning of global ecosystems. Figure 1. A simple magnitude estimation scale.3.2 - Decision Making. The hazards have been identified and the probability has been estimated so now a decision needs to be made on which risk management technique to use. The decision needs to identify the ‘best' techniques available which meets any set requirements such as sustainability, social benefit, value for money. The techniques available need to be compared and scored/weighted in some way to allow the ‘best’ option to shine through. Criteria for the scoring/weighting of techniques can include: * Technology both current and emerging * Social issues. * Public aspirations * Management techniques. Using all the above criteria allows the assessor to systematically compare all available options. There is no universal ‘one fits all' technique so usually a mixture of existing methodologies is used, or the assessor develops their own methodology to suit their exact requirements. The assessor who is making the decision needs to have clear aims and objectives to make the best decision. The decision needs to balance the benefits from reducing the risk with the implications of the proposed action. It is not just the quantifiable options that need to be included, thought must be given to all implications of potential options. There can be a worry that not enough information is present to allow the decision makers to assess their options. This can be a problem as data collection can be a lengthy process and some items may require a timely decision. Instances where there are gaps in information, the Precautionary Principle should be invoked. Alack of information cannot be used as an excuse for postponing or avoiding making a decision. Ifthe risks are acceptable then the controls should be implemented. If the risks are considered too high then other mitigatory options will be required. It will be necessary to revisit some or all the risk assessment stages throughout the process to see if gaps are identified and can be rectified. The re-assessment should be a full review of everything and not just the points that have already been deliberated. ‘Some techniques that can be used to help make a decision include those listed below: Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA). Environmental Modelling, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). Assessment of Environmental Toxicity. * Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA). We will go into the details of these techniques in the following pages.3.3 - Cost Benefit Analysis. Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) is a tool that is recognised as a major appraisal technique used in Government policy decisions as well as by industries for decision making, In basic terms, it compares the costs of prevention and reducing risks/consequences against the benefits to society. To ensure that all consequences are measured equally, they are all measured in the same uni money. So, all environmental changes are valued in terms of money; deriving the net values for as many costs and benefits as possible. Once the costs and benefits are weighed up, decisions on what to do can be made. When looking at measuring values there are two ways to do this: Equivalent Variation (EV) deals with the amount of additional income the individual would need to obtain the same level of utility that they would get from consuming the non-market good. This measure is used when looking at the provision of a good or service and is linked with the Willingness to Pay (WTP) term. Compensating Variation (CV) which deals with the amount of income which would be lost from the individual after consuming the good to return the individual to their original level of utility. This measure is associated with the reduction in the good or service and links with the Willingness to Accept (WTA) term A key concept of environmental CBA is the individuals’ willingness to pay for goods. The Willingness to Pay (WTP) is the maximum amount of money a person is willing to pay to secure or avoid the proposed change. The Willingness to Avoid (WTA) is the amount of money a person must have to be willing to accept a change or be willing to forego. Methods have been derived to identity this willingness to pay for a benefit and the willingness to accept compensation for tolerating a cost of foregoing a benefit. These methods are based on 2 approaches; revealed preferences and stated preferences. Revealed Preferences. Revealed preferences observe the behaviour of people in related markets by using evidence of how people behave when faced with choices, to uncover the estimates of the value of non- marketed goods. The two most common revealed preference approaches are: Travel cost, discrete choice. Hedonic markets. Travel Cost Method.The travel cost method is used to estimate economic use values associated with ecosystems or sites that are used for recreation. The method can be used to estimate the economic benefits or costs resulting from: + Changes in access costs for a recreational site. Elimination of an existing recreational site. Addition of a new recreational site. Changes in environmental quality at a recreational site. The basic premise of the travel cost method is that the time and travel cost expenses that people incur to visit a site represent the ‘price’ of access to the site. Thus, peoples’ willingness to pay to visit the site can be estimated based on the number of trips that they make at different travel costs. This is similar to estimating peoples’ willingness to pay for a marketed good based on the quantity demanded at different prices. Hedonic Pr 1g Method, The hedonic pricing method is used to estimate economic values for the ecosystem or environmental services that directly affect market prices. It is most commonly applied to variations in property prices that refiect the value of local environmental attributes. It can be used to estimate economic benefits or costs associated with: * Environmental quality, including air pollution, water pollution, or noise. * Environmental amenities, such as aesthetic views or proximity to recreational sites. The basic premise of the hedonic pricing method is that the price of a marketed good is related to its characteristics, or the services it provides. The hedonic pricing method is most often used to value environmental amenities that affect the price of residential properties, for example, the presence of woodland, which may enhance the value of a property. Stated Preferences. Stated preferences use information gathered from specially constructed questionnaires to gather estimates of the individuals’ willingness to pay for or willingness to accept an outcome. Stated preference includes contingent valuation and conjoint analysis approaches. Contingent Valuation. This is both an economic tool and community analysis tool. It is considered most useful during the strategy development phase, where it is often used in deciding how much to charge for a good or service. Itis a part of a family of tools that address issues of benefits not traded in markets; for example, environmental quality and historic cities. The approach is based on interviews with a representative sample group in an area The interview consists of three stages which include: A detailed description of the goods being valued and the hypothetical circumstance under which it is made available to the respondent. Questions, which bring out the willingness to pay for the good to be provided.Questions about the respondent characteristics (for example age and income), their preference relevant to the good or goods being valued, and their use of the goods. This information is then generalised for a representative group of people. Contingent Ranking (or Conjoint Analysis). This ranks alternatives, with one of the alternatives pinned to a money price, i.e. would you be prepared to pay more or less for something than £ X. Conjoint analysis uses profiles which are bundles of attributes, for example, when evaluating a preference for paper, respondents are given several profile cards each of which contains a unique paper product composed of different textures, colours, thickness, weight and price and they are asked for their preference. Sensitivity and Scenario Analysis. Even in the most well-developed cost-benefit analysis, there will always be some uncertainty as it can be difficult to measure and predict impacts along with calculating the potential costs. Cost-benefit analysis is based on assumptions and estimates; used to calculate the expected costs and benefits of a policy, program, control. But as these are only estimates and assumptions they could be very wrong. Sensitivity Analysis involves techniques used to examine the degree of uncertainty in a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) and how this affects the results. There are four types: partial sensitivity analysis, best-case and worst-case scenarios, break-even analysis, and Monte Carlo analysis, should you wish to research these further. Sensitivity analysis considers potential changes in the used variables to show how the results would be affected both positively and negatively. The substitution of different values for a variable shows by how much it would have to fall (if a benefit) or rise (if a cost) to make it not worth pursuing an option. Sensitivity analysis can be undertaken with scenario analysis. ‘Scenario Analysis is a process of analysing possible future events by considering alternative possible outcomes (scenarios). The analysis is designed to allow improved decision-making by allowing more complete consideration of outcomes and their implications. Scenarios are useful to show how options may be affected by future uncertainty. If any of the above or previously mentioned analytical tools are unable to assist in the determination of the risks/impacts of a potential environmental incident, then modelling techniques can be implemented3.4 - Environmental Modelling. Models can be used to assist in determining the outcome for changes, policies or controls. The models will replicate the surrounding area under testing and the outcome of changes such as pollution incidents can be estimated, creating a probability of events based on specific circumstances. Environmental modelling can help organisations understand and predict environmental changes which may occur over time and across locations, ‘When it is not possible to undertake field tests, environmental system ideas can be explored using models. There are even graphical software packages that can assist in the construction and computation of models. For this course, you would not be required to develop or use any of the models which will be discussed, Rather you will need an understanding of what models are used for and their limitations. The models that this course will be covering are noted below: * Conceptual model. + Quantitative model. + Deterministic model. * Stochastic model. Each of these models will now be discussed on the next page.3.5 - Types of Environmental Models. Conceptual Model. ‘A conceptual model communicates the basic core principles and processes of the represented system in a simple and easy to understand format. The model will help the individual understand the subject topic whilst allowing hypothesise to be developed, and data requirements to be determined, Quantitative model. The quantitative model builds upon the conceptual model, with the inclusion of figures and facts to allow the analysts to make predictions on the variables in the model. This type of model can help identity which aspects within the model create the largest impacts. Deterministic model. A deterministic model is an example of a quantitative model type. This mathematical model produces the same exact outcomes every time, with the use of the same conditions and relationships by not including any random components. The input produces the same output every time. Stochastic model. A stochastic model aims to reproduce the variability of the environment by including random factors so that each time the model is run, different results will be produced. The random variables are usually in the form of probability distributions.3.6 - Scaling of Environmental Models. Many of the environmental problems today are of regional or global concem. Therefore, whilst model studies at a local level have identified causation factors/processes, they need to be upscaled to determine if the same causes are applicable in a regional or global context. Scaling problems can include: * Difficulty in gaining insight into behaviours on a larger scale when local processes have been studied. * In large-scale environments there may be different processes dominating the changes, therefore, any conclusions gained at one scale may not be applicable in other scales * Ina larger scale environment, many smaller scale components may interact with each other to create different outcomes. * There will be a time difference for issues to be seen on a smaller scale compared to the larger scale. It will take longer for global changes to be seen compared to very localised impacts.3.7 - Geographical Information Systems (GIS) & Environmental Modelling. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) are computer-based systems that use captured data to produce a visual representation. This 3D image/map can be used to show how aspects relate to each other in a geographical/spatial context. GIS uses information from different sources such as: + Maps. * Photographs. * Statistical data, * Spreadsheets. ‘When the data is inputted the model/image generated can be overlaid onto a single map to show all the required information. This allows for deeper insights to be gained; helping the users make better decisions. GIS contains 4 steps: 1. Create/obtain geographical data 2. Enter data into the system. 3. Analyse data, 4, Display data There are millions of decisions made daily using information produced by GIS. From an environmental modelling point of view, GIS can be used for predicting climate change, track/plot water pollution pathways and for helping with impact assessments.3.8 - Dispersion Models. Dispersion models use mathematical computer programs to replicate how released pollutants disperse and react in the environment. This section will be focussing on atmospheric and water dispersion models. Atmospheric dispersal models. ‘Atmospheric dispersion models show how released air pollutants will disperse in the atmosphere. The model can be used to estimate the location of areas to be impacted and the concentrations likely to be found downwind of the release. This information can then be used to determine the appropriate protective measures needed should a release occur. Dispersion models require the input of data which can include: * Meteorological conditions (wind speed, temperature etc). * Information regarding the release (concentration, qui * Release information (location, velocity, etc.) * Obstructions in the pollutants path. , etc.) Examples of air pollutant models include: + Plume rise models. * Gaussian models. oy Figure 2. Example of an atmospheric dispersion model showing NO, concentrations. Water dispersion Models.Water dispersion models are used to estimate how a release of pollutants will impact on an aquatic. environment. It will help to determine where pollutants will travel to, what environmental variables will lead to the greatest impact and how long they will remain to cause harm. According to the Scottish Environment Protection Agency (SEPA) "the impact of a discharge on a water body is dependent on discharge quality and quantity, and prevailing physical and chemical conditions of waters receiving the discharge”. This is apparent when looking at discharges to rivers and tidal waters. Tidal waters will have additional properties such as tides, wind conditions and the seabed composition etc which may create a different impact than in a river which has fewer variables. Water dispersion models can recreate allimost variables present in the water source and help predict likely impacts. Examples of water dispersion models include: * Hydrodynamic models. + Water quality models. © Particle tracking models. contaminant_Selacted 1.000003 7. $00e+002 5.000002 2. 500e+002 (0 0006+000 Figure 3. Example water dispersion model tracking a release of pollutants in a river.3.9 - Limitations of Environmental Modelling. The limitations of environmental modelling include: * Can take a lot of time to set up with data collection, analysis and input. * All information inputted into the model must be accurate to produce reliable results. * Multiple tests will need to be undertaken to produce adequate data.3.10 - Life Cycle Analysis. As sustainable development is a hot topic on both national and intemational agendas, more attention is being given to improvements in eco-efficiency, energy and resource use and waste minimisation. Sustainable development calls for rapid cost-efficient improvements to be made throughout the life cycle of a product or system. Therefore, Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) is part of a rapidly emerging set of techniquesitools designed to assist in environmental management and sustainable development. Defi jons: Definitions of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) differ in detail. The Society of Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry (SETAC) defini =—— Definition” +1 #@ cycle analysis is an objective process to evaluate the environmental burdens associated with a product, process or activity by identifying and quantifying energy and ‘materials used and wastes released to the environment and to evaluate and implement ‘opportunities to affect environmental improvements. The assessment includes the entire life cycle of the product, process or activity, encompassing extraction and processing raw materials, ‘manufacturing, transportation and distribution, use, re-use, maintenance, recycling and a Definitions” final disposal” A second definition is "Environmental LCA or product life analysis (PLA) are detailed studies of the energy requirements, raw material usage and water, air, and solid wastes generation of an activity, material, product or package throughout its entire life cycle". Life Cycle Analysis is also referred to as: * Eco-balance. * Cradle to the grave analysis. * Resource analysis.3.11 - Cradle to Grave Concept. When we refer to a produet's life cycle, we mean from the ‘cradle’ (extraction of raw material) to the “grave (when the product is discarded). The use of life-cycle analysis enables organisations to adopt a holistic approach to their environmental assessments whilst allowing them to identify their significant indirect environmental aspects. Life cycle analysis can be conducted at any part of the life cycle such as at the stages before manufacture, or nearer the end of life stage to identify and minimise the environmental effects of a company's operations. Life cycle analysis is not a requirement of an Environmental Management System (EMS) (or ISO 14001) and EMAS. Life cycle analysis compiles material, energy and waste flow and evaluates the environmental impacts associated with the provision of a product or service throughout its life cycle As the life cycle analysis views the wider picture, it differs from many other environmental assessments, which merely consider elements that make up a stage in the life cycle. There are also important distinctions between life cycle analysis and life cycle assessment. Life cycle analysis is the collection of data (it produces an inventory) whereas assessment goes one stage further and adds on an evaluation of the inventory. Life cycle analysis does not define or explain the actual environmental effect, for example, a life cycle analysis will tell us how many grams of limestone are used to make a bottle of mineral water and how much energy was used to extract it. However, it does not tell us the environmental impact of this action, such as whether limestone is a scarce resource or whether its extraction causes pollution Life cycle analysis serves to address issues such as: ‘+ What are the life cycle impacts generated by a product or process and how do different products or processes compare? * The assessment of process efficiencies for a given output: The calculation of energy and material usage efficiencies within a given economic sector or activity and the identification of areas for improvement.Figure 4. Life Cycle Analysis.3.12 - Principles and Techniques of Life Cycle Analysis. An environmental footprint is the term used when referring to the impacts of a product or service. For example, a life cycle analysis may be used to determine the different packaging options that can be provided for a litre of milk, in a carton, glass bottle, plastic, or cardboard carton. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) can assist with * Identifying opportunities to improve environmental aspects at various points in the life cycle. * Decision-making in industries, Governments and non-governmental organisations. * The selection of relevant indicators of environmental performance. The LCA involves the evaluation of the environmental aspects of a product system through all the stages of its life oycle. There are four phases in conducting a life cycle analysis which are defined in ISO 14040:2006 as follows: 1, Goal and scope definition 2. Life cycle inventory (LCI) analysis. 3. Life cycle impact assessment. 4. Interpretation The relationship between the 4 stages can be seen in the image below: Life cycle assessment framework Goal and scope defintion Direct applications: = Product development ‘and Improvement Inventory = [/--—»} ‘ + Strategic planning analysis {ntarpretaton + Publi pay ming = Marketing = Other Impact assessment [| Figure 5. ISO 14040 Stages of a Life Cycle Analysis. 1SO 14040:2006 details the requirements that practitioners need for conducting a Life CycleAssessment.3.13 - Life Cycle Phases. Phase 1 - Goal and Scope Definition Itis important that there is a clear definition of the goal and scope at the beginning of the assessment. This ensures that the information collected throughout the assessment remains relevant. This depends on the reasons why the organisation wants to undertake the assessment and what they want from the exercise. This can be simple or complicated. They can be focussed on key issues such as the global warming potential of the system or be detailed and comprehensive, looking at the inputs right through to the breakdown and analysis of each stage. The defi jon of the goal depends on the follo 9 factors: * The intended application of the life cycle analysis. * The reason for conducting it and the intended audience. + What specific decisions the life cycle analysis will be used to assist. The scope must be linked with the goal and should define the breadth and depth of the assessment needed to address the goal The scope should include: * Definition of the function of the system being investigated, including the functional unit. * Definition of the system boundaries. * Methods of gathering the data + Key assumptions and limitations. Therefore, the first step in life cycle analysis is to define what needs to be done, and early attempts at LCA failed by not defining the system boundary. When the boundaries are defined, the "cradle to the grave" analysis requires that each input in each process is traced back to resources taken from the environment, while outputs are followed to the final release into the environment. Effectively, a flowchart is produced. Phase 2 - Life Cycle Inventory Analysis. Inventory analysis involves the compilation and quantification of the material, energy and waste flows (environmental aspects). The inventory stage is the process of identifying the energy, raw materials and wastes generated in the production, distribution, use and disposal of the material, energy or waste It maps the system stages and the inputs and outputs in accordance with the goal and scope. The data on the materials can be either ‘situation specific’ or generic. ‘Once obtained, the data needs to be expressed in terms of the unit flow or product through each stage of the system and, ultimately, to the functional unit. The data for each process can be classified under major headings which include: + Energy inputs, raw material inputs, ancillary inputs, other physical inputs. * Products, co-products and waste. * Emissions to air, discharges to water and soil and;* Other environmental aspects. The collection of data can be resource-intensive and any constraints on this process should be noted in the scope section ‘According to ISO 14040 once the data has been collected, calculation procedures are needed to generate the results of the inventory of the defined process. The calculation of energy flows should consider: + The different fuels and electricity sources used, * The efficiency of conversion and distribution of energy flow. The inputs and outputs associated with the generation and use of that energy flow. Phase 3 - Life Cycle Impact Assessment. ISO 14040 states that this phase is aimed at evaluating the significant environmental impacts using the life cycle inventory results. The process involves associating inventory data with spe environmental impact categories and category indicator. Impact Categories (classification). Akkey step in impact assessment is the selection of impact categories. These might include global climate change, acidification, air quality, stratospheric ozone depletion, biological oxygen demand (BOD), eutrophication, the toxicity of substances and resource depletion Characterisation. This step applies numeric ‘indicators’ related to the impact category, for example, they exist as ozone depletion potentials, photochemical ozone creation potentials and global warming potentials. Valuation. This step is subjective as it attempts to give value to the data so that different impacts can be compared. This stage requires a clear explanation of how the ranking or weighting scores are arrived at so that the process is transparent. During the Life Cycle Impact Assessment stage (LCIA) the goals and scope of the process are reviewed to ensure that the overall goals of the project have been met. If the objectives are not being met, then the goal and scope can be modified. The LCIA is not a complete assessment of the environmental issues of a product system as it only addresses the environmental issues that have been specified in the goal and scope. Information gained in this phase provides information for the life cycle interpretation phase. Phase 4 - Interpretation. At this stage, the findings of the life cycle assessment and inventory are reviewed. They are checked to see if they are consistent and that the assumptions are sound. This must also be linked to the goal and the scope of the life cycle assessment. This phase should reach conclusions, explain any limitations and provide recommendations with priorities for improvement.It should be noted that the interpretation contains results based on potential environmental effects and not predicted actual impacts. A review and revision of the scope can be included in the interpretation phase. The review would consider the nature and quality of the collected data to ensure that itis consistent with the goals defined in phase 1 For an example of a life cycle analysis please click the case study logo below to see a nappy LCA completed by the UK Environment Agency:3.14 - Circular Economy. A circular economy is an alternative approach to the established linear economy (take, make, use, dispose). In the circular economy, resources are used for longer; creating maximum value and then instead of the typical disposal route, they are recovered and recycled. The below image show both the linear and circular economies. Linear Economy &-E-o-5 Dispose (Rew matte) . Circular Economy A ses Figure 6. Linear and circular economies.Benefits of a circular economy. The benefits of a circular economy include: * Sustainability. * Creates new growth opportunities. + Reduces waste. * Extracts the maximum value of resources whilst they are in use. * Itis a driver for greater resource productivity. * Creates a more competitive economy. * Allows countries to be in a better position to deal with resource scarcity/security in the future. * Helps reduce the environmental impact of extraction, production and consumption. + Resources are kept in use longer. * Recovery and regeneration of products/materials.3.15 - Assessment of Environmental Toxicity. Definition. Environmental toxicology or ecotoxicology studies the effects of chemicals released into the environment on animals and plants. Chemicals in the Environment. Many chemicals are released into the environment as a by-product of industrial processes or because of purposeful agricultural or domestic use (as in the case of fertilisers and pesticides). Itis estimated that there are between 20,000 and 70,000 compounds worldwide in common use; these chemicals may or may not have a toxic effect upon different species. As Paracelsus, a 16th century scientist said “All substances are poisonous: it is the dose that determines whether they act as a poison or a remedy". A chemical may be potentially harmful but if there is no exposure to people or wildlife, there is no risk of harm. Thus, in determining the toxicity of a chemical in the environment, itis important to establish the exposure to the chemical and the dose received,3.16 - The Meaning of Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC). The Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC) represents the concentration of a chemical, which has no predicted effect on the environment. This means the PNEC is the concentration below which exposure to a substance is not expected to cause adverse effects to species in the environment. The concentration is determined from laboratory test results on multiple aquatic species and corresponds to the concentration below which a specified percentage of species in an ecosystem are expected to be protected The parameter is important and will be used for risk assessment and a starting point for environmental policy. Predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC) ratio is used as an indicator of risk and is called the Risk Quotient.3.17 - Biological Effects. itis impossible to predict exactly what will happen when potentially toxic compounds enter the natural world, so it is essential to monitor the fate of such substances. Itis possible to measure directly the amounts of chemicals in fresh waters, marine waters, in soils or the air, but itis really the effects of these chemicals on living organisms, which are of interest. Thus, the detection of biological effects (such as hormone disruption or behavioural changes) can be used to indicate exposure of organisms to toxic levels of substances in the environment. ‘Such biological effects may also be a warning that permanent or extensive damage to the biota could occur if there is continued exposure to these contaminants. Tests using the biological response of an indicator organism to pollutants in this way are called bioassays. Information from testing is often used to calculate an LC50 for substance. The LC50 is, a calculated concentration of a test substance that kills 50% of a test species during a period of exposure (often 96 hours). There are many advantages to using ecotoxicological tests. Organisms integrate the effects of pollution over long periods, whereas chemical analyses only provide information about concentrations at the point in time when the sample was taken. This may not reflect the levels of the contaminant in the animals and plants. Many organisms accumulate chemicals in their tissues, this is called bioaccumulation. As predators eat their prey, they may gain the chemicals which have bioaccumulated in the tissues of those prey and hence the chemical concentration may increase up the food chain. This is called biomagnification,3.18 - Sub-Lethal Effects. In the past, most attention has been focused on the lethal effects of chemicals, but sub-lethal effects in organisms, such as altered reproductive rate, physiological function or behavioural changes may be just as important in an ecosystem and may predict more dramatic effects in the future. Sub-lethal effects may be seen at the molecular level through to the level of the whole ecosystem and can be measured using ecotoxicological studies. There is an increasing level of interest in, and publicly about, those chemicals that cause hormone disruption in wildlife, but there are many other important sub-lethal effects of chemicals, for example, in shellfish exposure to metals and oils interferes with the detection of water-bome pheromones (chemicals secreted by the organism) used in mating, and many animals decrease their feeding rate when exposed to contaminants. One type of measurement of sublethal effect is the Predicted No-Effect Concentration (PNEC) of a hazardous substance.3.19 - Species to Monitor. How do we decide which species to monitor in ecotoxicological tests? In many cases, this may be determined by the ease with which a species can be monitored and the level of knowledge about certain species. Monitoring those species, which are particularly vulnerable to, and the first affected by, a pollutant may be particularly useful and act as an early warning system for the effects of pollution on an ecosystem. Ecotoxicological tests have predominantly been used in fresh and marine waters, although tests that indicate pollution in soil (for example, in situ bioassays using the survival of earthworms to assess contaminated soils) and the atmosphere are also being researched.3.20 - Eco-toxicological Methods. Ecotoxicological methods are used for a variety of purposes: * To monitor the toxicity of the general environment (for example river water, soil and air quality) * To determine the toxicity of inputs (which may be single substances or mixtures) to different animals and plants at different levels in the ecosystem, * To estimate threshold values for concentrations of substances above which damage to the ecosystem will be incurred (this information may then be used to set standards for release of the substances). * To predict the effects of sustained exposure to an effiuent or contaminant. Many different ecotoxicological tests are currently used by the UK Environment Agency and other organisations, and more are in development, ‘Some of these are: + The oyster embryo bioassay, where the number of oyster embryos developing normally into larvae in a water sample is measured. Water samples are removed from various sites around the coast of the UK and taken to the laboratory, where the test is performed. * Sub-lethal toxicity of different chemicals in the soil can be assessed using earthworms. Adult earthworms are placed in a soil sample containing the test substance in different concentrations and the effects on modality, growth and reproduction of the worms are measured * Fish can also be used to give an indication of the levels of chemical pollutants in the waters in which they live. When oil spills occur, the amount of the enzyme Ethoxyresorufin-o- deethylase (EROD) increases in fish livers - a biochemical response to increased exposure to the chemicals in oil Following the Braer oil spill, off Shetland in 1993, EROD activity in caged Atlantic salmon was, measured. The results showed that immediately following the spill there was an increase in the amount of the EROD enzyme that correlated with the hydrocarbon levels in the water. Thus, the amount of this enzyme in fish livers gives an indication of the level of pollution in the environment by specific contaminants.Figure 7. Death of Fish Caused by Contaminants. ‘Scope for growth is a physiological measurement, which determines the health of an organism based on its energy budget, for example, how much energy is available for growth after all essential functions have been met. Mussels around the coast of the UK have been analysed in this way, by the Centre for Coastal and Marine Sciences (Plymouth Marine Laboratory). ‘Some organisms are unaffected by certain pollutants and different organisms will be affected to differing degrees, for example, insecticides, which are potent neurology's for insects, do not have as great an effect on mussels. Many ecotoxicological tests reveal the effects of pollution but do not tell us which out of many candidate substances is the cause. These problems may be overcome by using a suite of ecotoxicological tests, which detect different groups of substances. In this way, itis possible to identify contaminant types in a complex mixture and to identify the most sensitive parts of the ecosystem. When several tests are used together, it becomes possible to identify more clearly the effects of specific toxic compounds or specific effiuents within ecosystems.