Eur J Oral Sci 2007; 115: 280–287  2007 The Authors.

Printed in Singapore. All rights reserved Journal compilation  2007 Eur J Oral Sci
European Journal of
Oral Sciences

Maria Hovorakova1, Herve Lesot2,3,

Early development of the lower Jean-Luc Vonesch4, Miroslav
Peterka1, Renata Peterkova1
deciduous dentition and oral vestibule 1
Department of Teratology, Institute of
Experimental Medicine, Academy of Sciences
CR, Prague, Czech Republic; 2UMR INSERM
in human embryos 595, Strasbourg, France; 3Universite Louis
Pasteur, Faculte de Chirurgie Dentaire,
Strasbourg, France; 4Imaging Center
Technology Platform, Institut de Genetique et de
Hovorakova M, Lesot H, Vonesch J-L, Peterka M, Peterkova R. Early development of
Biologie Moleculaire et Cellulaire, Illkirch, France
the lower deciduous dentition and oral vestibule in human embryos. Eur J Oral Sci 2007;
115: 280–287.  2007 The Authors. Journal compilation  2007 Eur J Oral Sci

The aim of this work was to investigate the early development of the deciduous
dentition and oral vestibule in the human embryonic lower jaw. Histological sections
and three-dimensional reconstructions from prenatal weeks 6–9 were used. A con-
tinuous anlage for the oral vestibule did not exist in the mandible. In contrast to the
upper jaw, where we previously observed that the dental and vestibular epithelia
developed separately, two dento-vestibular bulges differentiated in the incisor region of
the mandible. The lingual parts of each bulge were found to give rise to the respective
central and lateral incisors, whereas the labial parts differentiated into the vestibular R. Peterkova, Department of Teratology,
Institute of Experimental Medicine, Academy of
epithelium. In the canine and molar areas, the dental and vestibular epithelia origin- Sciences CR, Videnska 1083, 142 20 Prague 4,
ated separately. Later, the segments of the vestibular epithelium fused into the labial Czech Republic
vestibular ridge, giving rise to the lower oral vestibule in the lip region. In the cheek
Telefax: +420–241–062604
region, the oral vestibule was found to originate in the mucosal inflection between the
E-mail: repete@biomed.cas.cz
developing jaw and the cheek. A similar heterogenous developmental base for the oral
vestibule was also observed in the upper jaw. There is thus no general scheme for the Key words: deciduous tooth; dental epithelium;
early development of the dental and vestibular epithelia that applies to both the upper development; lower jaw; oral vestibule
and lower jaws, and to both their anterior and posterior regions. Accepted for publication May 2007

Tooth development in humans passes through the clas-
sical stages of odontogenesis: epithelial thickening; den-
tal lamina; tooth bud; cap; and bell. Different authors
have reported the first morphological signs of odonto-
genesis in human embryos from embryonic day (ED) 28
(1) to ED 34–40 (2). It is generally accepted that the
upper and lower deciduous teeth develop from the
respective horseshoe-shaped dental lamina (3, 4). Text-
books on human embryology present another horseshoe-
shaped epithelial structure that runs parallel and exter-
nally (labial or buccal) to the dental lamina in embryonic
jaws (Fig. 1A). This is a vestibular lamina (also named
the Ôlip-furrow bandÕ or Ôlabio-gingival ridgeÕ), which
develops between the dental lamina and the future lips
and cheeks (5–8). The vestibular lamina is considered to
be the developmental base of the oral vestibule, which is
the free space between the alveolar portion of the jaws,
including the teeth, and the lips or cheeks (6). Some
textbooks do not mention the development of the oral
vestibule at all (4, 9).
Many authors have discussed the developmental rela-
tionship between the dental and vestibular laminae in
humans, suggesting their independent development as
two parallel epithelial anlagen (5, 6, 10), or that they
arise from a common epithelial thickening (2, 7, 11),
or that these laminae are subdivisions of a common
thickened epithelial base in the anterior region and
develop separately in the posterior region (12, 13).
However, three-dimensional (3D) imaging has
documented that the formation of the oral vestibule is
much more complex in the human upper embryonic
jaw (14). No continuous horseshoe-shaped vestibular
lamina exists. Instead, the upper vestibular epithelium
includes a series of epithelial bulges and ridges
(Fig. 1B). The dental and vestibular epithelia are
regionalized in parallel along the mesio-distal axis.
They reiteratively fuse together behind the developing
upper deciduous canine, first molar, and second molar
(14).
The aim of this study was to investigate the early
morphogenesis and developmental relationships of the
dental and vestibular epithelia in the human lower jaw,
and to compare them with what has previously been
observed in the upper jaw (14).
Material and methods
Embryos and fetuses
The development of the dental epithelium was examined in a
collection of serial histological sections held by the
Department of Teratology, IEM AS CR, in Prague. The
collection comprises 53 series of frontal and 7 series of
sagittal histological sections of the heads of normal human
embryos (from artificially aborted embryos of unwanted
pregnancies) compiled from the 1960s to the 1980s.
 Human lower dentition and oral vestibule 281

B C

Fig. 1. Schemes of the spatial relationship between the dental and vestibular epithelium in human embryos. Yellow, dental epithe-
lium; orange, base of the oral vestibule. The remaining vestibular epithelium is green. (A) According to the generally accepted
concept, the oral vestibule arises from a vestibular lamina (VL), which is a continuous structure running externally and parallel to the
dental lamina (DL). (B) Data on the upper jaw (14) have shown epithelial bulges that initially emerge externally to the dental
epithelium in the lip region. They fuse, being transformed into the canine vestibular ridge (CVR) in the posterior direction. The CVR
fuses with the dental mound behind the deciduous canine primordium (c). In the cheek region, the vestibular epithelium forms the
molar vestibular ridge (MVR) and the cheek-furrow ridge (the CFR is the epithelium lining the mucosal inflection between the
alveolus with teeth and cheeks). The MVR splits posteriorly into the medial (MMVR) and lateral (LMVR) branches. The fornix of
the oral vestibule originates from the bulges and the CVR in the lip region and from the CFR in the cheek area (14). AC, accessory
epithelial cap; m1 and m2, the upper first and second deciduous molars, respectively. (C) Present data on the lower jaw. The level of
the mouth corner (MC) is labeled. Different vestibular structures are shown: the area of irregularly thickened vestibular epithelium
(ITVE), the labial vestibular ridge (LVR), and the mandibular cheek furrow ridge (dCFR). The deciduous lower tooth primordia are
labeled: m1, first molar; m2, second molar.

Table 1
The specimens used for three-dimensional reconstructions ranked according to the stage of tooth development.

Specimen Secondary palate Developmental Reconstructed

number Fixation Age formation* horizon (15) Carnegie stage (16) lower jaw quadrant

HU1 Bouin-Hollande ED 40–42 – XX 16–17 Right

HU3 Formol 10% ED 42–44 – XXI 17 Right
HU9 Bouin-Hollande ED 44–46 –  XXII 18 Left
HU10 Formol 10% ED 44–46 – XXII 18 Right
HU5 Bouin-Hollande ED 44–46 –/+ XXII 18 Left
HU11 Bouin-Hollande ED 44–46 –/+ XXII 18 Right
HU6 Bouin-Hollande ED 44–46 –/+ XXII 18 Right
HU7 Bouin-Hollande Week 8 + The upper and lower Right
eyelids are not fused (2)
HU8 Bouin-Hollande Week 9 + The upper and lower Left
eyelids are fused (2)

ED, embryonic day

*(–) Horizontalization of palatal shelves has not yet started; (–/+) horizontalization started, one of the palatal shelves was hori-
zontalized or both palatal shelves were horizontalized but not yet fused; (+) palatal shelves were fused.
 Only half of the embryonic head was available in which the palatal shelf was not yet horizontalized (it was not possible to determine
the position of the second palatal shelf).

staging based on the classical methods was specified by the

Determination of the embryonic stage
As homogenous data allowing stage determination were not
available for all specimens, the staging of embryos (younger
than prenatal week 8) was checked and expressed on the
basis of Ôdevelopmental horizonsÕ (15). The staging of fe-
tuses (prenatal week 8 and older) was based on the mor-
phological criteria proposed by Moore & Persaud (4). As a
main criterion of staging, we used the development of the
eye on frontal sections in all embryos and fetuses investi-
gated. The staging was also correlated with the staging
according to the Carnegie Collection (16). In addition, the
stage of tooth development. The Ôtooth ageÕ allowed further
ranking of a group of the embryos that exhibited the same
stage determined by classical methods (see the alignment of
embryos at ED 44–46 in Table 1), as has been similarly
documented in the mouse (17).
Histology
After fixation in Bouin–Hollande fluid or in 10% formol,
the heads were embedded in paraffin, cut in serial frontal
sections (10 lm thickness), and stained by hematoxylin &
282 Hovorakova et al.

eosin, alcian blue–hematoxylin & eosin, or by a Periodic
Acid Schiff method. The early stages of tooth development
(epithelial thickening, dental lamina, tooth bud) were
identified according to criteria reported by Peterkova et al.
(18).
Computer-aided 3D reconstructions
Three-dimensional reconstructions of the dental and adja-
cent oral epithelium of the lower jaw quadrant were per-
formed in a representative sample of nine human embryos
(Table 1). This sample showed a longitudinal adjustment of
the successive steps of tooth development. In each of the
embryos, the right or left jaw quadrant was randomly
selected for 3D reconstruction.
Contours of the dental and adjacent oral epithelium
were drawn (magnification ·120–260, depending on the
size of the specimen) at 10-lm intervals from each of the
serial histological sections using a Leica DMLB (Leica
Microsystems, Wetzlar, Germany) or a Jenaval (Carl Zeiss,
Jena, Germany) microscope equipped with a drawing
chamber. The superimposition of the drawings was per-
formed by the Ôbest fitÕ method (19) with respect to the
middle line and horizontal level for correct spatial posi-
tioning of the reconstructed structures. The digitalization
of the serial drawings and the correlation of successive
images have previously been described (20). Three-dimen-
sional images were generated using a volume-rendering
program (Sun Voxel Sun Microsystems, Santa Clara, CA,
USA).
In addition to different views on the 3D reconstructions,
we also performed sagittal sections through the 3D recon-
structions for complementary visualization of the relation-
ships between the dental and vestibular epithelia.
Results
Morphology of the dental epithelium
In a jaw quadrant at ED 40–42, two fields of thickened
epithelium were present along the mesio-distal axis
(Fig. 2A). These thickenings were situated in an end-to-
end orientation and separated by a deep notch
(Fig. 2A). The adjacent ends showed a bulge shape
corresponding to the regions of the deciduous lower
lateral incisor (i2) and canine (c), respectively. Another
bulge was observed in the region of the deciduous lower
central incisor (i1) (Fig. 2A). The two bulges in the
incisor region comprised the prospective dental and
vestibular epithelia (dento-vestibular bulges). The lin-
gual parts of these bulges protruded (prospective buds
of deciduous i1 and i2), whereas the labial parts

Fig. 2. Computer-aided three-dimensional reconstructions of the epithelium on the oral surface of the lower jaw in HU1 at embryonic
days (ED) 40–42 (A), in HU3 at ED 42–44 (B), and in HU10 at ED 44–46 (C) at different stages of development (see Table 1) and
their schematic interpretation. The deciduous lower tooth primordia are labeled: c, canine; i1, central incisor; i2, lateral incisor; and
m1, first molar. Different vestibular structures are shown: the labial vestibular ridge (LVR), the irregularly thickened vestibular
epithelium (ITVE), and the epithelium lining the inflection of the forming lower vestibule adjacent to the cheek region of the
mandible (dCFR). The position of the mouth corner (MC) and ductus parotideus (DP) is indicated. The midline is shaded. The levels
labeled h–j indicate the positions of frontal histological sections shown in Fig. 4H–J, respectively.
 Human lower dentition and oral vestibule 283

remained low (prospective vestibular epithelium). The
bulge in the canine region corresponded to the prim-
ordium of c. From the canine region, a thickening of
the dental epithelium extended in the distal direction
(Fig. 2A), where the deciduous lower first molar (m1)
showed the bud stage.
At ED 42–44, the buds of i1 and i2 differentiated from
the lingual parts of the corresponding bulge. During
further development, the labial parts of the two dento-
vestibular bulges in the incisor region gave rise to the
vestibular epithelium. Further posteriorly along the
course of the mandible, the dental epithelium formed a
mound with swellings at the places of c and m1 (Fig. 2B).
As tooth swellings, as well as the mound, showed a bud
shape on frontal sections, it was not yet possible to
delimitate tooth primordia at a bud stage. However,
tooth primordia started to be distinct in developmentally
more advanced embryos at ED 44–46 (HU10 and older
embryos; see Table 1, Fig. 2C), after the teeth reached a
cap stage, whereas the mound epithelium in interdental
spaces retained a bud-shape on frontal sections
(Fig. 2C). During prenatal wk 8 the situation was similar
to that at ED 44–46. However, the tooth caps were more
differentiated (Figs 3A and 4). In the oldest examined
fetus (HU8), i1, i2, c, and m1 reached the bell stage of
tooth development, and the cap of the deciduous second
molar (m2) became distinct (Fig. 3B).
At all stages, the dental epithelium divided into two
parts behind the most distal developing tooth. The
medial band disappeared after a short distance, whereas
the lateral band continued in a disto-lateral direction
(e.g. Figs 2B and 3B).
Morphology of the vestibular epithelium
The vestibular epithelium did not arise as a continuous
vestibular lamina. While the bulges in the incisor area
were formed by the dento-vestibular epithelium (ED
40–44), the dental and vestibular epithelia developed
separately in the canine–molar area. In the incisor area,
the labial parts of the epithelial bulges progressively
separated from i1 and i2 as the vestibular epithelium.
In the canine and molar regions, the band of thickened
vestibular epithelium was present externally to the dental
epithelium at ED 40–42 (Fig. 2A). In the cheek region,
the area of the irregularly thickened vestibular epithe-
lium (ITVE) differentiated from ED 42–44 (Figs 2, 3
and 4E–G).

Fig. 3. Computer-aided three-dimensional reconstructions of the epithelium on the oral surface of the lower jaw in HU7 at prenatal
wk 8 (A) and HU8 at prenatal wk 9 (B) at different stages of development (see Table 1) and their schematic interpretation. In (B) only
the distal part of the long dental arch could be reconstructed because of the technical limits of the camera. The deciduous tooth
primordia are labeled: c, canine; i1, central incisor; i2, lateral incisor; m1, first molar; and m2, second molar. Different vestibular
structures are shown: the labial vestibular ridge (LVR), the irregularly thickened vestibular epithelium (ITVE) and the epithelium
lining the inflection of the forming lower vestibule (dCFR). The position of the mouth corner (MC) and ductus parotideus (DP) is
indicated. The midline is shaded. The levels labeled a–g indicate the positions of frontal histological sections shown in Fig. 4A–G,
respectively.
284 Hovorakova et al.
A B
C D
E F G Such morphology of the tooth primordia at the
H I J It has been reported that the epithelial anlage of the
Fig. 4. Frontal histological sections showing the lower dental
and vestibular epithelia at prenatal wk 8 (A–G) and at
embryonic days (ED) 44–46 (H–J). The images shown in panels
A–J were taken at the levels a–j indicated in Figs 3A and 2C.
The deciduous tooth primordia are labeled: c, canine; i1, central
incisor; i2, lateral incisor; and m1, first molar. The vestibular
structures are shown: the labial vestibular ridge (LVR) and the
irregularly thickened vestibular epithelium (ITVE). The
branching (not visible on views on three-dimensional models in
Figs 3A and 2C) at the posterior end of the dental epithelium is
shown at prenatal wk 8 (E–G) and at ED 44–46 (H–J). Black
arrowheads point to the dental epithelium. Bar, 100 lm.
At ED 44–46, the vestibular and dental epithelia
transiently fused in the canine region (Fig. 2C). Later,
the vestibular epithelium again separated from the canine
primordium and fused posteriorly with the ITVE and
anteriorly with the vestibular epithelium in the incisor
region (Fig. 3A). The fused vestibular epithelium in the
incisor and canine regions and the medial part of the
ITVE gave rise to the labial vestibular ridge (LVR)
(Figs 2C, 3 and 4A–E). In week 8, the LVR extended as
far as to the m1 level. The LVR closely approached the
dental mound anteriorly to m1 (Fig. 3A), but we did not
observe a fusion.
At ED 40–42, an epithelial ridge differentiated in the
most lateral part of the cheek region of the mandible.
This mandibular cheek furrow ridge (dCFR) remained
located laterally to the ITVE at all subsequent stages
under observation (Figs 2 and 3). The dCFR epithelium
lined the mucosal inflection (the prospective lower part
of the oral vestibule) between the developing alveolus
and the cheeks.
Discussion
Tooth development
On histological sections, the deciduous teeth passed
through the typical stages of tooth development: the
thickening, lamina, bud, cap, and bell. However, the
3D reconstructions showed that deciduous tooth buds
do not have the form of isolated buds protruding from
a surrounding epithelium. At the so-called bud stage,
the dental epithelium formed a dental mound, which
showed a bud shape on frontal sections along the
antero-posterior course of the mandible. At the places
of developing canine and m1, only swellings were
apparent on the mound in 3D reconstructions, cor-
responding to the increased size of the bud-shaped
epithelium on frontal sections. This is why it was not
possible to determine the exact limits of the deciduous
tooth primordia before the cap stage (Figs 2 and 3A).
bud stage has also been documented in the human
upper jaw (14) and during mouse molar development
(18, 21).
deciduous dentition originates at the same time in the
upper and lower jaws (22). However, a comparison of
our previous (14) and present data supports the sugges-
tion that the development of the upper teeth lags behind
the development of the lower dentition (5, 10). This lag
has been related to the complex development in the
upper portion of the face (brain, sense organs, nasal
cavity), which is also in progress at the time of tooth
development (5).
The unbalanced development of the upper and lower
dentitions can also be explained by the fact that the
maxillary and mandibular branches of the first branchial
arch grow unequally in time and size (23). A method of
reciprocal cell transplantations between maxillary and
mandibular arch ectomesenchymal cells revealed intrin-
sic differences between these populations of cranial
neural crest-derived cells in the mouse, which respond
differently to epithelial signals. These differences have
been related to the different origins of the neural crest
cells that populate these components of the first bran-
chial arch (24). In the axolotl, direct cell lineage analysis
in vivo has shown that there are two independent con-
densations of neural crest cells flowing into the maxillary
and mandibular outgrowths, respectively (25).
In human functional dentition, the deciduous teeth are
located next to one another and the interdental spaces
are negligible. However, significant spaces separate
individual tooth germs during development (Figs 2 and
3). This means that the growth rate will have to be higher
in the tooth germs than in the interdental spaces until the
tooth reaches the bell stage. Generally, the interdental
spaces between the developing anterior teeth (incisors)
are shorter in comparison to the interdental spaces in the
distal regions (canine and molars) in both upper and
lower jaws (26, 27).
The most significant interdental space was present
between the canine and the first molar in both the upper
(14) and lower (Figs 2 and 3) jaws. This can be explained
by the reduction in tooth number during human evolu-
tion. The basic mammalian tooth formula comprises 3
incisors, 1 canine, 4 premolars, and 3 molars (28). The
human deciduous first and second molars have been
homologized with the respective deciduous third and
 Human lower dentition and oral vestibule 285

fourth premolars from the basic mammalian dentition
(29). The missing first and second premolars might
explain the presence of a significant interdental space
between the canine and the first deciduous molar (¼
third deciduous premolar) in the human embryonic
dental arch.
The vestibular epithelium and the prospective
vestibule of the mouth
There was always a protrusion of the vestibular epithe-
lium externally to the dental epithelium on histological
sections (Fig. 4). Without correlation with the corres-
ponding 3D views, this protrusion could be considered as
a component of a continuous horseshoe-shaped vestib-
ular lamina, giving rise to the prospective oral vestibule
(Fig. 1A). The concept of the development of the oral
vestibule from a continuous vestibular lamina has been
presented by many authors (1,5) and is still maintained in
embryological textbooks (6–8). However, the present 3D
reconstructions did not show any continuous vestibular
lamina in the lower jaw (Figs 2 and 3). In its place, there
were several discontinuous epithelial structures (Fig. 1C)
as already observed in the upper jaw (14) (Fig. 1B).
The vestibular epithelium adjacent to the incisor
primordia was segmented in parallel to individual teeth
in both the upper (14) and lower jaws (Fig. 1). However,
there was an apparent difference: in the upper incisor
region, the segments of the dental and vestibular epi-
thelia arise separately (14), whereas in the lower incisor
region, there were two segments (bulges), each compri-
sing precursors of the prospective incisor and its adjacent
vestibule (Figs 1 and 5). In the canine and cheek region
of both the upper (14) and lower jaws, the dental and
vestibular epithelia arose independently (Figs 1, 2 and 5).
The lower oral vestibule had different developmental
origins in the lip and cheek regions (Fig. 1C). In the lip
region, it developed from the labial vestibular ridge,
which presumably corresponds to the Ôlip-furrow-bandÕ
of, for example Schour (5), or with the Ôlabio-gingival
sheetÕ of Bolk (11). However, in the cheek region of the
mandible (located behind the level of the mouth corner),
the oral vestibule originated from the epithelial ridge
that lines the inflection between the cheeks and the
prospective alveolus (Fig. 1C). The distinct origins of the
fornix of the oral vestibule in the lip and cheek regions
have also been reported in the human upper jaw (14)
(Fig. 1B), in mice (30), and in sheep (31).
The developmental relationship between the dentition
(dental lamina) and the oral vestibule (vestibular lamina)
has not been completely explained in the literature. It has
been stated that these structures: (i) evolve separately
(5, 6, 10); (ii) have a common origin (2, 7, 11); or (iii) are
subdivisions of a common thickened epithelial base an-
teriorly, whereas they develop as two separate epithelial
structures in the posterior regions of the jaw (12, 13).

A B

C D

Fig. 5. Comparison of the upper and lower dental (DE) and vestibular (VE) epithelia on three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions. The
DE and VE of the upper (A, B) and lower (C, D) jaws of the embryo HU2 [embryonic days (ED) 42–44] are presented as an aerial
view on the 3D reconstruction (A, C) and on a sagittal section through the 3D reconstruction (B, D). In the upper incisor region, DE
and VE differentiate apart from each other, being separated by a groove indicated by a blue arrow (A, B). However, in the lower jaw,
one bulge formed by the dento-vestibular epithelium (DVE) is present in each of the central and lateral incisor regions (C, D). At later
stages, the lingual parts of the two bulges give rise to i1 and i2, respectively. The labial parts differentiate into the vestibular
epithelium. The midline is shaded.
286 Hovorakova et al.
These different concepts might result from observations
performed by different authors on different jaws (upper
or lower) and jaw regions (lip or cheek region) in em-
bryos at different developmental stages.
Our data clearly show that each of these concepts
correctly reflects only one particular situation, depending
on the region and the time of observation (Figs 1 and 5).
In the upper jaw, there are two separate epithelial
thickenings: the inner dental and outer vestibular epi-
thelia (14). This observation corresponds with the first
concept mentioned above, proposing the independent
development of the dentition and oral vestibule (5, 6, 10).
Nevertheless, the parallel segmentation of the dental and
vestibular epithelia in the upper jaw suggests their close
developmental relationship (14).
The situation was completely different in the lower
jaw (Fig. 1C) compared with the upper jaw (Fig. 1B).
The dental and vestibular epithelia developed from a
common dento-vestibular bulge, which was present in
both the central and lateral incisor regions (Figs 2 and
5). This situation fits with the second concept that
suggests a common origin of the dentition and the oral
vestibule (2, 7, 11). In the posterior (canine and cheek)
region of the lower jaw, the dental and vestibular epi-
thelia originated separately (in accordance with the first
concept above) (Figs 1C and 2). So, the present data on
the lower jaw correspond with the third above-men-
tioned concept regarding the common origin of the
dentition and the oral vestibule in the anterior region
and their separate origin in the posterior region of the
jaw (12, 13).
The dental and vestibular epithelia develop separately
on the fused facial processes forming the upper jaw arch
(14). However, if traced to earlier stages, they might also
have a common origin – in the epithelial plate that has
been observed on each of not-yet merged facial out-
growths in human embryos (1, 32). If sufficiently young
mouse embryos are investigated, a similar common
developmental origin can be traced out, giving rise not
only to teeth and oral vestibule, but even to the palatal
ridges. Based on this ontogenetic relationship, the palatal
ridges and the oral vestibule have been presented as
odontogenous structures from a phylogenetic aspect
(30). The latent odontogenous potential of the vestibular
epithelium can be further supported by the integration of
the vestibular epithelium into the dental lamina in the
mouse (30) and in humans (14). It has been suggested
that the structures of the vestibular epithelium in mam-
mals might have an evolutionary relationship to the
earliest generations of teeth in reptiles (33). The complex
development of the oral vestibule might help to explain
some of the pathologies located externally to the func-
tional dentition.
Acknowledgements – We thank Prof. J. Slipka (Institute
Histol. Embryol., Medical Fac., Charles University, Pilsen, CR)
for providing a part of human embryological material and Mr
J. Dutt for critical reading of the manuscript. This study was
supported by the Grant Agency of the Czech Republic (304/05/
2665), Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports of the Czech
Republic (project COST B23.002) and by the Academy of
Sciences of the Czech Republic (project AV0Z 50390512).
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