AIAA JOURNAL

Vol. 51, No. 3, March 2013

Momentum Coefficient as a Parameter for Aerodynamic

Flow Control with Synthetic Jets

Sebastian D. Goodfellow∗
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
Serhiy Yarusevych†
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
and
Pierre E. Sullivan‡
University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario M5S 3G8, Canada
DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935
The influence of periodic excitation from synthetic jet actuators on boundary-layer separation and reattachment
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935

over a NACA 0025 airfoil at a low Reynolds number is studied. Flow-visualization results showed a vertical jet pulse
accompanied by two counter-rotating vortices being produced at the exit of the simulated slot, with the vortices shed at
the excitation frequency. Hot-wire measurements determined the maximum jet velocity for a range of excitation
frequencies and voltages, and were used to characterize the excitation amplitude in terms of the momentum coefficient
Cμ . With the synthetic jet actuator installed in the airfoil, flow-visualization results showed that excitation produces
boundary-layer reattachment, with the associated significant reduction in wake width. Wake-velocity measurements
were performed to characterize the effect of flow-control excitation amplitude and frequency on airfoil drag and wake
topology. The results demonstrate that Cμ is the primary governing flow-control parameter. Applying excitation
above a specific Cμ threshold produced a 50% reduction in drag, significantly affecting wake topology. However,
power consumption of a piezoelectric synthetic jet actuator depends substantially on the excitation frequency. Hence,
by varying excitation frequency, significant gains in efficiency are possible.

Nomenclature I. Introduction
b
Cd
CL
=
=
=
jet slot width, m
drag coefficient
lift coefficient
A ERODYNAMIC control of low-Reynolds-number flow using
synthetic jet actuation is of interest to a wide range of applica-
tions including the design and operation of unmanned aerial vehicles
Cμ = momentum coefficient at low speeds, separation control at the inlets of jet engines [1], and
c = chord length, m the design of compressor blades [2–5].
Euu = energy spectrum of streamwise component Periodic excitation introduced locally at the surface has shown the
F
= dimensionless excitation frequency, fe L∕Uo most promise as an efficient and practical means of flow control [6].
fe = excitation frequency, Hz Much work has been done to identify optimum frequency ranges for
fs = wake vortex shedding frequency, Hz producing reattachment of a separated shear layer using synthetic jets
Ij = time-averaged jet momentum per unit length during the [7,8]. There are two distinct frequency bands that have received the
outstroke, N∕m most attention. The first range includes the dominant wake fre-
L = distance between the separation point and the trailing quency, otherwise known as the shedding frequency fs, and the
edge, m second range involves frequencies that are at least an order of
Rec = chord-based Reynolds number magnitude higher than fs . In their review, Greenblatt and Wygnanski
T = period of diaphragm motion, s [9] found that, except for one, all studies showed an optimum
U
= average velocity, m∕s dimensionless excitation-frequency range of 1 ≤ F
≤ 2.5, in which
Uo = freestream velocity, m∕s F
 fe L=Uo . In contrast, Amitay et al. [10] found that dimen-
uj t = phase-averaged velocity at the jet exit plane, m∕s sionless frequencies an order of magnitude higher than the natural
V app = applied voltage, V shedding frequency are, in fact, more effective. Amitay et al. [10]
V p-p = peak-to-peak voltage, V suggest that the use of different excitation methods may be the cause
x, y = streamwise, lateral spatial coordinates, m for the drastically different results. When exciting flow over a
α = angle of attack, deg frequency range of 0 Hz ≤ fe ≤ 1480 Hz [10–12], internally
ρj = jet density, kg∕m3 mounted audio speakers were used for 0 Hz ≤ fe ≤ 300 Hz, and
ρo = freestream fluid density, kg∕m3 compact piezoceramic actuators were used for 300 Hz ≤ fe ≤
τ = half-period of diaphragm motion, s 1480 Hz. For fe ≤ 300 Hz, the jets driven by audio speakers were
spanwise uniform, but, for fe ≥ 300 Hz, their performance was
Received 13 March 2012; revision received 12 July 2012; accepted for greatly reduced both in the presence and absence of crossflow. In fact,
publication 13 July 2012; published online 22 November 2012. Copyright © in the presence of crossflow, the jet velocity reduced by more than
2012 by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. All 80%, which greatly diminished performance. Therefore, a spanwise
rights reserved. Copies of this paper may be made for personal or internal use, uniform piezoelectric actuator, with a small cavity tuned to high
on condition that the copier pay the $10.00 per-copy fee to the Copyright frequencies, was used for fe ≥ 300 Hz.
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923; include Amitay et al. [12] show that low-frequency excitation, within the
the code 1533-385X/12 and $10.00 in correspondence with the CCC. range of fs , and high-frequency excitation, an order of magnitude
*Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 5 King’s College
Road; sebi.goodfellow@mail.utoronto.ca.
higher than fs , have distinctly different effects on the separated shear
†
Department of Mechanical and Mechatronics Engineering, 200 University layer. At excitation frequencies close to fs , the separated shear layer
Avenue West; syarus@uwaterloo.ca. is deflected toward the surface and a vortex trail can be seen advecting
‡ along the airfoil surface. These vortices persist well into the trailing-
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, 5 King’s College
Road; sullivan@mie.utoronto.ca. edge region of the airfoil, gaining strength as they are advected
623
 624 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN
downstream due to a possible coupling between the excitation
frequency and the shedding frequency. At dimensionless frequencies
at least an order of magnitude higher than fs , the flow was fully
attached to the surface of the airfoil and there was no sign of large-
scale coherent structures. Amitay et al. [12] suggest that the effect of
high-frequency excitation is the alteration of flow upstream of the
separation point and ultimately a suppression or bypass of separation.
In addition to the excitation frequency, there are three important
design parameters, namely, excitation location, excitation amplitude,
and number of excitation jets [9,11,13]. For the excitation location, it
is suggested that excitation is more effective when introduced
upstream of separation, but there are no consistent recommendations
for the most effective placement of actuators. The findings of Amitay
et al. [10] illustrate the complexity of the problem when excitation
frequency is introduced as a variable. With actuators located at the
most upstream position and excitation applied at fe  246 and
740 Hz, excitation had virtually no effect on the pressure distribution
over the airfoil. On the other hand, actuators at the same position and
excitation at fe  71 Hz resulted in flow reattachment and the
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935
formation of a separation bubble. Investigating the effect of excitation
amplitude with external acoustic excitation, Yarusevych et al. [14]
showed that lift increases with increasing sound-pressure level, but
this increase is checked. The same trend was observed in studies
involving synthetic jets, in which the excitation amplitude is
commonly characterized by the momentum coefficient Cμ . The third
design parameter is the number of synthetic jet actuators (SJAs). In
some earlier studies, only one synthetic jet was used (e.g., [9]); Smith
and Glezer [15] showed that two adjacent and out-of-phase jets are
more effective in the entrainment of freestream fluid for jet-vectoring
applications.
This paper studies the effect of input power (correlated to SJA exit
velocity), excitation frequency of the SJA, and input voltage on flow
over an airfoil operating at a Reynolds number of 100,000 and an
angle of attack of 5 deg to show that it is possible to minimize power
requirements.
II. Experimental Apparatus and Method
A. Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Model
This study examines the performance of a NACA 0025 airfoil at a
chord-based Reynolds number Rec of 100,000 and an angle of attack
α of 5 deg. The NACA 0025 airfoil, which can be seen in Fig. 1, has a
chord length c of 30 cm and a thickness of 7.5 cm. All experiments
were conducted in a low-turbulence recirculating wind tunnel at the
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering at the
University of Toronto. The test section is 5 m long, 0.91 m wide, and
1.22 m high with both the upper and side walls constructed from
Lexan for operational and visualization purposes. The flow enters the
test section through seven screens and a 9∶1 contraction. The
operating velocity Uo is adjustable from 2.8 to 18 m∕s, with a
freestream turbulence-intensity level less than 0.1%. During the
experiments, the freestream velocity was monitored using a pitot
tube, with an uncertainty estimated to be less than 2.5%, and the angle
of attack was set using a digital protractor, with an uncertainty of
0.1 deg. The airfoil was mounted horizontally in the wind tunnel,
0.4 m downstream of the contraction. All hot-wire measurements
were taken using a three-dimensional traverse system, which
Y from the anemometer was low-pass filtered at 2.5 kHz, and then
300 mm
101 mm
Uo
X 1∕2ρo U2o c
75mm
α
Fig. 1 Airfoil model.
positions hot-wire probes with an accuracy of 0.3 mm along
each axis.
B. Synthetic Jet Actuator
Piezoelectric actuators produced by Face International Corpo-
ration were used for the SJA. The Thunder actuator (model: TH-5C)
is a composite unimorph ferroelectric driver and sensor that was
developed at the NASA Langley Research Center. The actuator is
rated for a maximum voltage of
420 V and a minimum voltage
of −210 V, and reaches a maximum deflection of approximately
0.17 mm at an applied voltage of 420 V p-p . The piezoelectric
actuators are driven by a high-voltage amplifier with a gain of 100 and
a maximum output of 400 V p-p at 250 mA. The input signal is created
by a GW Instek GFG-8216A function generator and is monitored
using a Tektronix 465 oscilloscope. The SJA is composed of three
parts (top, middle, and bottom plates), all machined out of aluminum.
The total cavity volume of the SJA is approximately 678 mm3.
Small grooves were milled out of the middle plate and the bottom
plate to serve as conduits for electric wiring (Fig. 2c). A pocket
was milled out from the top of the airfoil to allow for the SJA
to be flush mounted with the surface. The exposed surface of the
SJA was machined to match the curvature of the airfoil. The exit
slot of the SJA measured 140 × 0.5 mm, and is located 101 mm
downstream of the leading edge, as seen in Fig. 1. A separation point
of x∕c  0.3 (Rec  100; 000, α  5 deg) was determined from
surface-pressure measurements by Yarusevych et al. [16].
C. Flow Visualization
To visualize the airfoil boundary-layer development and wake
formation, a smoke-wire technique was employed [17]. A steel wire
installed 10 cm upstream of the leading edge was manually coated
with a commercial glycerol-based smoke-generating liquid. The
liquid was evaporated by electrically heating the wire using a variable
transformer (0–130 V), which produced clear streaklines in the flow.
A 0.076-mm 304 stainless-steel wire was chosen to provide adequate
smoke density while not introducing measurable disturbances into
the flowfield, in which the corresponding Reynolds number was less
than 40 for all the cases examined. Images were acquired using a
Nikon D70s digital SLR camera at a rate of four frames per second.
A flat black cloth was used as a backdrop to improve photograph
contrast. The smoke was illuminated using a wireless high-speed
flash (Nikon SB-800 Speedlight), which was positioned downstream
of the airfoil. Flow visualization was also conducted in a quiescent
environment along the length of the 140 mm SJA exit slot at the center
points of each piezoelectric diaphragm where the highest velocities
were observed. The smoke wire, which was positioned perpendicular
to the exit slot at the four center locations, was anchored on one side
of the exit slot while the free end was attached to a steel weight to
prevent sagging during heating.
D. Data Acquisition and Analysis
Flow-velocity data were obtained with constant-temperature
anemometers (Dantec 56C01 main units equipped with 56C17 CTA
bridges) and a Dantec 55P01 normal hot-wire probe. Hot-wire and
input-voltage signals were sampled simultaneously using a National
Instruments 4472 24-bit digital acquisition board. The output signal
sampled at 5 kHz. Hot-wire probes were calibrated before and after
every experiment by means of a Dantec 55D90 calibration unit. The
synthetic jet was characterized using the momentum coefficient Cμ ,
as defined by Amitay et al. [10]:
I
j
Cμ  (1)
in which I j is the time-averaged jet momentum per unit length during
the outstroke, ρo is the freestream fluid density, c is the chord, and Uo
is the freestream velocity.
 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN 625
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935

Fig. 2 SJA model.

Z τ
1 the smoke wire positioned perpendicular to the exit slot at the center
I
j  ρj b u2j tdt (2)
τ 0
of the piezoelectric diaphragms. When the SJA is operated at an
excitation frequency of 750 Hz, small jet pulses accompanied by two
in which τ  T∕2, T is the period of the diaphragm motion, ρj is the counter-rotating vortices are produced. As the excitation frequency is
jet density, b is the jet slot width, and uj t is the phase-averaged increased to 800 Hz, the characteristic size of vortices increases from
velocity at the jet exit plane. roughly 1.25 to approximately 3.5 mm. It was not possible to conduct
The airfoil drag was estimated based on the momentum integral flow visualization at higher excitation frequencies because of high
[18] as jet velocities and a limited shutter speed. Similar counter-rotating
vortices produced by a synthetic jet were observed in previous inves-
Z

2 y2 U
U
tigations (e.g., Smith and Swift [19], Zhong et al. [20], Zhang and Tan
Cd  1− dy (3) [21], Holman et al. [22], and Yang [23]).
c y1 Uo Uo
Hot-wire measurements were taken at the SJA exit plane with the
A spectral analysis was performed to identify organized flow wire positioned parallel to the slot. The velocity data were phase
structures in the wake and determine their characteristics. For each averaged over a full 360 deg period of the piezoelectric diaphragms.
spectrum, 220 velocity data points were acquired in the wake at The velocity profile for fe  935 Hz and Cμ  1.21 × 10−2 is
x=c  2, and were then divided into 256 segments of 4096 data shown in Fig. 4a. The results show that the peak velocity of expul-
points. The autospectra of individual segments were computed and sion occurs at ϕ  100 deg, and the peak velocity of ingestion
then averaged. corresponds to ϕ  275 deg. The peak velocity of expulsion is
16.65 m∕s, and the peak velocity of ingestion is −16.3 m∕s.
The momentum coefficient Cμ was calculated using Eq. (1) for a
frequency range of fe  50–1200 Hz and an applied-voltage range
III. Results of V app  50–275 V p-p . Figure 4b shows Cμ as a function of fe for
A. Synthetic Jet Actuator Characterization V app  50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 275 V p-p . For a fixed applied voltage,
Flow-visualization images were taken at excitation frequencies Cμ initially increases with fe , reaching a maximum at approximately
fe  500, 600, 700, 750, 800, and 900 Hz for an applied voltage V app fe  935 Hz. The maximum output for this SJA is obtained with
of 200 V p-p . Figure 3 shows flow-visualization images obtained with fe  935 Hz and V app  275 V p-p , which gives a jet velocity of
 626
a) fe = 750Hz, Cµ = 9:064 × 10 −4
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935
18
16
14
Vj , Phase Averaged [m/s]
12
10
8 0.006
6
4
2 0.002
0
0 50 100 150 200
ϕ [degrees]
a) Phase averaged jet velocity for fe = 935 Hz and
Cµ = 1.21 × 10−2 (averaged over 1 deg window)
16.65 m∕s and a momentum coefficient of Cμ  1.2 × 10−2 .
The momentum coefficients obtained with the present SJA are
comparable to those reported in previous studies (e.g., Amitay et al.
[10]). For fe  935 Hz, V app  275 V p-p (Fig. 4a), the minimum
velocity is 3.03 m∕s, which implies the fluid does not reach a zero-
velocity state between the ingestion and expulsion stages of the
diaphragm cycle, contrary to the observations of Mane et al. [24].
This is attributed to the fact that the hot-wire probe was positioned in
the center of the 0.5-mm-wide slot. If the velocity was averaged over
the slot width, it is likely that a zero-velocity state between ingestion
and expulsion would be observed. Because of the limited resolution
of the traverse system, this was not possible in the current study.
Hot-wire measurements were taken at nine equally spaced
positions along the length of the 140 mm slot (0, 15.4, 33.6, 51.8, 70,
88.2, 106.4, 124.6, and 140 mm) to check flow uniformity. For all
excitation levels, the variation in velocity along the slot width was less
than 1.0 m∕s, with local maxima observed at locations above the
center of each diaphragm and local minima located between adjacent
diaphragms.
B. Constant Excitation Frequency–Variable Input Voltage
The SJA was installed in the NACA 0025 airfoil, and a series of
flow-control experiments were performed in the wind tunnel. For the
results presented in this section, the excitation frequency fe was held
constant at 935 Hz, whereas Cμ was increased from 3.23 × 10−4 to
1.2 × 10−2 by increasing the applied voltage from 50 to 275V p-p . The
GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN
b) fe = 800Hz, Cµ = 1:621 × 10 −3
Fig. 3 Flow visualization at the SJA slot exit.
0.014
0.012
0.01
0.008
Cµ
0.004
250 300 350 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
fe [Hz]
b) Momentum coefficient Cµ, 50 Vp-p(º), 100 Vp-p(∗), 150 Vp-p(∇),
200 Vp-p(×), 250 Vp-p(∆) 275 Vp-p(+)
Fig. 4 SJA characteristics at the slot exit.
investigated excitation frequency (fe  935 Hz) corresponds to a
dimensionless frequency of F
≈ 40, in which F
 fe L∕Uo and
L is the distance between the separation point and the trailing edge
[11]. Mean-velocity profiles were obtained by traversing the airfoil
wake in the y direction two chords downstream from the trailing edge
(x∕c  2). The origin of the coordinate system used for the wake-
velocity profiles is at the trailing edge of the airfoil, with the y axis
perpendicular to the streamwise direction.
Figures 5a–5f are a series of flow-visualization images obtained
with the smoke wire positioned 10 cm upstream from the leading
edge and centered along the length of the SJA slot in the z direction.
The images suggest that increasing the momentum coefficient
decreases the wake width and shifts the wake downward. Also, this is
accompanied by the reduction in the length scale of coherent
structures forming in the airfoil wake. However, the trends are not
monotonic, with rapid changes in wake topology observed as Cμ is
increased from 1.56 × 10−3 to 3.09 × 10−3 . To quantify the observed
trends, wake-velocity measurements are considered. Figures 6a–6g
are mean-velocity profiles pertaining to a range of excitation
amplitudes tested in the present investigation. Figure 6a is the
baseline mean wake-velocity profile without excitation. For the
uncontrolled flow, the wake has a width of Δy∕c  0.58 and a peak-
velocity deficit of U∕Uo  0.87 located at y∕c  0.27. As Cμ is
increased from 3.23 × 10−4 to 1.56 × 10−3 , there is no significant
change in the velocity profile (see Figs. 5a–5c). However, increasing
Cμ to 3.09 × 10−3 produces a significant reduction in wake width
(Fig. 6d). The location of the maximum velocity deficit is shifted
 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN
a) Uncontrolled
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935
c) C µ =1.56 × 10−3
e) C µ =6.76 × 10−3
Fig. 5 Flow visualization at Rec
100 × 103 and α
5 deg for f e
935 Hz with a single upstream smoke wire.
down from y∕c  0.27 to y∕c  0.058, and the wake width
decreases from Δy∕c  0.58 to 0.42. When Cμ is increased to
6.76 × 10−3 , a more moderate decrease in wake width is produced,
and the maximum velocity deficit is further shifted toward the
origin (Fig. 6e). Further increases in momentum coefficient, Cμ 
1.0 × 10−2 and Cμ  1.2 × 10−2 , produce no appreciable changes in
the velocity profiles.
Figure 7 is the variation of the drag coefficient Cd normalized by
the baseline drag coefficient Cd0 with the momentum coefficient
Cμ (note the power scale is only for the data obtained in the present
study). Also shown in Fig. 7 are the results from Yarusevych et al.
[25], who investigated the effect of external acoustic excitation in the
same facility using the same airfoil. To enable design estimates, input
power per centimeter of airfoil span is provided in Fig. 7 for the
experimental conditions investigated in the present study. Agreeing
with flow visualizations, the data pertaining to the present study
show that a substantial decrease in drag is attained only when
synthetic jet actuation is applied at a sufficiently high amplitude. In
particular, increasing Cμ to 3.09 × 10−3 produces a sharp reduction in
drag of roughly 53%. When Cμ is increased to 6.76 × 10−3 , Cd =Cd0 is
decreased to 0.36. Increasing the momentum coefficient further
(Cμ  1.0 × 10−2 and Cμ  1.2 × 10−2 ) produces no significant
effect. The maximum drag reduction achieved in this study is
approximately 66% for an input power of 0.21 W∕cm2 . It is
interesting to note that experimental data from [25] exhibit a similar
trend, although external acoustic excitation has a lower control
627
b) C µ =3.23 × 10−4
d) C µ =3.09 × 10−3
f) C µ =1.0 × 10−2
authority compared to SJA. A comparison of actuator power inputs
and the resulting drag reductions suggests that the most effective
actuator performance is expected within the range of excitation
amplitudes producing the observed sharp decrease in drag (e.g.,
Cμ  3.09 × 10−3 to 6.76 × 10−3 for the SJA investigated in the
present study.
It is possible to gain insight into the effect of actuation on
separated shear-layer development by visualizing the separated flow
region. Figure 8 shows flow-visualization images obtained with the
smoke wire positioned a few millimeters downstream of the trailing
edge. When no excitation is applied, boundary-layer separation
occurs near the leading edge and the separated shear layer fails to
reattach, so that the reverse-flow region is visualized by the entrained
smoke (Fig. 8a). Although it cannot be deduced from flow visuali-
zation whether excitation causes formation of a small separation
bubble or entirely suppresses laminar separation at the leading edge,
the results demonstrate that the significant decrease in drag observed
at Cμ  3.09 × 10−3 is attributed to the significant shift in the separa-
tion location toward the trailing edge (Fig. 8b). As the amplitude of
excitation is increased to Cμ  6.76 × 10−3 (Fig. 8c), the separation
occurs just upstream of the trailing edge, so that further increase of the
excitation amplitude does not produce any significant improvement
in airfoil performance.
The flow-visualization images in Fig. 5 suggest that excitation
has a significant effect on wake topology and, in particular, on
coherent structures. To investigate the effect of flow excitation on the
 628 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN

0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2

y/c

y/c

y/c

y/c
0 0 0 0

−0.2 −0.2 −0.2 −0.2

Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935

−0.4 −0.4 −0.4 −0.4

−0.6 −0.6 −0.6 −0.6

−0.8 −0.8 −0.8 −0.8

0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
U/Uo U/Uo U/Uo U/Uo

a) Uncontrolled b) C µ =3.23 × 10−4 c) C µ =1.56 × 10−3 d) C µ =3.09 × 10−3

0.8 0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 0.2

y/c

y/c

y/c

0 0 0

−0.2 −0.2 −0.2

−0.4 −0.4 −0.4

−0.6 −0.6 −0.6

−0.8 −0.8 −0.8

0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0.85 0.9 0.95 1 0.85 0.9 0.95 1
U/Uo U/Uo U/Uo

e) C µ =6.76 × 10−3 f) C µ =1.0 × 10−2 g) C µ =1.2 × 10−2

Fig. 6 Mean wake-velocity profiles at x∕c
2 for Rec
100 × 103 at α
5 deg, f e
935 Hz.

characteristics of coherent structures in the airfoil wake, wake-
velocity spectra were obtained at x=c  2 and fe  935 Hz (Fig. 9)
for a range of Cμ . For the uncontrolled case and when Cμ is small
(3.23 × 10−4 and 1.56 × 10−3 ), a spectral peak appears at 22 Hz
(Fig. 9). The corresponding flow visualizations (Figs. 5a–5c) suggest
that this frequency-centered activity is attributed to large-scale
vortices shed in the wake, with a vortex-shedding pattern resembling
that in bluff-body wakes (e.g., Williamson [26]). Increasing Cμ to
3.09 × 10−3 (Fig. 5d) diminishes and eventually flattens the spectral
peak at 22 Hz, with weaker spectral peaks appearing at higher
frequencies. This implies a significant reduction in the length scale
and coherence of wake structures, agreeing with the corresponding
flow visualization in Fig. 5d. At Cμ  6.76 × 10−3 , a weak broad
peak centered at about 50 Hz is detectable in the corresponding
velocity spectrum in Fig. 9. Further increasing Cμ to 1.0 × 10−2 locks
the frequency of wake coherent structures to 50 Hz, as evidenced by
the well-defined narrow peak in the corresponding spectrum. The
corresponding flow-visualization image in Fig. 5f shows that an
 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN 629

SPL [dB]
increase in excitation power does not lead to a proportional decrease
70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
1.1 in drag.
Yarusevych et al. [25]
Present Work C. Constant Input Voltage–Variable Excitation Frequency
1
In this section, the input voltage is held constant at 275 V p-p , and
0.9 the frequency of excitation fe is varied from 500 to 1500 Hz. As fe is
increased from 500 to 935 Hz, Cμ increases to a maximum value of
0.8 1.2 × 10−2 , and then decreases as fe is increased to 1500 Hz (Fig. 4b).
Figure 10 shows the wake-velocity spectra for all the excitation
Cd /C d0

0.7 frequencies investigated. Note that, for clarity, the amplitude of each
successive spectrum is stepped by one order of magnitude. When
0.6
excitation is applied at fe  500 and 600 Hz, there is no change in the
velocity spectra, and the spectral peak at 22 Hz is present for both
cases. A reduction in drag is first achieved at fe  650 Hz, and a new
0.5
spectral peak at 50 Hz is seen for an excitation frequency of 750 Hz.
For the excitation frequencies above fe  1050 Hz, the spectral
0.4
peak at 50 Hz is no longer observed. As the excitation frequency is
increased beyond 1200 Hz, the 22 Hz spectral peak reappears.
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935

0.3
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 The results in Fig. 10 agree with the previously observed trend
Cµ that the diminishment of the spectral peak, characteristic of wake
coherent structures, in the base flow correlates with the produced
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 decrease in drag. This is shown in Fig. 10 by the results over the
Power [W/cm] frequency range 650 Hz < fe < 1200 Hz (27 < F
< 50), corre-
Fig. 7 Drag coefficient, Cd , for increasing Cμ at f e
935 Hz, Rec
sponding to the largest momentum coefficients produced by the
100 × 103 and α
5 deg. The power scale is for data from the present studied SJA. The foregoing discussion suggests that the effectiveness
study. of internal SJA excitation is dependent on exceeding a momentum-
coefficient threshold, with no significant dependence on the
organized alternating shedding of vortices is reestablished in the frequency of excitation. Thus, with the excitation frequencies applied
wake at this excitation level. Comparing these observations with drag being significantly higher than those associated with the unexcited
data in Fig. 7, also included in Fig. 9 for convenience, shows that flow phenomena, the excitation mechanism appears to differ from
flattening of the spectral peak at 22 Hz for Cμ  3.09 × 10−3 that reported for external acoustic excitation, in which the effec-
corresponds to a 52% reduction in drag. Further increase in excitation tiveness of control was shown to depend on the excitation amplitude
amplitude eventually causes the wake frequency to lock in on a higher and the closeness of the excitation frequency to that of the most
value (50 Hz in the present study); however, the associated substantial amplified disturbances in the separated shear layer.

Fig. 8 Flow visualization at Rec
100 × 103 and α
5 deg for f e
935 Hz with a single downstream smoke wire.
 630 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN

5
10 for a given SJA. However, from the efficiency standpoint, the
excitation frequency is an important parameter, as it significantly
4
10
influences power consumption of a piezoelectric SJA. Figure 11
illustrates the main trends discussed in previous sections, and depicts
the relationship between the excitation frequency, Cμ , and power
3
10 Uncontrolled consumption. When the excitation frequency is held constant at
Cd = 0.0761
935 Hz, Cμ increases with input voltage as does the input power per
Cµ = 3.23 × 10−4 centimeter of airfoil span (W∕cm), which is shown on the right
2
10 Cd = 0.0761
vertical axis. When the input voltage is held constant at 275 V p-p , Cμ
Euu

Cµ = 1.56 × 10−3 varies parabolically with an excitation frequency, peaking near the
1
10 Cd = 0.0747 935 Hz which is in close correspondence to the Helmholz resonator
Cµ = 3.09 × 10−3 frequency of 883 Hz (Gallas et al. [27]). The dashed black line in
0
Cd = 0.036 Fig. 11 marks an approximate Cμ threshold that has to be exceeded
10
Cµ = 6.76 × 10−3 for an effective drag reduction, as determined from wake measure-
Cd = 0.0276 ments, and the dash–dot line identifies an approximate Cμ level
−1
10 Cµ = 1.0 × 10−2
beyond which no significant improvement in airfoil performance is
Cd = 0.0259 gained by increasing the excitation amplitude.
An important effect of excitation frequency on control efficiency is
1 2 3
illustrated using two data points marked in Fig. 11. They correspond
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935

10 10 10
Frequency [Hz] to approximately the same Cμ (2 × 10−3 ), but different fe (750 and
Fig. 9 Wake spectra of the streamwise fluctuating velocity component 1150 Hz). Figure 12 shows wake-velocity spectra pertaining to the
at x∕c
2 for increasing Cμ . Rec
100 × 103 at α
5 deg and selected data points as well as the baseline flow spectrum. The
f e
935 Hz. spectral results suggest that the spectral peak at 22 Hz, characterizing
coherent structures in unexcited flow, is flattened when excitation is
IV. Discussion
The results discussed so far suggest that excitation amplitude,
Power [W/cm] (excitation at constant Vapp , 275Vp-p )
characterized by the momentum coefficient, is the primary governing
control parameter for the SJA operating at high excitation frequencies 0.17 0.21 0.25 0.29 0.34 0.38 0.42 0.46 0.5
0.014
relative to those associated with the controlled flow. On the other Constant Excitation Frequency

, 935Hz)
hand, the main effect of excitation frequency is its influence on Cμ 0.012
Constant Applied Voltage
Min C µ threshold level

Power [w/cm] (excitation at constant f

0.01

fe = 1500Hz
25
-5/3 0.008
10
fe = 1450Hz
Cµ

0.2
fe = 1400Hz 0.006

fe = 1350Hz
0.004
fe = 1300Hz 0.12
fe = 1250Hz 0.002 0.05
20
10 fe = 1200Hz
0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
fe = 1150Hz fe [Hz]
fe = 1100Hz Fig. 11 Relation between Cμ , excitation frequency, and power
fe = 1050Hz requirements.
15
10 fe = 1000Hz
fe = 950Hz
5
10
fe = 935Hz
E uu

fe = 900Hz
4
fe = 850Hz 10
10
10 fe = 800Hz
3
fe = 750Hz 10
fe = 700Hz
fe = 650Hz 2
fe = 600Hz 10
Euu

5 fe = 500Hz
10 1
Unexcited 10

Effective Excitation
0
Range 10
Unexcited

0 10
−1
Cµ = 2.25 × 10−3
10
fs = 22Hz fs = 50Hz Cµ = 2.0 × 10−3

1 2 3 1 2 3
10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency [Hz] Frequency [Hz]
Fig. 10 Wake spectra of the streamwise fluctuating velocity component Fig. 12 Spectra of the streamwise fluctuating-velocity component at
for Rec
100 × 103 at α
5 deg. V app
275V p-p at x∕c
2. x∕c
2 and α
5 deg for Rec
100 × 103 .
 GOODFELLOW, YARUSEVYCH, AND SULLIVAN
applied at either of the two frequencies. Based on previously
discussed results, this indicates that applying excitation at this Cμ
leads to a substantial reduction in drag, with roughly equivalent
performance improvement for the two different frequencies.
However, for this momentum coefficient, applying excitation at
750 Hz requires approximately 40% less power than that required at
1150 Hz (Fig. 11).
V. Conclusions
A synthetic jet actuator (SJA) and its effect on the separated shear
layer and wake of a NACA 0025 airfoil were studied experimentally
for a Reynolds number of 100,000 and an angle of attack of 5 deg.
The SJA was first characterized in a quiescent flow and was shown
to have a resonant frequency of 935 Hz. The maximum attainable
jet velocity is 16.7 m∕s for fe  935 Hz and V app  275 V p-p . In the
absence of excitation, boundary-layer separation occurs on the airfoil
at approximately x∕c  0.1, and the separated shear layer fails to
reattach, forming a wide wake. The results show that applying
Downloaded by UNIVERSITY OF TENNESSEE on April 1, 2013 | http://arc.aiaa.org | DOI: 10.2514/1.J051935
excitation above a certain Cμ threshold results in flow reattachment,
significantly affecting wake topology. The initial increase in
excitation amplitude above the threshold level produces a significant
decrease in drag (≈50%), with the positive effect on airfoil
performance saturating at higher amplitudes. The performance gains
are accompanied by substantial changes in wake topology, namely,
the reduction of length scales and the increase in frequency of wake
coherent structures. Although the results suggest that Cμ is the
primary parameter governing the degree of improvement in airfoil
performance, the excitation frequency is also an important factor that
should be considered for the optimization of piezoelectric-based
SJAs because it affects substantially the power requirements of such
actuators.
Acknowledgments
The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Natural
Science and Engineering Research Council (NSERC) of Canada and
the assistance of Mark Feero on the frequency analysis.
References
[1] Mathis, R., Lebedev, A., Collin, E., Delville, J., and Bonnet, J.-P.,
“Experimental Study of Transient Forced Turbulent Separation and
Reattachment on a Bevelled Trailing Edge,” Experiments in Fluids,
Vol. 46, No. 1, 2008, pp. 131–146.
doi:10.1007/s00348-008-0549-6
[2] Benini, E., Biollo, R., and Ponza, R., “Efficiency Enhancement in
Transonic Compressor Rotor Blades Using Synthetic Jets: A Numerical
Investigation,” Applied Energy, Vol. 88, No. 3, 2011, pp. 953–962.
doi:10.1016/j.apenergy.2010.08.006
[3] Gompertz, K. A., and Bons, J. P., “Combined Unsteady Wakes and
Active Flow Control on a Low-Pressure Turbine Airfoil,” Journal of
Propulsion and Power, Vol. 27, No. 5, 2011, pp. 990–1000.
doi:10.2514/1.B34032
[4] Reimann, D., Bloxham, M., Pluim, J., and Bons, J. P., “Spanwise Wake
and Discrete Jet Disturbances on a Separating Turbine Blade,” Journal
of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 24, No. 6, 2008, pp. 1278–1286.
doi:10.2514/1.32008
[5] Sondergaard, R., Rivir, R. B., and Bons, J. P., “Control of Low-Pressure
Turbine Separation Using Vortex-Generator Jets,” Journal of
Propulsion and Power, Vol. 18, No. 4, 2002, pp. 889–895.
doi:10.2514/2.6014
[6] Cattafesta, L., and Sheplak, M., “Actuators for Active Flow Control,”
Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 43, No. 1, 2011, pp. 247–272.
doi:10.1146/annurev-fluid-122109-160634
[7] Bonnet, J. P., Siauw, W. L., Bourgois, S., and Tensi, J., “Influence of a
Synthetic Jet Excitation on the Development of a Turbulent Mixing
Layer,” International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow, Vol. 29, No. 4,
2008, pp. 957–966.
doi:10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2008.04.004
[8] Ozawa, T., Lesbros, S., and Hong, G., “LES of Synthetic Jets in
Boundary Layer with Laminar Separation Caused by Adverse Pressure
Gradient,” Computers & Fluids, Vol. 39, No. 5, 2010, pp. 845–858.
doi:10.1016/j.compfluid.2009.12.012
631
[9] Greenblatt, D., and Wygnanski, I. J., “The Control of Flow Separation
by Periodic Excitation,” Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Vol. 36, No. 7,
2000, pp. 487–545.
doi:10.1016/S0376-0421(00)00008-7
[10] Amitay, M., Smith, D., Kibens, V., Parekh, D. E., and Glezer,
A., “Aerodynamic Flow Control Over an Unconventional Airfoil
Using Synthetic Jet Actuators,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 39, No. 3, 2001,
pp. 361–370.
doi:10.2514/2.1323
[11] Amitay, M., and Glezer, A., “Role of Actuation Frequency in Controlled
Flow Reattachment Over a Stalled Airfoil,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 40,
No. 2, 2002, pp. 209–216.
doi:10.2514/2.1662
[12] Glezer, A., Amitay, M., and Honohan, A. M., “Aspects of Low- and
High-Frequency Actuation for Aerodynamic Flow Control,” AIAA
Journal, Vol. 43, No. 7, 2005, pp. 1501–1511.
doi:10.2514/1.7411
[13] Glezer, A., and Amitay, M., “Synthetic Jets,” Annual Review of Fluid
Mechanics, Vol. 34, 2002, pp. 503–529.
doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.34.090501.094913
[14] Yarusevych, S., Kawall, J. G., and Sullivan, P. E., “Airfoil Performance
at Low Reynolds Numbers in the Presence of Periodic Disturbances,”
Journal of Fluids Engineering, Vol. 128, No. 3, 2006, pp. 587–595.
doi:10.1115/1.2175165
[15] Smith, B., and Glezer, A., “Jet Vectoring Using Synthetic Jets,” Journal
of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 458, No. 1, 2002, pp. 1–34.
doi:10.1017/S0022112001007406
[16] Yarusevych, S., Sullivan, P. E., and Kawall, J. G., “Coherent Structures
in an Airfoil Boundary Layer and Wake at Low Reynolds Numbers,”
Physics of Fluids, Vol. 18, No. 4, 2006, pp. 044101-1–044101-11.
doi:10.1063/1.2187069
[17] Yarusevych, S., Sullivan, P., and Kawall, J., “Smoke-Wire Flow
Visualization in Separated Flows at Relatively High Velocities,” AIAA
Journal, Vol. 47, No. 6, 2009, pp. 1592–1595.
doi:10.2514/1.43539
[18] Antonia, R., and Rajagopalan, S., “Determination of Drag of a Circular
Cylinder,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 28, No. 10, 1990, pp. 1833–1834.
doi:10.2514/3.10485
[19] Smith, B., and Swift, G., “A Comparison Between Synthetic Jets
and Continuous Jets,” Experiments in Fluids, Vol. 34, No. 4, 2003,
pp. 467–472.
[20] Zhong, S., Jabbal, M., Tang, H., Garcillan, L., Guo, F., Wood, N., and
Warsop, C., “Towards the Design of Synthetic-Jet Actuators for
Full-Scale Flight Conditions. Part 1: The Fluid Mechanics of Synthetic-
Jet Actuators,” Experiments in Fluids, Vol. 78, Nos. 3–4, 2007,
pp. 283–307.
[21] Zhang, J., and Tan, X., “Experimental Study on Flow and Heat Transfer
Characteristics of Synthetic Jet Driven by Piezoelectric Actuator,”
Science in China Series E: Technological Sciences, Vol. 50, No. 2, 2007,
pp. 221–229.
doi:10.1007/s11431-005-0006-1
[22] Holman, R., Utturkar, Y., Mittal, R., Smith, B. L., and Cattafesta, L.,
“Formation Criterion for Synthetic Jets,” Science in China Series E:
Technological Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 10, 2005, pp. 2110–2116.
doi:10.2514/1.12033
[23] Yang, A., “Design Analysis of a Piezoelectrically Driven Synthetic
Jet Actuator,” Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 18, No. 12, 2009,
pp. 1–12.
doi:10.1088/0964-1726/18/12/125004
[24] Mane, P., Mossi, K., and Bryant, R., “Experimental Design and Analysis
for Piezoelectric Circular Actuators in Flow Control Applications,”
Smart Materials and Structures, Vol. 17, No. 1, 2008, pp. 1–12.
doi:10.1088/0964-1726/17/01/015013
[25] Yarusevych, S., Sullivan, P. E., and Kawall, J. G., “Effect of Acoustic
Excitation Amplitude on Airfoil Boundary Layer and Wake
Development,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 45, No. 4, 2007, pp. 760–771.
doi:10.2514/1.25439
[26] Williamson, C. H. K., “Vortex Dynamics in the Cylinder Wake,” Annual
Review of Fluid Mechanics, Vol. 28, No. 1, 1996, pp. 477–539.
doi:10.1146/annurev.fl.28.010196.002401
[27] Gallas, Q., Carroll, B., Cattafesta, L., Holman, R., Nishida, T., and
Sheplak, M., “Lumped Element Modeling of Piezoeletric-Driven
Synthetic Jet Actuators,” AIAA Journal, Vol. 41, No. 3, 2003,
pp. 240–247.
doi:10.2514/2.1936
D. Papamoschou
Associate Editor