The Icing of An Unheated, Nonrotating Cylind Part Icing Wind Tun

American Meteorological Society
The Icing of an Unheated, Nonrotating Cylinder. Part II: Icing Wind Tunnel Experiments
Author(s): E. P. Lozowski, J. R. Stallabrass and P. F. Hearty
Source: Journal of Climate and Applied Meteorology, Vol. 22, No. 12 (December 1983), pp.
2063-2074
Published by: American Meteorological Society
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/26180972
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December 1983 LOZOWSKI, STALLABRASS AND HEARTY 2063
The Icing of an Unheated, Nonrotating Cylinde

Part II: Icing Wind Tunnel Experiments
E. P. Lozowski,1 J. R. Stallabrass and P. F. Hear

Low Temperature Laboratory, Division of Mechanical Engineering, National R
Ottawa, Ontario, Canada K1A 0R6
(Manuscript received 23 February 1983, in final form 8 June 1983)
ABSTRACT
An experimental investigation of icing on non-rotating cylinders, under both wet and dry conditions was
undertaken. Airspeeds of 30, 61 and 122 m s"' appropriate to aircraft icing, liquid water contents of 0.4, 0.8
and 1.2 g m"3 and temperatures of -15, -8 and -5°C, were explored. Dry accretions were lenticular o
"spearhead" shapes, while wet accretions tended to develop "horns" and stagnation line depressions as the
result of the runback of unfrozen water away from the stagnation line and its subsequent freezing further
around the perimeter of the cylinder. Comparisons were made between the experimental accretion shapes and
those predicted by the model described in Part I. The model performed best under dry growth conditions.
Under wet conditions, the model behavior, while qualitatively correct, was unable to exactly duplicate th
details of the accretion profiles. Nevertheless, under both dry and wet conditions, the model predictions of th
accretion cross-sectional areas, were quite accurate.
1. Introduction perature Laboratory, National Research Council of

The icing of a cylinder is a unifying theme in icing The tunnel was designed to simulate aircraft
Canada.
speeds, up to Mach 0.9, but in the configuration used
research, because it represents a simple, well-defined
icing problem for which a solution can be usedintothe present experiments, the top speed in the working
help
section
understand and predict icing in more complex was about 125 m s~l. Because the experiments
situ
were intended
ations. For the icing of aircraft and structures near the to address the phenomenon of helicopter
rotor
earth's surface, a non-rotating cylinder model is most blade icing, the results presented here will be for
icing conditions appropriate to this situation. Fig. 1
appropriate, while in hail research, useful advances
have come from theory and experiments with shows the tunnel as it was configured for the present
rotating
cylinders. work. This is a closed-circuit wind tunnel, driven by
A model for the icing of an unheated, non-rotating
a 450 kW variable speed DC motor, and cooled by
cylinder in supercooled liquid water droplet clouds an ammonia refrigeration plant. A 2.54 cm diameter
bakelite cylinder was mounted horizontally across the
was presented in Part I (Lozowski et ai, 1983). The
working section of the tunnel. The tunnel's capabilities
model can predict such accretion features as stagnation
and limitations are given below. Some detail has been
line growth, accretion shape, and total volume (or mass)
provided here, because no widely available description
of the deposit. In this paper, we describe some icing
wind tunnel experiments which were undertaken both has been published elsewhere.
to study ice accretion on a cylinder under carefully
controlled conditions and to verify the model predic a. Airspeed
tions. Although the model is applicable under fairly
general conditions, the experiments described here were The wind tunnel was operated over a range of work
undertaken in order to simulate aircraft icing condi ing section airspeeds from about 30 m s-1 to 120
tions. ms-1. Lower airspeeds, which would be more typical
of the characteristic wind speeds for icing of fixed sur
2. The icing wind tunnel face structures, can be achieved, but were not studied
The cylinder icing experiments were undertaken in because of the aircraft icing orientation of this work.
the high speed icing wind tunnel of the Low Tem The measuring section cross section is 0.30 X 0.30 m.
The airspeed profile in this section is essentially flat
except for boundary layers near the walls which are
about 0.01 m thick.
' Present affiliation: Division of Meteorology, Department of
Geography, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Although the tunnel pressure can be controlled to
T6G 2H4. simulate conditions at altitude, this capability was not
2064 JOURNAL OF CLIMATE AND APPLIED METEOROLOGY Volume 22
0 12 3
SCALE OF METERS
Fig. 1. The high speed icing wind tunnel of the Low Temperature Laboratory,
Division of Mechanical Engineering, National Research Council of Canada.
used. Instead, the settling chamber static pressure (just

in the present experiments. For example, at a working
before the contraction) was maintained at the localspeed of 122 m s"1, a 50 droplet lags the
section
atmospheric pressure. However, because of the accel at the cylinder location by about 6 ms"1 (5%).
airspeed
eration of air through the contraction, the static pres droplets will have a correspondingly smaller
Smaller
sure in the working section is below atmospheric andwill reduce the accretion rate due to drops
lag. This
varies with wind speed, according to the adiabatic of this ex
size by a similar amount, but the overall effect
pansion relation. Since Swift (1978) observed forno sig
the entire droplet spectrum will likely be smaller
than
nificant effect of altitude on his icing results, the the measurement errors involved in sizing the
static
pressure variation with tunnel speed was not considered
resulting accretion.
to be a cause for concern. Nevertheless, it must be
borne in mind, should the reader wish to make com
b. Temperature
parisons with other experiments undertaken at different
static pressure conditions. As a result of these pressure
The automatic tunnel air temperature controller can
variations with airspeed, the maximum simulation al
be set with a precision of about ±0.2°C. Its absolute
titude was about 1 km. accuracy varies with temperature, with a minimum
error at 0°C and a maximum of ±0.5°C at —30°C.
Tunnel blockage effects (< 10% of the working cross
sectional area) cause the actual streamline pattern Once a stable tunnel temperature has been achieved
about the cylinder to deviate slightly from the ideal
the control system can generally maintain the set tem
pattern in an infinite stream. However, it is expectedperature to within ±0.5°C for the duration of an icing
that the effect of this phenomenon on droplet trajec experiment (typically one to five minutes). The nom
tories near the cylinder, and hence on collision effi inal operating range of the controller is +20°C to
ciency, will be small. —30°C, although its use in these experiments was re
The spray nozzles are located just within the bell stricted to the total temperature range +3°C to — 15°C
mouth of the low speed contraction. The injection The static temperature in the measuring section is
velocity and precise formation location of the spray cooler than this, owing to the adiabatic expansion of
droplets is unknown. Whatever these are, the droplets the air accelerating within the contraction.
initially are most likely rapidly accelerated (or decelIn a natural cloud, the droplet temperature is very
erated) until they achieve a velocity very close to that
close to that of the air. However, this may not always
of the airstream. Subsequently, they will be accelerated
be the case in icing wind tunnels. In the present tunnel,
along with the air through the remaining portionthe of water supply to the spray nozzles is maintained at
the contraction. In order to continue to be accelerated,
room temperature, while the nozzle compressed ai
their velocity must lag behind that of the airstream. supply is heated to ~30-40°C. Upon injection, the
The magnitude of this velocity lag can be determinedwater is initially cooled through heat transfer with th
by solving the compressible flow equation through the nozzle air, which has undergone an adiabatic expansion
contraction, and numerically integrating the equationthrough the nozzle aperture. It is found empirically,
of motion of the droplets. Auld ( 1980) has examined that unless the nozzle air is kept sufficiently warm,
this problem in some detail and concludes that the some of the droplets freeze. Thus the actual droplet
velocity lag is not great for the conditions prevailingtemperature upon initial contact with the tunnel air,
though unknown, is likely lower than theItsupply

was desired
air to produce a droplet spectrum rea
sonably characteristic of natural icing, and with a vol
temperature. Whatever this initial spray temperature,
ume median
it will, in most instances, probably equilibrate diameter of 20 jim. In practice, the mea
with
sured volume
that of the airstream before the spray reaches median diameters were between 17 and
the cyl
25 ftm. The
inder. However, at the highest tunnel speeds, largest observed droplets were about 50
there
Mm
may be insufficient time for this to occur, in diameter. Since the oiled slide samples were
especially
always
when the tunnel airstream is itself cooling taken at the cylinder position, it was not nec
by adiabatic
expansion within the contraction. Auld essary
(1980)to adjust
has in the measured size spectrum for changes
caused in
vestigated the thermal adjustment of sprays by a
evaporation
con or condensation along the con
traction.tunnel,
traction, and has concluded that in the present
the temperature lag of the droplets with respectThe relative humidity of the tunnel air was not mea
to the
airstream, does not exceed a few °C at most. Generally, estimated. It was assumed that, in
sured or otherwise
such a tempeature difference would not the
beworking section, the air was saturated at the local
expected
static However,
to affect the overall heat balance significantly. temperature although supersaturation and cloud
formation
at high speeds, where the total temperature is closecan
tooccur at higher air speeds.
0°C, such a small deviation may play a critical role
in determining whether or not any ice will accrete
3. The at
experimental procedures
all at the stagnation line.
The cylinder diameter (2.54 cm), air temperature,
c. Sprayers airspeed, liquid water content and median volume di
ameter were all selected with a view to simulating con
ditions
The droplet spray is produced by a set of fourappropriate
pneu to helicopter rotor blade icing in
natural clouds.
matic atomizing nozzles symmetrically located at theThe maximum airspeed used, however,
corresponded
corners of a 0.23 m square in the contraction only to that at about 60% of the rotor
section
of the tunnel. The spray bars are covered blade
by an radius for a typical helicopter. The simulated
airfoil
altitude
housing to reduce drag, but spoiler bars have varied
been from about 0 to 1 km. The measuring
section
added to promote enough turbulence for the static temperatures selected were -5°C and
uniform
-15°C,
mixing of the spray across the tunnel. Some although a few experiments were also run at
intercom
-8°C.
parisons with icing experiments in the low Three nominal liquid water contents were se
turbulence
FROST tunnel at the University of Alberta, lected for
suggest
the experiments, namely 0.4, 0.8, and 1.2
that turbulence intensity has a minor effect gm"3. Theon actual
the measured values were generally
macrostructure of the accretion. The distilled water within ± 15% of these nominal values. The target me
flow rate and the atomizing air pressure are indepen dian volume droplet diameter was 20 nm, with actual
dently controllable, and they have been calibrated tovalues lying between 17 (im and 25 /on. Finally, air
give reproducible liquid water contents and dropletspeeds of 30.5, 61, 91.5, and 122 m s"1 were used.
median volume diameters. The conditions in the icing tunnel were maintained
The spray calibration curves were used to determineas steady as possible during an experiment, although
the water flow rate and air pressure settings nominally secular variations of a few percent were inevitable.
required to obtain a desired liquid water content. Then An experiment was begun by mounting the cylinder
with these settings, a rotating cylinder measurement in the working section, and running the tunnel for
was made in order to determine the actual liquid waterseveral tens of minutes to achieve a stable temperature
content on the axis of the measuring section. Stallabrassand airspeed. The sprayers were then turned on and
(1978) concluded that these measurements are genwere quickly adjusted (within 5 to 10 s) to the precise
erally accurate to better than ±10%. Measurements of settings required for the desired liquid water content
the liquid water content across the tunnel show that and volume median diameter. Once an accretion had
it lies within 5% of the centerline value over the centralgrown on the cylinder, the sprayers were turned off,
third of the cylinder. Thus all measurements were madethe tunnel was stopped (and cooled if necessary to
on the accretion within this central third of its length.prevent melting of the accretion) and the dimensions
The spray droplet size spectrum in the measuring of a section of the accretion on the tunnel axis were
section was determined by means of an oiled sliderecorded. This was done with vernier calipers. In ad
sampler. Because of the tedious nature of the droplet
dition, a plasticene mold was made of the accretion,
counting procedure, this was not done for individual
provided that its lateral extent did not greatly exceed
experiments. Instead, it was done once for each spray the cylinder diameter.
setting used. Subsequently, the droplet size distribu The accretions were first photographed obliquely in
tions were assumed to be the same as those measured order to convey an overall picture of the nature of the
earlier at the equivalent sprayer settings. A few spot
icing—its shape, whether glaze or rime, its surface
checks confirmed the temporal stability of the spray roughness, and the occurrence of runback. The ac
droplet spectrum. cretions were then sectioned near the tunnel axis with
a. Experiments at —15°C
a soldering iron, and the nearer half of the accretion
was then removed from the cylinder, permitting pho
As implied by the heat balance equation [Eq. (3),
tography of the accretion cross section. These pho
Part I], the effect of increasing the air temperature
tographs, along with photographs of the plasticene
airspeed, or liquid water content is to make the deposi
mold, were used to sketch a composite deposit outline.
warmer or wetter. At the lowest experimental value
In order to obtain a better qualitative appreciation of
of each of these parameters (-15°C, 30.5 m s-1, 0.4
the way in which the accretion builds, time lapse pho
g m-3), the shape of the deposit is lenticular (see Fig
tographs were also taken during several of the exper
2b), and the surface is relatively smooth except for th
iments, using a 16 mm cine camera driven by a two
low density feathers which grow forward from the re
frame per second animation motor. Finally, in a few
gion of the initial maximum impingement angle. Thes
cases, thin sections of the accretion were made, and
features are typical, low density rime deposits, produce
the crystal structure was photographed between crossed
by the impingement of individual drops which freeze
polarizing filters.
rapidly in situ without significant spreading or flatte
ing, thereby incorporating large air gaps into the ic
4. Experimental results
structure. The appearance of the overall deposit is
opaque and white.
Figures 2a, 2b, 3a, 3b and 4 depict the ice accretions
grown in the tunnel. The oblique photographs (2a, The3a, change in the deposit shape as the air tempe
4) show the general character and surface featuresature, ofairspeed, or liquid water content increases is no
the deposit, while the accompanying line drawings easy to explain on the basis of the heat transfer equ
(2b,
tion,assince each parameter appears in several terms
3b, 4) show the shape of the accretion cross section
deduced from the cross-sectional photograph The and air
thetemperature, for example, and the liquid water
photograph of the plasticene mold. Table 1 iscontenta sum each affect three terms, while the airspeed eithe
mary of the experimental conditions and of the directly
prin or indirectly affects all of the terms included
cipal measurements. in the model.
AIRSPEED - m/s
Fig. 2a. Oblique photographs of the accretions for the cylinder icing experiments at -15°C. See Table I for details of the
30 60 122
AIRSPEED - m/i
Fig.
Fig. 2b.
2b. Cross
Cross sections
sectionsof
ofthe
theaccretions
accretions
for
forthethe
cylinder
cylinder
icing
icing
experiments
experiments at at-15°C.
-15°C.See
SeeTable
Table1 1
for
for
details
details
of of
thethe
conditions.
conditions.
Nevertheless, we can attempt to understand theperature

ef are held constant at 30.5 m s-1 and — 15°C
fects produced by changing one of these parameters(see Figs. 2a, b). As the water mass flux, Rw increases,
at a time, while holding the other two fixed. We will
the contribution of the latent heat of freezing increases,
begin by examining the effect of an increase in the
and this is only partly offset by a compensating increase
liquid water content while the airspeed and air tem
in the sensible heat required to warm the accreted
30 61 92 122
AIRSPEED - m/s
Fig. 3a.
3a. Oblique
Oblique photographs
photographsof
ofthe
theaccretions
accretionsfor
forthe
the
cylinder
cylinder
icing
icing
experiments
experiments
at —5°C.
at —5°C.
See Table 1 for details of the conditions.
30 61 92 122
AIRSPEED - m/t
Fig. 3b. Cross sections of the accretions for the cylinder icing experiments at -5°C.
See Table 1 for details of the conditions.
water to the surface temperature. As a result, the deposit

deposit shape is still generally lenticular, its thickness
surface temperature rises, and the central portion doesof
not taper smoothly to zero near the edges.
the deposit takes on a milky apearance in contrastAt toa still higher liquid water content (w = 1.2 g
the brilliant whiteness of the lower liquid water content
m"3), the surface temperature at the stagnation line
case. (Contrast w = 0.8 g m 3 with w = 0.4 g m-3.) reaches 0°C, the ice is clear (glaze), and runback begins.
Because of the higher liquid water content, the growth
At this stage, the runback does not interfere signifi
of the rime feathers is also enhanced, so that while the with the growth of the rime feathers (except
cantly
L.W.C.
L.W.C. - 0.13 - 0.13 g/m3 L.W.C.
g/m3 - 0.28
L.W.C. g/m3 L.W.C. - 0.65
- 0.28 g/m3 L.W.C.g/m3
- 0.65 g/m3
LIQUID WATER ONLY
LIQUID WATER ONLY LIQUID WATER
LIQUID WATER ONLYONLY LIQUID WATER ONLY
LIQUID WATER ONLY
Fig.
Fig.4.4.
Oblique photographs
Oblique and corresponding
photographs cross sections
and corresponding of the
cross accretions
sections offor
thethe cylinder
accretions for the
icing
icingexperiments
experimentsat -8°C.
at -8°C.
See Table
See1 Table
for details
1 for
of the
details
conditions.
of the conditions.
Table
Table 1.
1. Conditions
Conditionsforforthe
theicing
icingexperiments
experiments grown under equivalent values of Rw in these exper
depicted
depicted in
in Figs.
Figs. 2,
2,33and
and4.4.
iments do exhibit qualitative similarities.
When the runback water freezes before it encounters
Liquid
Temper-Air
Temper- Air- water
water IcingIcingStagnation
Stagnation the rime feathers, they may be seen quite prominently
ature
ature speed
speed content duration
content duration growth
growthrati
rate above and below the "wet" central portion of the ac
Figure (°C)
Figure CO (m(ms"1)
s~') (g(gitT3)
m"3) (min)
(min) ((im (Mms"')
s"1) cretion. Initially the rime feathers begin to grow out
2a/2b -15
wards, but after a few minutes they start to grow in
2a/2b -15 30.5
30.5 0.40
0.40 5.00
5.00 9.19.1
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 30.5
30.5 0.82
0.82 5.00
5.00 18.2
18.2 wards relative to the freestream direction. This change
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 30.5 1.23
30.5 1.23 5.00 25.2
5.00 25.2 in their apparent growth direction can be seen quite
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 61.0
61.0 0.46
0.46 2.50
2.50 22.9
22.9 dramatically in the time lapse films, which cannot be
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 61.0
61.0 0.77
0.77 1.00
1.00 38.1
38.1
reproduced in the context of a written paper. The
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 61.0
61.0 1.25
1.25 2.33 50.9
2.33 50.9
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 122.0
122.0 0.44
0.44 2.50
2.50 38.6
38.6 growth direction of the rime feathers is a consequence
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 122.0
122.0 0.82
0.82 1.00 50.8
1.00 50.8 of the interaction between the mean droplet impinge
2a/2b
2a/2b -15
-15 122.0
122.0 1.27
1.27 1.00
1.00 67.7
67.7 ment direction and the shape of the surface. A two
dimensional Monte Carlo simulation of rime feathers
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 30.5
30.5 0.40
0.40 5.00
5.00 7.57.5
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 30.5
30.5 0.78
0.78 5.00
5.00 14.6
14.6 growth (Fig. 5), shows in fact that the feathers grow
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 30.5
30.5 1.20
1.20 5.00
5.00 15.2
15.2 outwards at an angle of about 15° from the mean
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 61.0
61.0 0.46
0.46 4.00 13.8
4.00 13.8
droplet impingement direction. Thus, initially the rime
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 61.0
61.0 0.78
0.78 2.92 21.5
2.92 21.5
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 61.0
61.0 1.25
1.25 2.50
2.50 16.3
16.3
feathers grow outwards because the mean droplet im
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 91.5
91.5 0.38
0.38 4.00
4.00 6.66.6 pingement direction, for the large droplets which give
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 91.5
91.5 0.76
0.76 4.00
4.00 7.9
7.9 rise to the feathers, is nearly parallel to the freestream.
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 91.5
91.5 1.17
1.17 4.00
4.00 8.9
8.9 Subsequently, however, as the accretion surface flat
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 122.0 0.44
122.0 0.44 2.50
2.50 0.0
0.0
tens, the mean droplet impingement direction deviates
3a/3b
3a/3b -5
-5 122.0
122.0 1.10
1.10 4.00
4.00 0.0
0.0
more and more from the horizontal and the 15° out
4 4 -8
-8 110.0
110.0 0.13
0.13 20.00
20.00 8.98.9 ward spread caused by the effect of stochastic droplet
4 4 -8
-8 110.0
110.0 0.28
0.28 10.00
10.00 12.8
12.8
adhesion, is not sufficient to counteract this trend.
4 4 -8
-8 110.0
110.0 0.65
0.65 5.00
5.00 12.1
12.1
Under wetter conditions (e.g., 61 m s-1 and 1.2
g m~3), the runback region is quite broad and flat, and
the horns develop farther from the stagnation line so
that they begin to interfere with the rime feather growth.
perhaps to fill in some of the interstices), and these At 122 m s_l and 0.8 g m-3, the feathers become quite
features remain quite pronounced. The effect of the .filled in by the runback. Finally, at 122 m s_l and 1.2
runback on the shape is to give rise to a rough depres g m-3, the runback and horn growth completely inhibit
sion at the forward stagnation line, and as the runback any significant development of the rime feathers. For
water freezes further along the cylinder circumference, this case, the deposit profile is quite flat, a slight hollow
a pair of ridges is formed. In profile these ridges give occurs at the stagnation line, and the horns extend
the impression of horns and this is sometimes referred laterally beyond the diameter of the cylinder. The ap
to as horned icing. An interesting aspect of this ac pearance of the ice is milky and large air bubbles can
cretion is that a transition from horned to smooth be identified. The flat forward face and horns of this
growth occurs about half way between the center line deposit probably enhance the drag considerably, while
of the tunnel and the wall (see Fig. 2a). This is pre shedding of runback water from the horns no doubt
sumably a consequence of the variation in liquid water
content across the tunnel. From a knowledge of how
the liquid water content varies across the tunnel, it
was estimated that the transition point occurs at a
liquid water content of 1.13 g m-3 (with an airspeed
of 30.5 m s-1 and an air temperature of — 15°C).
At a fixed air temperature, the transition from
smooth to horned growth occurs at a lower liquid water
content as the airspeed increases. For example, at
— 15°C and 61 m s-1, the growth at 0.8 g rrT3 already
exhibits horns quite similar to those which occur at
30.5 m s-1 and 1.2 g m-3, while at 122 m s"' runback
effects and horned growth are already in evidence at Fig.
Fig.5. Two-dimensional
5. Two-dimensional
Monte Carlo simulationMonte
of rime feather
Carlo s
0.4 g m-3. In view of these results, it is tempting to growth
growth beginning
beginning
on a single frozenon
droplet.
a single
The droplet frozen
trajectories drop
are
are assumed
assumed to
to be straight be
lines straight
from left to right. lines from
The droplets are le
try to identify the liquid water flux Rw as a possible
fired
firedat random
at and
random
are assumedandto adhere
arewherever
assumed
they impingeto adh
similarity parameter for the icing. Unfortunately, it is upon
upona droplet
a droplet
which has already
which
been incorporated
has already
into the rime
been i
not an exact similarity parameter although the deposits structure.
helps to account for their rapid, icicle-like growth. Not alone. However, it is suspected that their
appearance
only will the horns in this case probably experience
rapid growth results from a high heat flux to the air
an enhanced heat transfer with the airstream because
stream (because of their small diameter), coupled with
of their small local radius of curvature, but Lista high
(1977)
flux of runback water to their tip followed by
has also suggested that the shedding of water fromBecause of their fragility, these features were
shedding.
surface protuberances may act as an additional heat seen to break off spontaneously. This type
occasionally
sink in the heat balance equation. of ice shedding was even more in evidence at 1.2
g m"3. In the photograph of this deposit, the large
section missing from the lower horn had broken off
b. Experiments at -5°C
during the experiment.
The ice accretions grown at -5°C (Figs. 3a, b)Atare 122 m s-1, in view of the substantial aerodynamic
quite different from those grown at -15°C. Runback
heating, ice grows only near 90° on the cylinder, and
occurs under all experimental conditions, so thatthe deposits
the are relatively tiny and almost time in
rime feathers which characterized many accretionsdependent, as they build up to a certain size, then
grown at -15°C are almost entirely absent. Glazed,
break off and new ones take their place. The extent
andthe
icicle-like fingers growing in the same location as amount of icing at this airspeed is also rather
rime feathers, may, however, be seen in the accretions
insensitive to the liquid water content, the growths at
grown at 30.5 m s"1 and 0.8 g nT3, and at 610.4 mg s-1
nT3 and at 1.2 g m 3 being quite similar.
and 0.4 g m"3.
At the lowest speed and liquid water content (30.5
c. Experiment at -8°C
m s-1 and 0.4 g m~3), the deposit retains a smooth,
lenticular shape. The ice is quite transparent and A special
so set of experiments was performed at 110
it appears dark in the photographs, although it has -8 °C for the purpose of making compar
m s"1 and
isons with ice accretions on airfoils which had been
separated from the cylinder surface in some places
grown under similar conditions elsewhere. These com
leaving air gaps which have a whitish hue. As the liquid
parisons will not be considered here. However, the
water content is increased while the airspeed is held
constant at 30.5 m s-1, the surface texture of the ice accretions are of sufficient interest to warrant
cylinder
some discussion. The experiments were performed with
becomes rough or pebbly. The profile of the surface
liquid water contents of 0.13, 0.28, and 0.65 g m~3
remains convex, although the radius of curvature seems
to increase with time. (Fig. 4). At the low liquid water content, (0.13 g m"3),
The -5°C results are similar to those at -15°C the deposit profile resembles that grown at — 15°C,
122 m s""1 and 0.4 g m"3. The central portion is glaze
inasmuch as an increase in airspeed, at constant liquid
ice, with a small indentation along the stagnation line,
water content, gives rise to analogous changes in the
while the outer portion consists of rather delicate rime
accretion to an increase in liquid water content, with
feathers. The principal differences between these two
constant airspeed. Thus once again, the liquid water
cases are that when the liquid water content is very
flux behaves as a rough qualitative similarity parameter.
low (0.13 g m-3), the rime feathers are more delicate
As an example of this, one may observe the similarity
in appearance, while the central portion of the deposit
between the deposits grown at 30.5 m s"1 and 0.8
g m~3 and 61 m s-' and 0.4 g m"3. is both very smooth and very clear. It is so clear in
fact that some individual ice crystals can be seen
At 61 m s"1 an increase in the liquid water content
embedded in it. These ice crystals are blown off the
makes the surface rougher, the icicle-like horns begin
tunnel cooling coils at high airspeeds and they circulate
to develop, enhancing the accretion's cross-sectional
around the tunnel. Their concentration, however, is
area normal to the free stream. At the same time, a
sufficiently low that it is likely they have a negligible
depression begins to appear at the forward stagnation
line. influence on the icing process. At a liquid water content
of 0.28 g m"3, the surface becomes pebbly with a flat
At 91.5 m s-1 and 0.4 g m"3 the deposit continues
front and a wide cross-section normal to the freestream.
to be glazy and pebbly, much like those grown at lower
The rime feathers are almost completely obliterated
airspeeds. However, as the liquid water content in
by the runback. The deposit shape is similar to that
creases at this airspeed, the ice begins to take on quite
grown at 122 m s~', -15°C and 1.2 g m~3. Finally,
a different character. Rather little ice growth occurs
at 0.65 g m~3, the deposit is very rough with a large
near the forward stagnation line, while a substantial,
central depression and horns which extend outward
open ice structure with a jagged appearance develops
into the flow.
around the 45° position on the circumference. An
interesting feature of the ice grown at 91.5 m s"1 and
0.8 g m"3 were long pointed, isolated protuberances d. Time lapse films
(some about 1 cm long) which develop almost per
pendicular to the flow. The precise growth mechanism No detailed analysis of the time lapse films has been
of these protuberances cannot be inferred from their undertaken. However, a few pertinent qualitative ob
servations based on these films will be mentioned here.
o
First, the time lapse films indicate that the direction
of growth of the accretions is predominantly forward.
In those cases where rime feathers develop along the
edges of the deposit, their initial growth direction is
canted outwards, but after a few minutes they usually
begin to grow inwards. Likewise, depressions in the
stagnation area bounded by horns also appear to de
velop inwards, so that the width of the depression di
minishes with time. Another significant impression
gained from the time lapse films is that the general
character of the deposit seems to be established in the
first 30 to 60 s, and that subsequent growth over a few
minutes tends to maintain this general character, al
though, as already noted, the details may change. This
result suggests that despite the effect which shape
changes may have on the detailed growth mechanics
and thermodynamics of the accretion, it may not be
unreasonable to extrapolate the initial growth rates
and character in order to estimate the subsequent
growth, at least as long as the deposit cross-sectional F
area remains small with respect to that of the cylinder

(a few minutes in these cases).
Fig.
Fig. 6. A6.
comparison
A comparison
between some representative
between experimental
some representative experimental
5. Comparison with model predictions
accretion
accretionprofilesprofiles
and profiles predicted
and profiles
by the icingpredicted
model described by the icing model described
Figure 6 presents a comparison between some repininPartPart

I. The I.model
The predictions
model werepredictions
performed using the
werepseudoperformed using the pseudo
time
timedependent extrapolationextrapolation
dependent technique. The conditions are (A) -15°, The conditions are (A) -15°,
technique.
resentative experimental accretion profiles and profiles30.5
30.5m s-1,
m0.40
s-1,
g m-3,
0.405.0 min,
g m-3,
Fig. 2a, b;5.0
(B) -15°C,
min, 122Fig.
m s"', 2a, b; (B) -15°C, 122 m s"',
predicted by the icing model described in Part I. The
0.44
0.44g m"3,
g m"3,
2.5 min, Fig.
2.52a,min,b; (D) -8°C,
Fig.110 2a,
m s"',b;
0.65(D)
g m"3,
-8°C, 110 m s"', 0.65 g m~3,
model predictions were performed using the pseudo5.0 5.0min,
min,
Fig. 4; (F)
Fig.-5°C,4;91.5(F)
m s"',
-5°C,
0.38 g m'3,
91.5 4.0 m
min,s"',
Fig. 3a,
0.38 g m'3, 4.0 min, Fig. 3a,
time dependent extrapolation technique referred to in b;b;(G)(G)
—5°C,—5°C,
91.5 m s"1,91.5
1.17 g m
m"3,s~', 1.17
4.0 min, Fig. g
3a, m-3,
b. 4.0 min, Fig. 3a, b.
Part I. Lozowski et al. (1979) present comparisons
with model predictions made using a single time step.
Generally, the pseudo-time dependent predictions give min), the model growth appears to have the right qual
superior estimates of the accretion shape (though thereitative appearance. However, it overpredicts the growth
are exceptions), but we have used this method hereat the stagnation line, a result which is not too sur
chiefly because it provides a better mass estimate. The prising in view of the fact that the sideward developing
case letters are identical to those used in Part I. In case lobes and the stagnation line hollow will probably re
A (-15°C, 30.5 m s-1, 0.40 g m"3, 5.0 min), the ex duce the actual collision efficiency at the stagnation
perimental and model profiles are in very good agree line with time, whereas the model assumes it to be
ment. This is partly because the growth is dry andconstant. The model on the other hand underpredicts
partly because its shape would not be expected to dras the growth of the lobes and overpredicts the growth
tically alter the air-flow around the cylinder. In caseat the back of the lobes. These deficiencies likely arise
B (-15°C, 122 m s-1, 0.44 g m"3, 2.5 min), the agreefrom the same cause. By underestimating the heat
ment is not quite as good. The stagnation growth
transfer from the lobes, we observe that insufficient
thicknesses are quite comparable and the existence of
runback water is frozen on the lobes themselves,
horns in both accretions is apparent. However, thethereby underpredicting their growth, and too much
model underpredicts the growth thickness in the rime runback water consequently flows around the lobes to
feather region near the edge of the deposit. This is notfreeze on the back side. In the experiments, probably
surprising, since the model assumes a constant ice den little runback water flows around the lobes, partly be
sity of 890 kg m~3, whereas the density of the rime cause of shedding at the lobe tip and partly because
feathers will probably be considerably less. Unfortuof the wake circulation which is likely to establish itself
nately, no way has yet been found to parameterize the behind the lobe. Similar effects can be noted in case
variation of ice density around the cylinder in theG (—5°C, 91.5 m s"', 1.17 g m-3, 4.0 min). Here,
model. Attempts by Oleskiw (1982) to use Macklin'showever, the lobes are very spiked, and the model is
( 1962) formulation for ice density were not very suc quite incapable of simulating this type of three-di
cessful, although Bain and Gayet (1983) report greater mensionality. Thus it is not reasonable in this case to
success. In case D (-8°C, 110 m s"1, 0.65 g m"3, 5.0 compare the model profile with a single experimental
profile. It would be more appropriate to compare it

with the average of an ensemble of experimental pro
files taken near the center of the tunnel. Unfortunately,
this was not done. In case F (-5°C, 91.5 m s"1, 0.38
g m-3, 4.0 min), the stagnation line growth seems to
be reasonably well predicted but the lobes are over
predicted and the width and flatness of the stagnation
line hollow are not well accounted for. The model
clearly cannot handle the details of time dependent
effects well in this type of glaze icing with large runback
water fluxes.
Figure 7 compares the model predicted and exper
imental cross-sectional areas of accretions A, B, D, F,
and G. This illustrates that although the model may
fail in predicting the details of the accretion shape,
especially in the wet cases, the total cross-sectional
area, and hence by inference the mass (provided that
STAGNATION LINE TH
the constant density assumption is valid), are reason
ably well-predicted if the pseudo-time dependentFig.Fig. 8. A comparison between
8. the observed
Astagnation comparison
line ice be
thickness
thickness
and the observed accretion cross-sectional area
and for cases the observe
scheme is used. The reason for this remarkable agree
A, B,
A, D, F, G. The B,
conditions areD,given in the F,
caption to Fig.G. 6. The condit
ment may be that as in the model, the total water
collection rate may not vary much with time in nature.
This result needs further verification, but one can see
that it might come about if the total collision efficiency
sufficient to demonstrate that a single simple relation
goes down as the total collision cross section increases,
between total accretion area and stagnation line ac
thereby yielding a constant water catch rate. Of course
cretion thickness does not appear to exist for all con
total loss of runback water to the airstream would have
ditions. On the other hand, there is a suggestion at
to remain constant as well. This hypothesis too needsleast that the three extremely wet cases (F, G, D) follow
further verification. one linear relation, while the two drier cases (A, B)
In some' models of icing (Makkonen, 1981, formay exfollow another. Thus using stagnation line growth
ample) the ice accretion rate at the stagnation line is overall growth must be done circumspectly,
to predict
used as a surrogate for the total ice accretion rate on by separating dry and wet cases. There is
possibly
the cylinder. Fig. 8 compares the experimental clearlyice a need for more work in this area. Nevertheless,
thickness at the stagnation line with the total accretion
it is appropriate to consider here how well the model
cross-sectional area for the same five cases already con
predicts the stagnation line growth rate. Figs. 9 and
sidered. Although the data points are sparse, they are
10 are illustrative of the model and experimental results
at — 15°C and —5°C, for a liquid water content of 0.8
5
g m~3. At lower and higher liquid water contents, sim
ilar qualitative behavior is observed and so these results
are not presented.
At -15°C, the model predicts the stagnation growth
4
rate well for the dry case, but underpredicts in the wet
"eu
cases by about 15-20% (Fig. 9). One could postulate
several hypotheses to explain this discrepancy. One
Z
possibility is that the heat transfer coefficient used in
0
►—
the model is too low. An alternative hypothesis is that
the model density is too high. Finally, one could also
LU
OL
U 2
< explain this result if the ice at the stagnation line were
UJ
a
spongy (List, 1959) incorporating some unfrozen liquid
O water within the ice matrix. It isn't apparent which of
these explanations is correct or whether indeed they
may all be wrong. A careful investigation of the local
ice density at the stagnation line, would help to resolve
o the problem. In any event, the qualitative behavior of
the model seems about right. It predicts an almost
n k «a/)s1 nr\A ovruirimpntc linear rise of growth rate with airspeed for rime, while
Fig.Fig.
7. A comparison of the7. model-predicted
A andcomparison
experimentally of the model-predicted an
measured
measured
cross-sectional area for the accretions of cases
cross-sectional
A, B, D, F, in glaze conditions
area there is littlefor
variation of thethe
growth accretions
G. The
G. conditionsThe
are given in the caption
conditions
to Fig. 6. are rategiven
with airspeed at this temperature.
in the The experi caption to F
2) If the icing is to be properly modeled, this vari

ation around the cylinder must be taken into account.
It is not reasonable to simply extrapolate the growth
conditions at the stagnation line. Surface runback of
water, the variation of the collision efficiency and heat
transfer around the cylinder and the time-dependent
feedback between the growing accretion and the air
stream are all significant phenomena which should be
incorporated into any useful prediction model.
3) Dry accretions (deposit surface temperature be
low 0°C and no runback water) are generally char
acterized by a smooth, white appearance, with low
density rime feathers developing near the impingement
limits. The accretion shape is lenticular with maximum
growth rate at the stagnation line.
4) Wet accretions (deposit surface temperature 0°C
with runback, at least over part of the cylinder's forward
surface) are generally characterized by a stagnation
line depression, bounded by lobes (horned growth)
resulting from the freezing of runback water.
Fig.
Fig.9.9.
A A
comparison
comparison
of the of
model-predicted
the model-predicted
and observed stag
and observed stag
5) Generally good agreement was achieved between
nation
nation line
line
growth
growth
for the
for
three
theexperiments
three experiments
at -15°C and a at
nominal
-15°C and a nominal
the model predictions and the observations under dry
liquid
liquid water
watercontent
content
of 0.8 g
ofm"3
0.8(see
g Fig.
m"32a,(see
b). Fig. 2a, b).
growth conditions. However, the details of the model
predicted accretion profiles began to differ significantly
from the observed profiles when the growth conditions
mental points tend to confirm this qualitative were wet. predic
Even the stagnation line growth is not always
tion at least. well predicted by the model. Some improvement in
Figure 10 presents an equivalent comparison for can be achieved, however, by using
the model profiles
accretion at -5°C. Here all four cases are wet at the the pseudo-time dependent extrapolation technique in
stagnation line and, as at — 15°C, the model under the model. In spite of the model errors in predicting
predicts the growth rate, at least at airspeeds belowthe details of the accretion shapes, the accretion cross
about 80 m s"1. However, at higher airspeeds where sectional area is quite well predicted by the model
the aerodynamic heating term's influence is strong, under both wet and dry conditions. In all cases, except
the model overpredicts the growth rate. In these cases,
G, all of the impinging water freezes somewhere on
the explanation of the discrepancy cannot rely exclu the cylinder so that the success of the model here reflects
sively on a density error in the model. Rather, it may its proper calculation of the overall collision efficiency.
be the result of a lag between the droplet temperature The successful prediction of the accretion area in case
and the air temperature, or perhaps the heat transferG as well suggests that the overall model heat transfer
coefficient, which enters the sensible, latent and aerois also reasonably well simulated. If the model as
dynamic heat flux terms, may be in error. The rather sumption of a constant ice density of 890 kg m~3 is
poor performance of the model in predicting stagnation correct, this presumably means that the model will
line growth contrasts with the much better predictions also be quite good at predicting the accretion mass.
of total accretion cross-section area. This in turn il No direct comparison between model-predicted and
lustrates the importance of modelling the entire growth
measured masses were made, however.
and not merely the stagnation line development. 6) The reasonable success of the model in predicting
ice accretions under aircraft icing conditions may not
6. Summary and conclusions
Based on the cylinder icing experiments and a com

parison with model predictions, we make the following
conclusions and recommendations:
1) The icing of non-rotating cylinders is funda

mentally different from that of rotating cylinders in
asmuch as there is no rotational symmetry of the ice
accretion about the axis of rotation. Thus the details
of the accretion may vary considerably from the stag
Fig. 10. A comparison of the model-predicted and observed stag
nation line outwards to the position of maximum icing nation line growth for the three experiments at -5°C and a nominal
extent.
liquid water content of 0.8 g rrT3 (see Fig. 3a, b).
2074 JOURNAL OF CLIMATE AND APPLIED METEOROLOGY VOLUME 22
necessarily be extrapolated to the lower speed, and REFERENCES
sometimes warmer icing conditions typical of land

based structural icing (e.g., power lines). The
Auld, H., effects
1980: The thermodynamics of icing sprays. M.Sc. th
Universityand
of larger drops (e.g., freezing rain), gravity of Alberta,
ice 107 pp.
Bain, M., and J. F. Gayet, 1983: Contribution to the modelli
induced motion of the cylinder would have to be in
the ice accretion process: ice density variation with the impa
corporated. Moreover, because these icingsurfaceincidents
angle. Proc., First Int. Workshop on Atmospheric I
are frequently of long duration, a model of
with full time
Structures. CRREL, Hanover, NH, 13-20.
dependence, properly taking into account
List, the feedback
R., 1959: Wachstum von Eis-Wassergemischen in Hag
suchskanal. needs
between the growing accretion and the airstream, Heb. Phys. Acta, 32, 293-296.
, 1961: Physical
to be developed. Nevertheless, in the absence of suchmethods and instruments for characteri
hailstones. Bull. Amer. Meteor. Soc., 42, 451-465.
a model, the present model, if employed with circum
, 1977: Ice accretions on structures. J. Glaciol. 19, 375-3
spection, should be useful in making Lozowski, initial E. estimates
P., J. R. Stallabrass and P. F. Hearty, 1979: The
of icing under a fairly wide range of conditions. of an unheated, non-rotating cylinder in liquid water dro
ice crystal clouds. National Research Council of Canada
Acknowledgments. One of the authors (EPL) 61
LTR-LT-96, is pp.
in[Available from NRCC, Ottawa, Cana
debted to the National Research Council of Canada K1A0R6.]
Macklin, W. C., 1962: The density and structure of ice forme
and to the University of Alberta, which jointly, through
the provision of a study leave program, made it possible accretion. Quart. J. Roy. Meteor. Soc., 88, 30-50.
for him to become involved with this work. While Makkonen, L., 1981 : Estimating intensity of atmospheric ice acc
on stationary structures. J. Appl. Meteor., 20, 595-600.
most of the research described was funded by the Na
Oleskiw, M. M., 1982: A computer simulation of time-depen
tional Research Council, some funding was also re rime icing on airfoils. Ph.D. thesis, University of Alberta,
ceived from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Re pp.
search Council under Grant A8168. The authors wish Stallabrass, J. R., 1978: An appraisal of the single rotating cylinder
to thank Ms. L. Smith who typed the manuscript and method of liquid water content measurement. National Research
Council of Canada Report LTR-LT-92, 21 pp. [Available from
Mr. G. Lester and his staff who prepared the illustra NRCC, Ottawa, Canada, K1A 0R6.]
tions. We are also pleased to acknowledge the helpfulSwift, R. D., 1978: Icing test facilities at the National Gas Turbine
comments of Dr. L. Makkonen and two anonymous Establishment. NATO AGARD Conf. Proc. No. 236—Icing
reviewers. Testing for Aircraft Engines, Pap. No. 4 [NTIS].

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American Meteorological Society is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and

The Icing of an Unheated, Nonrotating Cylinde

E. P. Lozowski,1 J. R. Stallabrass and P. F. Hear

(Manuscript received 23 February 1983, in final form 8 June 1983)

1. Introduction perature Laboratory, National Research Council of

used. Instead, the settling chamber static pressure (just

though unknown, is likely lower than theItsupply

Nevertheless, we can attempt to understand theperature

water to the surface temperature. As a result, the deposit

servations based on these films will be mentioned here.

area remains small with respect to that of the cylinder

Figure 6 presents a comparison between some repininPartPart

profile. It would be more appropriate to compare it

2) If the icing is to be properly modeled, this vari

Based on the cylinder icing experiments and a com

1) The icing of non-rotating cylinders is funda

necessarily be extrapolated to the lower speed, and REFERENCES

sometimes warmer icing conditions typical of land

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