BEE Laboratory - Experiment No.

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

Testing of single phase energy meter at different power factors i.e. 0.5, 0.866 and 1.0.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Name Of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-300(MI) 3

2 Ammeter 0-3A(MI) 1

3 Voltmeter 0-600(MI) 1

4 Rheostat 0-110Ω 1

5 Single phase energy meter 230V,5A,1500 RPK 1

6 Single phase Variac 0-300V,10A 2

7 Triple Pole Iron Clad Switch - 1

THEORY:

1.Energy Meter:

It is used to calculate energy (kilowatt hour) at each instant of time. So this type of
instrument is called integrating type instrument. It is used for both household & industrial
purposes. It has two coils i.e. current coil & pressure coil. Current coil measures the
current through the circuit & pressure coil measures the voltage. And the arrangements of
the instrument can measure also the power factor. Thus this meter measure the energy
(power X time) with the help of gears arrangement.

2. Testing Of Single Phase Energy Meter:

For testing, we need two phases that is 240degrees displaced. Here R phase and B
phase are 240degrees displaced. In the arrangement given in the circuit diagram pressure
coil of energy meter is always taking voltage from R phase only and current coil of
energy meter has the provision for taking current from R phase and B phase
simultaneously or individually.

Case-1:-
When Vrn =0 and Vbn has some voltage then current coil of energy meter will take
current from B phase. So power factor angle=60degrees as shown below in the phasor
diagram.
Power factor=cos60degrees=0.5

Case-2:-
When Vbn has equal voltage with Vrn then current coil of energy meter will take current
from B phase and R phase equally. So power factor angle=30degrees as shown below in
the phasor diagram.
Power factor=cos30degrees=0.866
Case-3:-
When Vbn =0 and Vrn has some voltage then current coil of energy meter will take
current from R phase.
So power factor angle=0degrees as shown below in the phasor diagram.
Power factorcos0degrees=1

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Connections in the experiment circuit to be arranged as below.

PRECAUTIONS:

• Do not switch on power supply without concerning respective teachers.

• Single phase auto transformer must be kept at minimum potential point.
• See the revolution of energy meter if it rotates reversely then change the terminal
of pressure coil.
• Note down the revolutions properly with stopwatch.
• Make sure current does not exceed 3A.
• Take care at loose connections and live terminals.

PROCEDURE:
1) Let’s begin by arranging the circuit as per the figure shown.

2) Start by keeping single-phase variac at zero volt position and switch on power supply.

3) Then let’s test the energy meter at 0.5 power factor.

4) According to Case-1, keeping the R-phase variac at zero potential, vary the B-phase
variac up to 60V, 70V and 80V respectively.

5) We need to note down all meter readings and calculate the R.P.M of the disc using a
stopwatch carefully.

6) Calculate the theoretical value of power (P1) and the practical value of power (P2)
and also find their percentage error.

7) Gradually bring the variac to zero volt position.

8) Test the energy meter at 0.866 power factor according to Case-2.

9) Then again repeat from step-5 to step-7 for the next cases.

10) Now, let’s test the energy meter at 1.0 power factor and repeat from step-5 to step-7
again as mentioned.

11) Finally we need to plot a graph between Percentage Error (y-axis) vs Power factor (x-
axis) to record the conclusions.
 OBSERVATION:
Below values are the recorded observations through the experiment .

SL. cos∅ V1 VRN VBN VPC I R.P.M R.P.H VPCICos∅=P1 R. P. H × 1000 Percentage
NO. (in (in (in (in (in (In watt.) 1500 error=
volt) volt) volt) volt) amp) =P2 (in watt) (P1−P2)×100
P1
1. 0.5 413 0 60 235 0.8 1.97 118.2 94 78.8 16
2. 0.5 413 0 70 234 0.88 2.21 132.7 102.96 88.49 14
3. 0.5 413 0 80 234 1.0 2.48 148.9 117 99.29 15
4. 0.866 413 60 60 235 1.32 6.03 361.8 268.63 241.2 10
5. 0.866 413 70 70 235 1.52 7.17 430.2 309.33 286.8 7
6. 0.866 413 80 80 235 1.74 8.02 481.2 354.10 320.8 9
7. 1.0 413 60 0 235 0.8 4.37 262.2 188 174.8 7
8. 1.0 413 70 0 235 0.86 5.18 310.8 202.1 207.2 2
9. 1.0 413 80 0 235 0.98 5.88 352.8 230.3 235.2 2

GRAPH:

Graph plot between Power factor and Percentage Error:

CONCLUSION:
• Through the experiment, the single-phase energy meter can be tested at different
power factors without using any inductive or capacitive load i.e., exactly at power
factors 0.5, 0.866 and 1.0
• We can conclude that the percentage error is very less at unity power factor while
it is more at 0.5 power factor.
• Hence finally we can say that percentage error and power factor are inversely
related.

--The End--
 BEE Laboratory – Experiment No. 2

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To perform the open circuit and short circuit test of a single phase transformer and to
calculate the voltage regulation & efficiency.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name Of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1 Singlephase 3KVA,230/230V,50 HZ 1
transformer
2 Wattmeter UPF Type,150V,20A 1
3 Wattmeter LPF Type,250V,2.5A 1
4 Ammeter MI,0-1A 1
5 Ammeter MI,0-25A 1
6 Voltmeter MI,0-300V 1
7 Voltmeter MI,0-75V 1
8 Single Phase Variac 0-270V, 15A 1

THEORY:
The performance of a transformer can be calculated on the basis of its
equivalent circuit which contains four main parameters:
• The equivalent resistance R01 as referred to primary( or secondary R02),
• The equivalent leakage reactance X01 as referred to primary,
• The core-loss conductance G0 and
• The magnetizing susceptance B0.
All these constants or parameters can be easily determined by two tests
i.e. open circuit test and short circuit test.
These are very economical and convenient, because they furnish the required
information without actually loading the transformer.
 1. O.C. Test:-

• The purpose of O.C. test is to determine no load loss or core loss and no load I0 which
is helpful in finding X0 and R0.
• One winding of the transformer whichever is convenient but usually high voltage
winding is left open and the other is connected to its supply of normal voltage and
frequency.
• A wattmeter (W), Voltmeter (V) and ammeter (A) are connected in the low voltage
winding i.e. primary winding in the present case.
• With normal voltage applied to the primary, normal flux will be setup in the core,
hence normal iron loss will occur which are recorded by the wattmeter.
• As the primary no load current I0 is small, Cu loss is negligibly small in primary and nil
in secondary.
• Hence, the wattmeter reading represents practically the core loss under no load
condition.

Iw : Core loss component of no load current Im : Magnetizing component of no load current.

2. S.C. Test:-

• For short circuit test, one winding usually the low voltage winding, is solidly short-
circuited by a thick conductor (or through an ammeter which may serve the additional
purpose of indicating rated load current).
• A low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal primary voltage) at rated frequency
(though for Cu losses it is not essential) is applied to the primary and is cautiously
increased till full- load current is flowing both in primary and secondary (as indicated
 by the respective ammeters).

• Since, in this test, the applied voltage is a small percentage of the normal voltage, the
mutual flux ɸ produced is also a small percentage of its normal value.

• Hence, core loss is very small with the result that the wattmeter reading represents the
full load Cu loss or I2R loss for the whole transformer i.e. both primary Cu loss and
secondary Cu loss. If Vsc is the voltage required to circulate rated load current, then
Z01= Vsc/I.
A two winding transformer can be represented by means of an equivalent
circuit as shown below:

Circuit diagram :

Figure 3 : Circuit diagram for open circuit

PRECAUTIONS:

✓ Don’t switch on power supply without concerning teachers.

✓ Single phase auto transformer must be kept at minimum potential point before
switch on the experiment.

✓ Ensure proper short circuiting and open circuiting during experiment.

PROCEDURE:
Here are the methods for both OC and SC tests.

Open circuit test:

• Connect the patch-cords to the equipment as shown in the open circuit

diagram(fig3).
• Open circuit the secondary side and apply rated voltage to the primary side
through a variac.
• The copper loss is negligible since there is only no load current is flowing.
Hence,power consumed, is the core loss of the transformer.
• Note voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter readings.

Short circuit test:

• Connect the patch-chords to the equipment as shown in the short-circuit

diagram.
• Short circuit the secondary side and apply a low voltage to the primary side
throughan auto transformer.
• The iron loss is negligible since the flux will be very low in both side of
thetransformer.
• Gradually increase the voltage gradually till full load current flows in the
primaryside.
• Note voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter reading.
OBSERVATION:

Table for open circuit test :

V1 I0 Wi Im= cos ∅0 =
Wi
(in volt) (in amp) (in watt) Iw= √I02-I 2
Wi/V1I0
𝑉 w

230 0.25 14 0.0608 0.242 0.243

• Wi=V1I0cos∅0
Wi
• Iw= , Im= √(I02-I 2)
𝑉 w

• R0=V1/Iw , X0=V1/Im where,

V1 : Applied rated voltage.

I0 : No-load current

Wi : Wattmeter reading (core loss)

Iw : Core loss component of no-load current

Im : Magnetizing component of no-load current

Table for short circuit test :

Vsc (in volt) Isc (in amp) Wc (in watt)

22 13.04 200

• Let the total equivalent resistance of primary and secondary referred to primary
side be R01 ohms and the total equivalent leakage reactance referred to primary
side be X01 ohms.

• Wc = Isc2R01

• Hence R01 = Wc/Isc2 Also V/Isc = Z01 and X0101= √(𝑍01 2 − 𝑅 2)

Calculations:
Open circuit test Calculations:

Wi = VI0 cos∅0

IW = W/V = 0.0608 A
IM = √(I02-Iw2 ) = 0.242A
R0 = V/IW = 3782.8 Ω

X0 = V/IM = 950.41Ω

cos∅0 = 0.243

Short circuit test Calculations :

Wc = ISC2R01

R0l = Wc/ISC2 = 1.183Ω Z01

= V/ISC = 1.692 Ω

X01 = √(Z 012-R 012 ) = 1.209 Ω

1. Equivalent circuit diagram

 2. Voltage regulation

Voltage regulation% = [(I1R01Cos ∅) + (I1X01Sin∅)] / V0 ×100

Here V0= No. load vol. of transformer

Assume cos∅ = 0.85 Lag , I1 = Full load Current
Voltage regulation% = [(13 x 1.183 X 0.85 ) + (13×1.209 X0.53)] /230×100
= (13.072+ 8.172) /230 x100
= 9.23%
Volatge regulation% = 9.23%

3. Efficiency of the transformer

output power
%n = ( ) x 100
input power

= [O/P power / (O/P power + losses)] X100

= (3 KVA X P.f) / [( 3KVA×P.f) + Iron loss + Copper loss]×100
= 3KVA × 0.85 / [(3KVA×0.85) + 14 + 200]×100
= 2550 /2764X100
= 92.25%

Efficiency of the transformer = 92.25%

CONCLUSION:

• In open circuit test the primary no load current I0 is small, Cu loss is negligibly
smallin primary and nil in secondary. Hence, the wattmeter reading represents
practicallythe core loss under no load condition.
• In short circuit test core loss is very small with the result so the wattmeter
reading represents the full load Cu loss or I2R loss for the whole transformer i.e.
both primary Cu loss and secondary Cu loss.
• By performing open and short circuit test we can find voltage regulation and
efficiency.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Why iron is chosen as the material for the core of the transformer? Why not
we usealuminum?
A: The soft iron core has high permeability and it provides a complete linkage
of the magnetic flux of the primary coil with the secondary coil. Soft iron are
ferromagnetic materials made of iron which can be magnetized and demagnetized
easily. This is an advantage in transformers because in transformers, we are
constantly varying magnetism of the core. This is important because without the
change of magnetism of the core, there wouldn't be any voltage induced in the
second circuit.

Aluminium is nowhere near ferromagnetic properties. It's a paramagnetic

material. It will act like an air-core transformer with the characteristic low
magnetic coupling between the windings and the very high magnetizing current
but it will have a much higher core loss, also compared to the iron core
transformer. The ability of iron to carry magnetic flux is much greater than
aluminium.so we choose iron as the material for the core.

2. Why transformer is rated in KVA?

A: The rating is the load carrying capability of the machine. It shows the
maximum value of the voltage at which the machine is designed, and the current
consumption occurs at that voltage. The machines are always rated in watts. But
the alternator and the transformer are the only machines which are rated in volt-
amp (VA).

The transformer consumes the power regarding losses. The copper and iron are
the two type of losses occur in the transformer. The copper loss depends on the
current (ampere) flows through the windings of the transformer while the iron
loss depends on the voltage (volts). i.e., the rating of the transformer is in kVA.

3. What is the difference between Hysteresis loss & Eddy current loss?

A: Difference between the Eddy current and Hysteresis loss is that the eddy
current loss occurs because of the relative motion between the conductor and the
magnetic field whereas the hysteresis loss occurs because of the reversal of the
magnetism. Due to these eddy currents, some energy will be dissipated in the form
of heat. Hysteresis loss depends upon the volume and grade of the iron, frequency
of magnetic reversals and value of flux density.
 4. What is the difference between step up & step down transformer?

A:

Step up transformer Step down transformer

• Increases the voltage • Decreases the
voltage

• Input voltage is low while the • Input voltage is high while

output voltage is high the output voltage is low.
• High voltage winding is the • High voltage winding is the
secondary winding. primary winding.
• Current is low on the • Current is high on the
secondary winding. secondary winding.
• Primary winding is made up of • Secondary winding is made
thick insulated copper wire. up of thick insulated copper
wire.

• Applications can be found in • Applications: Doorbell,

Power plant, X-rays machine, voltage converter, etc.
microwaves, etc.

5. Why core loss is constant in a transformer?

A: We know that the losses involved in a Transformer are

• Core loss (i.e.hysteresis loss and eddy current loss) and

• Copper loss (i.e.[I^2]R loss).

Out of these losses core loss is constant whereas copper loss is variable. The
reason behind core loss being constant is that hysteresis loss and eddy current
loss both are dependent on the magnetic properties of the material used in the
construction and design of the core of the transformer. So these losses are
constant and do not depend on the value of load current.
 BEE Laboratory - Experiment No.3

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To study load test of single phase transformer and determine its efficiency and voltage
regulation.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Name of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1 Single Phase Transformer 1KVA, 250/250V 1
2 Single Phase Autotransformer 0-270V,5A 1
3 Wattmeter 1000W, Digital 2
4 Ammeter 0-5A , Digital 2
5 Voltmeter 0-300V, Digital 2
6 Lamp Load 1 KW 1

THEORY:

When the secondary winding of a transformer is connected to a load and a

voltage V is applied to the primary winding, the transformer is said to be operated
under load condition.
Under this condition transformer copper loss increases with increase
in current .So efficiency changes. Maximum efficiency point reaches when
iron loss is equal to copper loss. Iron loss is constant for a transformer;
therefore at maximum point copper loss is very less & equal to iron loss.
When load increases beyond this point copper loss will increase which
reduces the efficiency.
Voltage regulation:

Voltage regulation is the measure of how well a power transformer can

maintain constant voltage given a constant primary voltage and wide variance in
load current.
The lower the percentage the more stable the secondary voltage and the better
the regulation it will provide.
Voltage regulation is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage from no load
to full load to the no load voltage.

Voltage Regulation = E2 – V2 x 100

E2

E2 = No load secondary terminal voltage

V2 = Full load secondary terminal voltage

Efficiency of a Transformer:

Efficiency is defined as the ratio of output power to the input power of the
transformer. It varies with the power factor at different loads.
As the output power is always less than the input power due to losses in the
transformer, practically the transformer efficiency is always between 0 and 1 i.e. 0%
and 100% but it can never be 1 or 100%.

Transformer efficiency (η) = V2I2 CosΦ / V2I2 CosΦ + Wi + Wcu

CosΦ= 1 for resistive load

Wi = Core loss
Wcu = Copper loss
Circuit Description:

• Load test for the calculation of efficiency and voltage regulation is completely
different from finding them through OC and SC test of transformer.
• In this method secondary of the transformer is connected to the load. When
the secondary is loaded the secondary current I2 is set up.
• The magnitude and phase of I2 with respect to terminal voltage V2 depends
on the type of load.
• If the load is resistive then I2 will be in phase with V2 for inductive I2 will lag
behind V2 and for they capacitive load it will lead the voltage.
• Because of this secondary current I2 there is a drop in terminal voltage V2.
• Drop in voltage depends on the impedance of the load and pf.
• For leading pf, the voltage drop may be negative and for lagging pf it will be
always positive.
• Since the flux passing through the core is the same from no load to full load
conditions, core losses remain the same.
• But the copper losses depend on the square of the current, they vary with the
load current.

Circuit diagram
PRECAUTIONS:

• Do not switch on supply without concerning respective teachers.

• Single phase auto transformer must be kept at minimum potential point.
• Secondary voltage that is V2 should always be constant throughout the
experiment.

PROCEDURE:

• Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

• Keep all the switches of resistive load in off position and variac at zero
position.
• Switch on 1 phase power supply.
• Apply 230V to the primary winding of 1 phase transformer using variac
keeping load switches in off position.
• Note down V1, I1, W1, V2, I2, and W2.
• Increase load by 100 watt and repeat step-5 up to the rated secondary
current (4.2Amp) of transformer keeping primary voltage constant at 230V
for each observation.
• Calculate efficiency and voltage regulation from the observed table.
• Plot a graph by taking load in common X-axis and efficiently and load current
in Y-axis.
CALCULATIONS:

Case 1:

when load=0W V1= V2=230 V

I1=0.16A; I2=0A; W1=20W; W2=0W

Efficiency = W2 X 100 = 0
W1
Voltage Regulation= V1–V2 X 100 = 0
V1

Case 2:

when load=100W
V1=230 V ; V2=229 V
I1=0.53 A ; I2=0.43 A ; W1=120 W ; W2=98 W

Efficiency = W2 X 100
W1
= (98/120) X 100 = 81.66

Voltage Regulation= V1–V2 X 100

V1
= 230 – 229 X 100 = 0.43
230

Case 3:

when load=200W
V1=230 V ; V2=227 V
I1=0.96 A ; I2=0.87 A ; W1=221 W ; W2=198 W

Efficiency = W2 X 100
W1
= (198/221) X 100 = 89.59

Voltage Regulation= V1–V2 X 100

V1
= 230 – 227 X 100 = 1.30
230
Case 10:

when load=1000W
V1=230 V ; V2=215 V
I1=4.24 A ; I2=4.18 A ; W1=990 W ; W2=901 W

Efficiency = W2 X 100
W1
= (901/990) X 100 = 91.01

Voltage Regulation= V1–V2 X 100

V1
= 230 – 215 X 100 = 6.52
230

OBSERVATION TABLE:

V1 I1 W1 V2 I2 W2 𝐄𝐟𝐟𝐢𝐜𝐢𝐞𝐧𝐜𝐲
𝐖𝟐
=
Voltage Regulation=
LOAD ×100
Sl.No. (in (in (in (in (in (in
𝐖𝟏
𝑽𝟏−𝑽𝟐
𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎
(in watt) 𝑽𝟏
Volt) amp) watt) Volt) amp) watt)

1. 0 230 0.16 20 230 0 0 0 0

2. 100 230 0.53 120 229 0.43 98 81.66 0.43
3. 200 230 0.96 221 227 0.87 198 89.59 1.30
4. 300 230 1.38 320 226 1.30 292 91.25 1.73
5. 400 230 1.80 417 224 1.72 384 92.08 2.60
6. 500 230 2.22 517 223 2.14 478 92.45 3.04
7. 600 230 2.63 609 221 2.55 560 91.95 3.91
8. 700 230 3.03 706 220 2.96 652 92.35 4.34
9. 800 230 3.45 800 217 3.37 734 91.75 5.65
10. 1000 230 4.24 990 215 4.18 901 91.01 6.52
Phasor for Resistive load:

Phasor for Inductive load:

GRAPH:

Theoretical Graph

Graph between Efficiency and load

CONCLUSION:

• The experiment was performed and seen that as load current increases, the
voltage drop in the transformer secondary winding was also increasing,
hence voltage regulation was increased up to 6.52%
• The ideal voltage regulation is 0%. It should be as low as possible for proper
operation of the electrical devices.
• When load current was increased, the efficiency of the transformer increased
up to a specific limit (92.45% in the case), after that, efficiency decreases with
an increase in load current.
• Most of the transformers have full load efficiency between 95% to 98.5% .

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

➢ What is voltage regulation of a transformer?

The voltage regulation is defined as the change in the magnitude of receiving and
sending voltage of the transformer.It determines the ability of the transformer to
provide the constant voltage for variable loads.

When the transformer is loaded with continuous supply voltage, the terminal
voltage of the transformer varies. The variation of voltage depends on the load and
its power factor.The value of the voltage regulation should always be less for the
better performance of the transformer.

➢ What will happen if you will apply D.C. to transformer?

Transformer only works on AC and can’t be operated on DC i.e. When DC power

is supplied to the primary transformer, no self-induced EMF is generated (no back
EMF). Therefore, in the primary winding of the transformer flows a strong current,
which can lead to the burning of the primary winding of the transformer.

When a DC voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer due to the low
resistance, the winding acts as a short circuit between the terminals of the DC
source, resulting in a large current flow through the winding, which leads to
overheating of the winding.

➢ What is isolation transformer?

An isolation transformer is a kind of current transformer which is used to supply

power to equipment. It is not used to increase or decrease the voltage, they are used
for other purposes like breaking a circuit into a primary and a secondary.

It can prevent capacitance build-up by high-frequency noise, it also prevents

unconditional ground connection between the primary and secondary and thus
prevents high voltage discharge.

➢ What will you do to reduce Hysteresis & Eddy current loss?

Hysteresis losses can be reduced by using material that has less area of the
hysteresis loop. Hence, high grade or silica steel can be used for designing the core
within a transformer because it has extremely less area of the hysteresis loop.

Eddy current expression depends on Ke and thickness of the laminations t.

Therefore, we must choose a core material with high resistivity and also the
thickness of the laminations must be as small as possible.
 BEE Laboratory - Experiment No.4

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

Study of power factor at different loads i.e. resistive, inductive & capacitive.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. Name of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1 Power factor demonstrator kit 230V, 2A 1

2 Voltmeter MI, (0-300)V 1

3 Ammeter MI, (0-1)A 1

4 Dynamometer Type Wattmeter 250V, 2.5A 1

5 Single Phase VARIAC 0-270V,2A 1

THEORY:

Power factor is the cosine angle between voltage & current in an AC

circuit. It is also defined as the ratio of the True power flowing to the load to the
apparent power and is a dimensionless number between 0 and 1 (frequently
expressed as a percentage, e.g. 0.5 pf = 50% pf).
If Φ is the angle between voltage and current
then Power Factor = Cos Φ
Real Power:
Actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called real power. It
is measured in watts (symbolized by the capital letter P, as always). As a rule, real
power is a function of a circuit's dissipative elements, usually resistances (R).

Active Power (P) = V x I cosΦ = VIcosΦ

Reactive power:
Power merely absorbed and returned in load due to its reactive properties
is referred to as Reactive Power. Reactive Power is symbolized by the letter Q
and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps- Reactive (VAR). Simply the power
consumed in reactive load called reactive power. Q = I2 X
Reactive Power (Q)= V x I sinΦ = VIsinΦ

Use of Reactive Power

• If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power cannot be

supplied.
• Reactive power is essential to move active power through the
transmission and distribution system to the customer.
Apparent Power(S) :

Total power in an AC circuit, both dissipated and absorbed/returned is

referred to as apparent power. Apparent power is symbolized by the letter S
and is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA).
S = I2 Z
S2 = P2 +Q2

Power Triangle:

These three types of power -- true, reactive, apparent -- relate to one

another in trigonometric form. We call this the power triangle.
 Power Factor of RL circuit:
Inductive reactance, XL =ωL, ω = 2πf Z = R + j XL
Magnitude of impedance Z = √R²+ XL²
Power Factor = cos Φ where
Φ = tan-1(XL /R)

Power Factor of RC circuit:

Capacitive reactance, Xc =1/ωC, ω = 2πf, Z = R – j Xc
Magnitude of impedance Z = √R²+ Xc²
Power Factor=Cos Φ where
Φ = tan-1(Xc /R)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
PRECAUTIONS:

✓ Don’t switch on power supply without concerning teacher.

✓ Variac should be at minimum potential point before starting.
✓ Do not change the load at switch on condition.
✓ Avoid loose connection and be careful at live terminals.
✓ Avoid connecting only inductor to supply.

PROCEDURE:

• Make the connections as per the circuit diagram.

• Connect the load as per the tabulation.
• Keep the variac at zero position.
• Switch on single - phase AC supply and apply 230 V.
• Note down Ammeter, Voltmeter an Wattmeter readings.
• Switch off the single phase AC supply and keep the variac again at zero
position.
• Change the load as per the tabulation given and follow step-4 to step-7
• Calculate the power factor and reactive power.
• Plot a graph taking Reactive power (Q) on Yaxis and Power factor (cosΦ) on
X axis.
OBSERVATION:

Power Triangles formed in different cases:

Case – 1 : Case – 2:

Passive element : R1 Passive element : R1 + L1

Case – 3 : Case – 4 :

Passive element : R1 + L2 Passive element : R1 + L1 + L2

Case – 5 : Case – 6:

Passive element : R1 + C1 Passive element : R1 + C2

Case – 7 :

Passive element : R1 + C1 + C2
Observation table:

Sl Passive Voltage Current Real Power Angle Apparent

No. Elements (in Volts) (in Amps) Power(P) Factor () Power(S)
(in Watt) (Cos) (in VA )

1. R1 230 0.48 110 0.996 5 110.4

2. R1+L1 230 0.44 91 0.899 25.97 101.2

3. R1+L2 230 0.44 91 0.899 25.97 101.2

4. R1+L1+L2 230 0.39 78 0.869 29.59 89.7

5. R1+C1 230 0.42 80 0.828 34 96.6

6. R1+C2 230 0.45 90 0.869 29.59 103.5

7. R1+C1+C2 230 0.37 62 0.728 43.23 85.1

CALCULATION:

Sl. No. Resistance Reactive Power Impedance Reactance Value

(ohms) (Q)(VAR) (Z) (ohms) (X)(ohms) Of
(R) R=P/I2 Q=(S2-P2) Z=VI X=(Z2-R2) L or C

1. 477.43 9.38 479.16 40.68 0.129 H

2. 470.04 44.27 522.72 228.68 0.727 H

3. 470.04 44.27 522.72 228.68 0.727 H

4. 512.82 44.29 589.74 291.21 0.926 H

5. 453.51 54.14 547.61 306.92 10.3 uF
6. 444.44 51.11 511.11 252.40 12.61 uF
7. 452.88 58.29 621.62 425.80 7.47 uF
GRAPH:

Power factor vs Reactive power

CONCLUSION:

• Power factor is an expression of energy efficiency. It plays a significant role

in the economic operation of any system.
• For the resistive circuit, the power factor is nearer to unity because the
reactive power is very less.
• For an inductive-resistive load, the power factor will be lagging.
• For a capacitive-resistive load, the power factor will be leading.
• So high power factor means less angle which implies less Reactive power.
• Low power factor implies low power utilization thereby reducing the
system efficiency.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. How does the reactive power vary with the variation of power factor?

When power factor is equal to 0, the energy flow is entirely reactive and stored
energy in the load returns to the source on each cycle. When the power factor is 1,
all the energy supplied by the source is consumed by the load. Higher the power
factor less is the angle between voltage and current . So reactive power is inversely
proportional to power factor .

2. What is the power factor of purely resistive, inductive & capacitive load?

For resistive load , power factor is unity

For inductive load , power factor will be zero(lagging) ,since current will lag voltage
by some angle ,it depends on the reactance offered by the inductor.

For capacitive load, power factor will be zero(leading), since current will lead
voltage by some angle.

3. What is power consumption of purely inductive & capacitive load?

Explain.

We know that in pure inductive circuit, current is lagging by 90 degree from voltage
(in other words, Voltage is leading 90° from current) i.e the phase difference
between current and voltage is 90 degrees. If current and voltage are 90° out of
phase from each other the total power of the circuit would be 0

Pure capacitive load even follows the same condition. In case of pure capacitive
circuit also, the total power of the circuit would be zero (as cos 90° = 0).
4. Draw the phasor diagram for purely resistive, inductive & capacitive
load.

These are the phasors for the type of pure loads.

 BEE Laboratory – Experiment No. 5

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To study about series resonance of R-L-C circuit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl. No. List of equipments Specifications quantity

1 Voltmeter 0-150V(MI) 3

2 Voltmeter 0-75V(MI) 1

3 Ammeter 0-3A (MI) 1

4 Wattmeter 2.5A,125V (LPF) 1

5 Rheostat 27Ω, 10A 1

6 Variable inductor (0.03-0.3)H, 5A 1

7 Capacitor 42uF 3

8 Single Phase Variac 0-270V, 10A 1

THEORY:

In an electrical circuit, the condition that exists when the inductive

reactance and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude, causing
electrical energy to oscillate between the magnetic field of the inductor
and the electric field of the capacitor is called Resonance.
 Series RLC circuit (R-L-C)

• At resonance in series RLC circuit, two reactance become equal

and cancel each other. So in resonant series RLC circuit, the
opposition to the flow of current is due to resistance only.

• At resonance, the total impedance of series RLC circuit is equal

to resistancei.e Z = R, impedance has only real part but no
imaginary part and this impedance at resonant frequency is
called dynamic impedance and this dynamic impedance is
always less than impedance of series RLC circuit.

• In series RLC circuit, the total voltage is the phasor sum of

voltage across resistor, inductor and capacitor.

• At resonance, both inductive and capacitive reactance cancel

each other and we know that in series circuit, the current
flowing through all the elements is same, so the voltage across
inductor and capacitor is equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction and thereby they cancel each other.

• So, in a series resonant circuit, voltage across resistor is equal

to supply voltage i.e V = Vr.

• In series RLC circuit current, I = V/Z but at resonance current

I = V/R, therefore the current at resonant frequency is
maximum as at resonance in impedance of circuit is resistance
only and is minimum.
 Graph Showing resonant frequency

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit connection
Circuit Description:

In general, when we apply a variable frequency source to a series R-L-

C circuit, then at a certain frequency, the inductive reactance (X L) will
become equal to the capacitive reactance (XC). Such a condition when
XL = XC for a specific frequency is called series resonance.

Circuit current is maximum at resonance condition.

But in this experiment we will apply a fixed voltage at a constant

frequency(50 Hz) to the series R-L-C circuit, and by varying the
inductance value, we will achieve the resonance point.

Before Resonance:
The capacitive reactance(Xc) dominates the inductive reactance(XL)
i.e.,(XC > XL) and due to which the series RLC circuit behaves like a
capacitive circuit.

Beyond Resonance:

The inductive reactance (XL) dominates the capacitive reactance (XC), i.

e., (XC < XL) and due to which the circuit behaves like an inductive
circuit.

At Resonance:

• The capacitive reactance(XC) is equal to inductive reactance(XL)

i.e., (XC = XL)
• The voltage across the inductor(VL) will be similar to the voltage
across the capacitor(VC) i.e., (VL = VC)
• The R-L-C series circuit behaves like a resistive circuit.
• Current will be maximum.
• Power will be maximum at Resonance.
Expression for Resonant frequency:

Let’s fr be the resonant frequency in Hz at which

XL = XC
2πfL = 1/2πfC
Then the resonant frequency fr = 1/(2π√LC) Hz
ωr = 1/√LC rad/sec

Quality Factor:

The quality factor of the RLC circuit is the voltage magnification in the
circuit at resonance.
Voltage Magnification (Q) = Voltage across L or C = VL
Supply voltage VS

VL = IωrL and VS =IR

𝐿
Then Quality factor (Q) =1/R√
𝐶

The quality factor relates the maximum or peak energy stored in

the circuit (the reactance) to the energy dissipated (the resistance) during
each cycle of oscillation meaning that it is a ratio of resonant frequency
to bandwidth and the higher the circuit Q, the smaller the bandwidth,

Q = ƒr /BW.

PRECAUTIONS:

✓ Don’t switch on power supply without concerning respective

teachers.
✓ Single phase auto transformer must be kept at minimum potential
point.
✓ Don’t touch the capacitor while circuit is in ON condition
PROCEDURE:

• Initially, make the connection as per circuit diagram

• Keep the single-phase variac position at a minimum potential and
switch on the power supply.
• Apply 60V at 50Hz frequency to the series R-L-C circuit and take
all the meter readings.
• Then gradually increase the inductance and take the meter
readings.
• Then increase the inductance value until the current reaches to
its maximum point, where VL = VC
• The inductor is varied till the current reaches to its maximum
value, this is the condition of resonance.
• Repeat the above steps and take at least ten observations.
• Then calculate XL, L values for each observation.
• Compare the XL and XC value at resonance condition.
• Plot a graph between Inductance and Current.
Observation table:

Sl. No. Input Input VL (A) VR (V) VC (V) W (Watt)

voltage(V) Current(A)
1 60 2.18 43 22 51.5 17
2 60 2.20 43.6 24 52 18
3 60 2.38 47 36.5 56.5 22
4 60 2.48 49 45.7 58.7 25
5 60 2.50 49.2 54 59.3 27
6 60 2.52 48.8 59.1 59.1 27.2
7 60 2.46 48.4 64 58.1 27
8 60 2.42 47.5 68.2 57 27
9 60 2.30 45.3 73.8 54.2 26
10 60 2.14 42.2 78.3 50.6 24

CALCULATION:

ZL = VL/I RL = W/I2 XL = L= XL/2πf

S.No Z = V/I
(Ohms) (Ohms) √𝑍𝐿2 − 𝑅𝐿2(o (mH)
(Ohms)
hms)
1 27.523 10.09 3.58 9.43 30
2 27.273 10.90 3.72 10.24 32
3 25.210 15.33 3.88 14.83 47
4 24.193 18.42 4.06 17.96 57
5 24.001 21.60 4.32 21.16 67
6 23.800 23.45 4.28 23.05 73
7 24.390 26.01 4.46 25.62 81
8 24.793 28.18 4.61 27.80 88
9 26.080 32.08 4.91 31.70 100
10 28.030 36.59 5.24 36.21 115
GRAPH:
Graph between Inductance (L) and Current (I):

Inductance vs Current
2.55
2.5
2.45
Current (Amp)

2.4
2.35
2.3
2.25
2.2
2.15
2.1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Inductance (mH)

Graph between Impedance (Z) and Current (I):

2.55
Impedance vs Current
2.5

2.45

2.4
Current (amp)

2.35

2.3

2.25

2.2

2.15

2.1
23 24 25 26 27 28 29
Impedance (Ohms)
CONCLUSION:

• In a series R-L-C circuit, the impedance (Z=23.8 Ω ) is nearly equal

to the resistance (R=24 Ω ) of the circuit at resonance.
• The circuit current is maximum, i.e., (I = 2.52A) and obviously
power is also maximum (P=27.2 watt) at Resonance.
• At resonance, the inductive reactance (XL = 23.05 Ω) which is very
close to the value of capacitive reactance (XC = 24.20 Ω) and the
resonant frequency(fr = 51Hz) is nearer to the supply frequency
50Hz.
• Before resonance the series circuit behaves like a capacitive circuit,
and beyond resonance the circuit behaves like an inductive circuit.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Define resonance. What is the condition for resonance for an RLC

series circuit?
A. Resonance in electrical circuit (RLC circuit) is a state which fulfils
one of the three conditions:

• Maximum impedance or minimum impedance .

• Unity power factor condition i.e. the circuit appears as a pure

resistance to the source.

• Forced frequency (i.e. supply frequency) is equal to natural frequency.

In an series RLC circuit, the condition that exists when the

inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance i.e., (XC = XL) are
of equal magnitude, causing electrical energy to oscillate between
the magnetic field of the inductor and the electric field of the
capacitor.
2. How the RLC series circuit behaves for the frequencies above and
below the resonant frequencies.

A. For frequencies below resonant frequency, the capacitive reactance

is more than the inductive reactance. Therefore the equivalent
reactance is equal to capacitive and the circuit behaves like a RC
circuit.

For frequencies above resonant frequency, the inductive reactance is

more than the capacitive reactance. Therefore the equivalent reactance
is equal to inductive and the circuit behaves like a RL circuit.

3. What is the expression of resonant frequency in a series resonant

circuit?
A. Inductive reactance = XL = 2πfL = ωL
Capacitive reactance = XC = 1/2πfC = 1/ ωC
Condition for Resonance is XL = XC
ωL = 1/ ωC
ω2 = 1/LC
ω = 1/√LC
fr = 1/(2π√LC) is the resonant frequency of series RLC circuit.

4. What will be the Power factor at series resonant?

A. At resonance, the LCR circuit behaves like a purely resistive circuit

and the effects of the capacitor and inductor cancel each other out.
This is the most efficient circuit for operation.
Hence the power factor of an LCR circuit at resonance is 1(unity).

The power factor is a measure of the fraction of total power that is

being used up or dissipated by a load resistor. Since, capacitors and
inductors do not dissipate power but keep on exchanging them
between the source and themselves, they do not utilize the power.
 BEE Laboratory – Experiment No.6

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To verify Maximum Power Transfer theorem

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Name Of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1. DC regulated power supply 0-30V, 1A 1

2. Rheostat 27Ω, 10A 2

3. Voltmeter PMMC, 0-15V 1

4. Ammeter PMMC, 0-1A 1

THEORY:

The Maximum power transfer theorem states that, to obtain maximum

external power from a source with a finite internal resistance, the
resistance of the load must equal to the resistance of the source as
viewed from its output terminals.
Applications:-

• In electronic circuits, especially in communication system the

signal present at the receiving antenna is of low strength. In order
to receive the maximum signal from the antenna, impedance of (TV)
receiver and (TV) antenna should be matched.
• In an audio amplifier with audio speaker arrangement in public
addressing systems, speaker resistance must be equal to the
amplifier resistance in order to transfer maximum power from
amplifier to the speaker.
• In case of a car engine starting system, starter motor resistance
must be matched with internal resistance of the battery. If the
battery if full and these resistances are matched, maximum power
will be transferred to the motor to turn ON the engine.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Circuit Description:

• Suppose we have a voltage source or battery that's internal

resistance is Ri and a load resistance RL is connected across this
battery.
• Maximum power transfer theorem determines the value of
resistance RL for which, the maximum power will be transferred
from source to it.
• Actually the maximum power, drawn from the source, depends
upon the value of the load resistance.

𝑉2𝑅𝐿
Power delivered to the load resistance, 𝑃 = 𝐼2𝑅𝐿 =
(Ri+RL)2
To find the maximum power, differentiate the above expression
with respect to resistance RL and equate it to zero. Thus,
𝑑𝑃
[ = 𝑉2(𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿)2−2𝑅𝐿(𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿)𝑉2]/(𝑅𝑖+𝑅𝐿)4=0⇒𝑅𝐿=𝑅𝑖
dRL

Thus in this case, the maximum power will be transferred to the

load when load resistance is just equal to internal resistance of the
battery. The condition of maximum power transfer does not result
in maximum efficiency. If we define the efficiency η as the ratio of
power dissipated by

the load to power developed by the source, then it is straight forward to

calculate from the above circuit diagram that

𝑅𝐿 1
ƞ = =
𝑅𝐿+𝑅𝑖 1+𝑅𝑖/𝑅𝐿
Consider three particular cases:

• If 𝑅𝐿=𝑅𝑖 , then ƞ=0.5

• If 𝑅𝐿=∞ or 𝑅𝑖=0 , then ƞ=1
• If 𝑅𝑖=0 , then ƞ=0
PRECAUTIONS:

✓ Don’t switch ON power supply without the concerned teacher.

✓ We need to ensure proper polarity while connecting circuit.
✓ Current knob should be at maximum position.
✓ Voltage knob should be at minimum position.

PROCEDURE:

• Initially, connect the devices and DC source.

• Fix the value of Ri at any point & note down the value by voltmeter
ammeter method.
• Note down the ammeter and voltmeter reading and calculate the
value of (Ri) .
• Now, connect as per the the main circuit diagram.
• Switch ON the power supply and set the current Knob at the
maximum point.
• Apply 12V DC to the network.
• Then vary the value of RL using voltmeter ammeter method for the
given conditions.
• Finally let’s calculate the load power and efficiency for each
observation and then a graph between load resistance and load
power.
 Observation table:

Sl. No. Value VS VL I in 𝑹𝑳 in 𝑷𝑳=𝑰𝟐𝑹𝑳 𝑷𝑰 = 𝑽𝑰 ƞ=

of 𝑹𝑳 is Volts Volts Amps Ohms in watt in watt 𝑷𝑳
𝑿𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑷𝑰
1. 12 8.4 0.332 25.3 2.78 3.98 69.84
2. 𝑹𝑳>𝑹𝒊 12 7.6 0.410 18.5 3.10 4.92 63.00
3. 12 7.2 0.452 15.9 3.24 5.42 59.77
4. 𝑹𝑳 = 𝑹𝒊 12 6.0 0.549 10.9 3.28 6.58 49.84

5. 12 5.1 0.630 8.09 3.21 7.56 42.46

6. 𝑹𝑳<𝑹𝒊 12 4.4 0.704 6.25 3.09 8.44 36.61
7. 12 2.8 0.846 3.30 2.36 10.15 23.25

CALCULATION:

Case 1: when 𝑹𝑳>𝑹𝒊

VS = 12 V and VL = 8.4 V
I = 0.332A and RL = 25.3 ohms
𝑷𝑳=𝑰𝟐𝑹𝑳
= 0.332 x 0.332 x 25.3
= 2.78 W

𝑷𝑰 = 𝑽𝑰
= 12 x 0.332
= 3.984 W
Efficiency (ƞ) = (𝑷𝑳/𝑷𝑰) x 100
= (2.78/3.98) x 100
 = 69.84%

Case 2: when 𝑹𝑳=𝑹𝒊

VS = 12 V and VL = 6.0 V
I = 0.549A and RL = 10.9 ohms
𝑷𝑳=𝑰𝟐𝑹𝑳
= 0.549 x 0.549 x 10.9
= 3.28 W

𝑷𝑰 = 𝑽𝑰
=12 x 0.549
= 6.58 W
Efficiency (ƞ) = (𝑷𝑳/𝑷𝑰) x 100
= (3.28/6.58) x 100
= 49.84%

Case 3: when 𝑹𝑳<𝑹𝒊

VS = 12 V and VL = 5.1 V
I = 0.630 A and RL = 8.09 ohms
𝑷𝑳=𝑰𝟐𝑹𝑳
= 0.630 x 0.630 x 8.09
= 3.21 W

𝑷𝑰 = 𝑽𝑰
=12 x 0.630
= 7.56 W
Efficiency (ƞ) = (𝑷𝑳/𝑷𝑰) x 100
= (3.21/7.56) x 100
= 42.46%
GRAPH:

1. Plot a graph between Load resistance & Load power

3.5

2.5
Load Power (PL)

1.5 Series1

0.5

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30

Load Resistance(RL)
2. Plot a graph between Load resistance & Efficiency.

80

70

60
Efficiency

50

40

30 Series1

20

10

0
0 10 20 30

Load Resistance (RL)

CONCLUSION:

• As per the results and analysis, the maximum power transfer

occurs when RL = Ri
• The voltage across the load resistance (VL) under maximum power
transfer condition is half of the source voltage, and efficiency is
around 50%
• If RL is lower or higher than Ri then power delivered to load is less
than maximum.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Is this theorem applicable to ac supply or not? Justify.

Ans. Yes it is applicable to both AC and DC. The limitation is that the
load should be variable load.

In an active network, it can be stated that the maximum power is

transferred to the load when the load impedance is equal to the complex
conjugate of an equivalent impedance of a given network as viewed from
the load terminals.

2. Why this theorem is not applicable to electric power transmission?

Ans. According to Maximum Power Transfer Theorem when load

resistance becomes equal to the source resistance or Thevenin equivalent
resistance, then maximum power is transferred from source to load. So it
gives 50% efficiency in resistive network as half of the source voltage
drops across source resistance.

Theorem cannot be applied to power systems or electrical transmission

system because in electronic circuits, maximum Power Transfer is
important than efficiency as it deals with very low voltages in the order of
mV.

In power systems, 50% efficiency can not be tolerated.

3. What is the relation between load power & efficiency and what is it’s
significance?

Ans.

If the resistance of the load is made larger than the resistance of the
source then efficiency is higher, since a higher percentage of the source
power is transferred to the load, but the magnitude of the load power is
lower since the total circuit resistance increases.

If the load resistance is smaller than the source resistance, then most of
the power ends up being dissipated in the source, and although the total
power dissipated is higher, due to a lower total resistance, it turns out
that the amount dissipated in the load is reduced.

There is no direct relationship or dependency of load power and efficiency

but we can say that at highest load power we cannot get highest
efficiency as we get 50% of its efficiency.
4. Why this theorem is widely used in electronics communication
system?

Ans. The maximum power transfer condition is the best choice to

transmit signal in communication system. Since we need the signal with
maximum strength at the receiving end.

In Wireless transmission one wants to make the highest loss possible

since this loss will actually be the power of the transmitted signal. This is
a very easy optimization problem and it leads to RL = Rin. Hence the
theorem is preferred.
 BEE Laboratory – Experiment No.7

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To measure three phase power by 2 watt meter method.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1. Wattmeter 500W,Digital 2

2. Voltmeter 0-300V,Digital 1

3. Ammeter 0-5A,MI 3

4. Rheostat 38Ω/5A 3

5. 3 Phase Variac 0-415V,10A 1

THEORY:

A watt meter is an instrument for measuring active power directly

in a circuit. It has two coils i.e. current coil & pressure coil. Current coil
measures the current through the circuit & pressure coil measures the
voltage. Current coil is connected in series & pressure coil in parallel in
the circuit.
Two wattmeter can be used to measure power in a three phase 3-
wire circuit, by making the connections as shown in below. The load may
be balanced or unbalanced. The current coils are connected in series
with two phases and the pressure coils is connected between both phase
and the third phase. The total power consumed by the two wattmeter =
W1+W2 (algebraic sum).
Advantages of Two Wattmeter

• Both balanced and unbalanced load can be balanced using this

method
• In a star connected load, it is optional to connect neutral point and
wattmeter
• In a delta, connected load connections need not be opened to
connect wattmeter
• 3 phase power can be measured using two wattmeter’s
• Both power and power factor is determined on a balanced load
condition.

Disadvantages of Two Wattmeter

• Not suitable for 3 phase, 4 wire system

• Primary windings w1 and secondary windings w2 must be identified
correctly to prevent incorrect results.

Phasor diagram
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit Description:

Here current through the current coil of W1=IR and W2=IB

While potential difference across pressure coil of W1=VRY and W2=VBY

According to the phasor diagram given below

W1=VRYIRcos(30+θ) and W2=VBYIB cos(30-θ)

According to this method, sum of two wattmeter readings is the total

power drawn by 3 phase load i.e.,
W1+W2=VRYIRcos(30+θ) + VBYIB cos(30-θ)

For a three phase balanced star connection system

VRY = VBY = VL and IR = IY = IB = IL

Now, W1=VLILcos(30+θ) and W2=VLIL cos(30-θ)

Then W1+W2 = √3 VLI cos θ (after solving) which is 3 phase power
And W2-W1 = VLI sin θ

Now tan θ = √3(w2-w1/w2+w1)

Thus pf angle θ =tan-1 √3(w2-w1/w2+w1)

PRECAUTIONS:

✓ Don’t switch on power supply without concerning respective

teachers.
✓ Three phase auto transformer must be kept at minimum potential
point before starting.
✓ Resistant value of all rheostats should be kept at maximum
position at starting.
✓ Connections should be tight and ensure perfect readings.

PROCEDURE:

• Initially, arrange the connections as per the circuit diagram.

• Keep all the rheostats at their maximum resistance values.
• Switch on the auxiliary power supply and also switch on the three
phase MCB
• Gradually increase the three-phase variac voltage, so that the
current in each phase will be 1A
• Take the first observation in balanced condition.
• Now, vary the rheostat as per the tabulation given and take
observations in unbalanced load condition. i.e. the current in each
phase becomes different. Corresponding phase voltages across the
rheostat are VRN,VYN & VBN respectively.
• Compare the measured and the calculated values of three phase
power and find out their percentage error.
Observation table:

SL. W1 W2 IR IY IB VRN VYN VRN

No. (Watt) (Watt) (Amp) (Amp) (Amp) (Volt) (Volt) (Volt)

1. 64 81 1 1 1 50 47 48
2. 89 85 1.4 1.14 1.12 40 52 53
3. 103 90 1.5 1.4 1.12 43 47 54
4. 103 110 1.59 1.44 1.4 45 48 50
5. 103 110 1.6 1.44 1.4 44 49 50
6. 109 114 1.66 1.6 1.42 45 46 51
7. 109 127 1.72 1.64 1.6 47 47 48
8. 115 127 1.8 1.66 1.64 45 48 49
9. 121 131 1.85 1.8 1.64 46 46 50
10. 120 142 1.90 1.82 1.8 47 46 47

CALCULATION:

S.No. VRN×IR VYN×IY VBN×IB ∑VI=P2 Percentag

e
W1+W2=P1 (in watt) (in watt) (in watt) (in watt)
error
(in watt)

1 145 50 47 48 145 0
2 174 56 59.28 59.36 174.64 0.3
3 193 64.5 65.8 60.48 190.78 1.16
4 213 71.55 69.12 70 210.67 1.10
5 213 70.4 70.56 70 210.96 0.96
6 223 74.7 73.6 72.42 220.72 1.03
7 236 80.84 77.08 76.8 234.72 0.54
8 242 81 79.68 80.36 241.04 0.39
9 252 85.1 82.8 82 249.9 0.84
10 262 89.3 83.72 84.6 237.62 1.7
CONCLUSION:

• Two wattmeter method can be employed to measure 3-phase power

in a star connected balanced or unbalanced load.
• The total instantaneous power absorbed by the three loads R R, RY
and RB is equal to the sum of the powers measured by the two
wattmeters w1 and w2

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What is balanced & unbalanced load in a three phase system?

A. A balanced load is a load that draws the same current from each
phase of the 3-phase system. In this system each line will produce
equal voltage magnitudes at phase angles equally spaced from each
other resulting in less power loss.

While an unbalanced load has at least one of those currents

different from the rest. When the currents on the three live wires of a
three-phase system are not equal or are not at an exact 120° phase
angle, the power loss is greater than for a perfectly balanced system.

2. Explain how you will find the multiplying factor of the watt meter.

A. For Wattmeters:
Step 1: Note the voltage range.
Step 2: Note the current range.
Step3: The Multiplication Factor (MF) is:
MF = (voltage range × current range x power factor)/(range of the
wattmeter scale)
3. Verify theoretically how the two wattmeter method gives the power
measurement under both balanced and unbalanced condition.

A. Two wattmeter method can be used irrespective of balanced or

unbalanced load.
The algebraic sum of two wattmeter reading gives the total power in
the 3-phase, 3 wire star-connected or delta connected load circuits
whether the load is balanced or unbalanced.
P = W 1 + W2

4. What is line & phase voltage in three phase system?

A. Line voltage: More correctly known as line to line voltage, is the

voltage measured between two lines.
Phase voltage: This is the voltage across one phase of the load, i.e.
one of the load impedances. It is these impedances that are the
"phases" not the lines.

Phase voltage depends on the configuration of the load. In a

star connection phase voltage is equal to line to neutral voltage
while in a delta connection the phase voltage is equal to line to line
voltage. Similarly, in a star connected load the phase current is
equal to the line current while in delta the line current is equal to
√3 times the phase current.
5. What is the difference between star & delta connection in 3 phase
system?
A. Differences between star and delta connection:

• Star connection system is a three-phase four-wire system with a

neutral point, whereas Delta connection system is a three-phase
three-wire system without a neutral point.
• Star connection systems are used for both low and heavy loads of
power transmission in long-distance, whereas Delta connection
systems are used for heavy load transmission in a shorter distance.
• In the Star connection system, Line voltage and phase voltages are
the same, whereas, in the Delta connection system, phase voltage
and line voltages are the same.
• The Star connection three-phase circuit forms a Y shape, and the
Delta connection three-phase circuit forms a mesh loop.
• Star connection systems have less starting torque, whereas the
Delta connection system has a high starting torque.
 BEE Laboratory – Experiment No.8

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To find open circuit characteristics(OCC) of a separately excited DC

generator.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

S.No. Name Of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1 Ammeter 0-300mA , PMMC 1

2 Voltmeter 0-300V , PMMC 1

3 Rheostat 0-290ohms, 2.8Amp 2

4 Rheostat 38 Ohms, 8.5Amp 1

5 Tachometer 0-10000RPM, Digital 1

6 DC Generator Coupled 0.75KW,3000RPM, 1

to DC motor set 230V,3.4Amp

THEORY:

The curve which gives the relation between field current (If) and the
generated voltage (Eg) in the armature on no load is called magnetic or
open circuit characteristic of a DC generator. The plot of this curve is
practically same for all types of generators, whether they are separately
excited or self-excited. This curve is also known as no load saturation
characteristic curve of DC generator.
Uses of OCC

• Calculate critical resistance

• Calculate critical speed
• Equation verification
• Characteristics verification after winding

Critical resistance
The maximum resistance of the field circuit above which no voltage build
up is possible is called the critical resistance.
Here field circuit resistance
Rf=Rsh+Rf,G
According to Ohms law
Rf = Eo/If

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Circuit Description:

• Now, from the emf equation of dc generator,

we know that Eg = K
• Hence, the generated emf should be directly proportional to field
flux (and hence, also directly proportional to the field current).
• However, even when the field current is zero, some amount of emf
is generated (represented by OA in the figure).
• This initially induced emf is due to some residual magnetism exists
in the field poles of the generator.
• This initially induced emf aids the existing residual flux, and hence,
increasing the overall field flux. This consequently increases the
induced emf. Thus, O.C.C. follows a straight line.
• However, as the flux density increases, the poles get saturated and
the  becomes practically constant.
• Thus, even we increase the If further,  remains constant and
hence, Eg also remains constant.
• Hence, the O.C.C. curve looks like the B-H characteristic.
PRECAUTIONS:

• Do not switch on the power supply without concerning respective

teacher.
• Do not make rheostat position of armature to minimum and
field rheostat position to maximum at the time of starting.

PROCEDURE:

Run I: -

• Make connection as shown in the diagram. Run the motor and

bring it up to rated speed. With zero excitation in the field
circuit, take the voltmeter reading. This voltage at this point is
due to the residual magnetism. Increase the excitation slowly
and take reading of ammeter and voltmeter after adjusting the
speed at constant. While making the field current adjustments
do not retrace. Continue till the induce voltage is more than the
rated value.
• Reduce the excitation and take reading of ammeter and
voltmeter at constant speed –Do not retrace while reducing
excitation.

Run II:

• Keep the excitation of the generator constant at a partial value

and vary the speed of the generator to get different voltage values.
Observation table:

Run I: - Speed constant

S NO. If – increasing Eg(volts) If – decreasing Eg(volts)

(mA) (mA)

1 0 3.1 160 229

2 20 53 140 218
3 40 96 120 205
4 60 128 100 185
5 80 158 80 160
6 100 183 60 130
7 120 202 40 96
8 140 218 20 57
9 160 229 0 3.1

Run II: - Excitation constant

S NO. Speed of generator(N) Generated EMF
(RPM) (Volts)

1 3000 220
2 2910 213
3 2776 202
4 2698 197
5 2612 190
6 2570 188
7 2518 184
8 2450 179
9 2400 176
GRAPHS:

(i)The curve of induced voltage versus field current for increasing and
decreasing excitation.

Field current vs no load induced emf

250
No load induced emf (V)

200

150

Series1
100
Series2
50

0
0 50 100 150 200
Field current(mA)

(ii) Plot the curve of induced voltage vs. speed.

250
Induced voltage vs speed

200
Generated EMF(volts)

150

100
Series1
50

0
2200 2400 2600 2800 3000 3200
Speed of Generator(RPM)
CONCLUSION:

• At constant speed - no load generated emf (Eg) is directly

proportional to the field current of the generator.
• At constant excitation, no load generated emf (Eg) is also directly
proportional to the speed of the generator.
• Some emf (3.1V) is present across the armature, even when the
field current is zero, which is due to residual magnetism.
• Shunt field resistance must be less than the critical resistance of
the DC generator to get the required amount of induced voltage.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. What do you mean by O.C.C. & why it is called so?

A. Open circuit characteristic is also known as magnetic

characteristic or no-load saturation characteristic. This
characteristic shows the relation between generated emf at no
load (E0) and the field current (If) at a given fixed speed.
The open circuit characteristics (O.C.C) or magnetization
characteristics is the curve that shows the relationship
between the generated EMF at no-load (E0) and the field
current (If) at constant speed. It is also known as no-load
saturation curve. Its shape practically the same for all types
of DC generator whether separately excited or self-excited.

2. What is the difference between a D.C. generator & D.C. motor?

A. Difference between Motor and Generator

• The Motor converts electric energy into mechanical energy,

whereas the generator does the opposite.
• Electricity is used in the motor, but the generator produces the
electricity.
• The Shaft of the motor is driven by the magnetic force developed
between armature and field windings whereas, in the case of the
Generator the Shaft is attached to the rotor and is driven by
mechanical force.
• The current is to be supplied to the armature windings in case of
a Motor, and in Generator, the current is produced in the
armature windings.
• Motor follows Fleming’s Left-hand rule while Generator follows
Fleming’s Right-hand rule.
• An example of a motor is an electric car or bike where an electric
current is supplied to the machine or device, and it gets
converted into mechanical motion and, as a result, the car or
bike moves. An example of a generator is that in power stations
the turbine is used as a device which converts mechanical
energy of force of water falling from the dam to generate energy.

3. What is B-H curve?

A. Hysteresis refers to the lagging of the magnetization of a

ferromagnetic material like iron. In other words when a
ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will
not relax back to zero magnetization even when the imposed
magnetizing field is removed hence it has to be driven back to
zero, a field in the opposite direction needs to be applied.
If an alternating magnetic field is applied to the material,
its magnetization will trace out a loop called a hysteresis loop
or B-H Curve.
4. What is Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction?

A. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction (referred to as

Faraday’s law) is a basic law of electromagnetism predicting how
a magnetic field will interact with an electric circuit to produce
an electromotive force (EMF). This phenomenon is known as
electromagnetic induction.
Faraday’s law states that a current will be induced in a
conductor which is exposed to a changing magnetic field. This
law of induction explains the working principle of transformers,
motors, generators, and inductors.

Figure showing experiment setup

 BEE Laboratory – Experiment No.9

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT:

To observe Speed control of DC Motor using

• Variation of armature voltage.

• Variation of field flux.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

Sl.No. Name Of Apparatus Specification Quantity

1 Ammeter 0-5A , PMMC 1
2 Ammeter 0-500mA , PMMC 1
3 Voltmeter 0-300V , PMMC 1
4 Rheostat 0-290ohms, 2.8Amp 1
5 Rheostat 38 Ohms,8.5Amp 1
6 Tachometer 0-10000RPM ,Digital 1
7 DC shunt Motor 1.1KW,3000RPM,220V,6.3Amp 1

THEORY:

We know that back emf(Eb) is produced by the generator action of the

DC motor is:
Eb = PΦZN/60a
where
a = Number of parallel paths in armature
P = Number of poles
Z = total number of conductors on armature
Eb = Back emf produced by one of the parallel paths in volts
 N = speed of armature in revolution per minute (RPM)
Φ = flux per pole in weber

If V is the applied voltage across the motor terminals, Eb is the back

emf developed, then V = Eb+ IaRa. Where Ia and Ra the current and
resistance in the armature circuit respectively.

𝜙𝑍𝑁𝑃
But, Eb = = K𝜙𝑁.
60A

Hence V =K𝜙𝑁 + IaRa .

(𝑉−𝐼𝑎𝑅𝑎)
i.e. N = K
𝜙

It shows that:-

• An increase in the IaRa drop will decrease the value of speed if V

remains constant.
• Speed varies inversely as the field flux i.e. the exciting current
below saturation. Thus, by increasing the resistance in the
armature circuit, a motor can be operated at speed below normal.
By increasing the resistance in the field circuit, a motor can be
operated at speed above normal.

Speed control by Armature voltage control method:

This method is adopted whenever it is required to bring the speed

lower than the no load speed of the the shunt motor. In this method a
variable resistance is connected in series to the armature and the
speed decreases due to decrease of Eb in the armature without
changing the shunt field current (If) due to the given relation.
N ∝ Eb when Φ i.e., (If) is constant
Speed control by field current control method:

If it is required to increase the speed of the shunt motor higher than

its rated speed this method is applicable. In this method a rheostat of
higher value is connected in series to the shunt field and the speed
increases due to decrease of shunt field current (If) without changing
the armature voltage (Eb) due to the given relation.
N ∝ 1/Ef when Eb is constant
Here field current is directly proportional to field flux.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Circuit arrangement
PRECAUTIONS:

✓ Don’t switch ON power supply without concerning teacher.

✓ Keep safe distance from the rotating part.
✓ Check all the connections properly as per circuit diagram.
Connections must be right and tight to avoid short circuiting and
sparking.
✓ Armature rheostat should be in maximum position and shunt
field rheostat should be in minimum position before starting of
the experiment.
✓ Insulate yourself properly from ground and other metallic part of
live apparatus while performing the experiment.

PROCEDURE:

Case-A: Speed control by variation of armature voltage.

• Connect the circuit as shown in the diagram. Make R at

maximum and Rf zero at the time of starting the motor (which is
running on no load).
• Adjust Rf and bring the motor to the rated speed. Note the
terminal voltage V and field current If which correspond to the
rated speed of the motor. Keep If constant throughout.
• With the exciting current kept constant, decrease R in steps;
at each step note the value of V and the speed N in r.p.m.

Case-B: Speed control by variation of field flux.

• Run the motor as before and bring it to the rated speed at no load.
• Change the field resistance Rf in steps and note the speed N and
the field current If in each case . Keep the voltage across the
armature constant. Take reading for decreasing and increasing
value of field currents.
Observation table:

Case A: Armature voltage control method:

S.NO. Va in volt Ia in amp If in mA N in rpm

1 205 0.26 184 3010

2 196 0.25 184 2928

3 192 0.24 184 2864

4 191 0.23 184 2858

5 190 0.22 184 2826

Case B: Shunt field current control method:

S.NO. If in mA N in rpm Va in volt Ia in amp

1 184 3020 204 0.24

2 180 3028 204 0.24

3 165 3044 204 0.24

4 162 3092 204 0.24

5 160 3124 204 0.24

6 155 3146 204 0.24

7 150 3170 204 0.24

GRAPHS:

Case A: - Plot a graph between speed along y-axis and voltage across
armature along x-axis.

Armature voltage control method

3050

3000

2950
N in rpm

2900 Series1

2850

2800
185 190 195 200 205 210
Va in volts

Case B: - Plot a graph between speed along y –axis and field current If
along x-axis.

field current control method

3180
3160
3140
3120
N in rpm

3100
3080
Series1
3060
3040
3020
3000
150 160 170 180 190
If in mA
CONCLUSION:

• In the armature voltage control method we came to know that the

speed is directly proportional to the armature voltage, as the voltage
increases speed also increases.
• From the field current control method, speed is inversely
proportional to the field current. It is used to raise the speed above
the rated speed.

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS:

1. Compare the two methods and discuss the advantages and

disadvantages of each method.

A. ADVANTAGES
Armature controlled DC motors:

• Constant field current and torque: With the armature control method,
the field current and torque levels remain constant throughout the
application. Regardless of the speed of the motor, you can rely on these
factors.
• Fast and simple speed variation: Armature controlled DC motors are
known for their exceptional speed control, which allows operators to vary
the speed as necessary in both directions.

Field controlled DC motors:

• Lower costs: The field control method is a highly economical form of

motor control. It’s easy to use and manage, and the lower operational
costs make it cost-effective in the long-term. For manufacturers or
engineers on a tight budget, this is an ideal solution.
• Minimal power loss: The speed of a field controlled DC motor is varied
through the magnetic field rather than the armature. As a result, this
method typically wastes a smaller amount of power. Extra energy
efficiency can save both time and money while helping the environment.
 DISADVANTAGES

Armature controlled DC motors:

• Higher initial costs: The armature control method is often more

expensive than the field control method.
• Low energy efficiency: One reason why armature control is most
commonly used for shorter lengths of time is that speed variation tends to
waste large amounts of power. This makes the process less energy
efficient and more costly overall.

Field controlled DC motors:

• Limits on speed: If your application requires you to adjust the motor

below the normal speed, you may be better off choosing an armature
controlled method. Field controlled DC motors can only operate above the
normal speed. Higher speeds can also result in less torque.
• Reduced stability: The field control method allows operators to obtain
higher speeds than the norm. Yet its overall range can be lowered due to
a lack of stability. With a weaker field, you may only be able to safely
exceed certain speeds.

B. What is back e.m.f.?

A. When the armature of the DC motor rotates under the influence of

driving torque, the armature of the conductors moves through a
magnetic field inducing an emf in them. The induced emf is in the
opposite direction to the applied voltage and is known as the back
emf.
Some advantages of back emf are listed below:

• The energy conversion in the DC motor is possible because of

the back emf.
• A DC motor is made self-regulating because of back emf.
 C. What will happen if field circuit will be open circuited?
A. In a DC shunt motor, Eb is directly proportional to N Φ
For a constant back emf, flux ia inversely proportional to the speed of
the motor.
If field winding is disconnected accidentally, the speed would
dangerously increase in order to maintain the back emf of the motor.
For a constant back emf, flux is inversely proportional to the speed of
the motor.
In the case of a series machine if field winding disconnected then the
motor circuit is open and no current will pass through the armature,
for the operation of machine interaction of two fluxes is necessary thus
the machine won't operate.
D. What is a Shunt Motor & why it is called so?

A. A shunt motor is a "winding-field DC motor" that generates

magnetic field flux using electromagnets. Its field winding and
armature winding are connected in parallel. The shunt motor is
configured with a stator of concentrated winding and commutator
rotor as shown in the figure. Its field (stator) winding and armature
(rotor) winding are connected in parallel.
A feature of this motor is that the rotating speed does not change
significantly if the load (on the motor shaft) varies.

DC shunt motor