CHAPTER 3

VECTOR CALCULUS
Vector-valued functions can be used to study curves in the plane and in space. These
functions can also be used to study the motion of an object along a curve.

Definition

A function of the form

𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑔(𝑡)𝑗 in plane

or

𝑟 𝑡 =𝑓 𝑡 𝑖+ 𝑔 𝑡 𝑗+ 𝑕 𝑡 𝑘 in space

is a vector-valued function, where the component functions f, g and h are real valued
functions of the parameter t. Vector-valued functions are sometimes denoted as

𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑔(𝑡) or 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑔 𝑡 , 𝑕 𝑡 .

Example

Sketch the plane curve represented by the vector-valued function

𝑟 𝑡 = 2 cos 𝑡 𝑖 − 3 sin 𝑡 𝑗 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π. Vector-valued function

Solution :

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Example

Sketch the space curve represented by the vector-valued function

𝑟 𝑡 = 4 cos 𝑡 𝑖 + 4 sin 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑡𝑘 , 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π. Vector-valued function

Solution :

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Velocity and Acceleration
Definition

If x and y are twice-differentiable functions of t, and 𝑟 𝑡 is a vector-valued function

given by 𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑥 𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑦(𝑡)𝑗 , then the velocity vector, acceleration vector, and speed
at time t are as follows,

Velocity = v(t) = 𝑟′ 𝑡 = 𝑥′ 𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑦′(𝑡)𝑗

Acceleration = a t = v’ t =𝑟′′ 𝑡 = 𝑥′′ 𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑦′′(𝑡)𝑗

2
Speed = 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑟′ 𝑡 = 𝑥′ 𝑡 + 𝑦′(𝑡) 2

For motion along a space curve, the definitions are similar. That is, if

𝑟 𝑡 =𝑥 𝑡 𝑖+ 𝑦 𝑡 𝑗+𝑧 𝑡 𝑘

then

Velocity = v(t) = 𝑟 ′ (𝑡) = 𝑥 ′ 𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑦 ′ 𝑡 𝑗 + 𝑧′ 𝑡 𝑘

Acceleration = a(t) =𝑟′′ 𝑡 = 𝑥′′ 𝑡 𝑖 + 𝑦′′(𝑡)𝑗 + 𝑧′′ 𝑡 𝑘

2
Speed = 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑟′ 𝑡 = 𝑥′ 𝑡 + 𝑦′(𝑡) 2 + 𝑧′(𝑡) 2

Note: Velocity vectors points in the direction of motion

Example

Sketch the path of an object moving along the space curve C given by

𝑟 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑖 + 𝑡 3 𝑗 + 3𝑡𝑘 position vector

and find the velocity and acceleration vectors when t = 1.

Solution :

Note: to find the position vector for a given velocity or acceleration, integration is required.

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VECTOR FIELDS

Definition
A vector field over a plane region R is a function F that assigns a vector 𝐹 (x , y) to each
point in R.
A vector field over a solid region Q in space is a function F that assigns a vector
𝐹 (x , y , z) to each point in Q.

Note: Although a vector field consists of infinitely many vectors, you can get a good idea of what the vector field looks like by
sketching several representative vectors 𝐹 (x , y) whose initial points are (x, y). Some physical examples of vector fields are velocity
fields, gravitational fields, and electric force fields.

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Tangent Planes and Normal Lines

The gradient at P is orthogonal to the tangent

vector of every curve on S through P. All
tangent lines on S lie in a plane that is normal
to ∇ F x0 , y0 , z0) and contains P.

Note: ∇ F x , y , z is called the gradient vector

Definition

If F is a function of two variables x and y, then the gradient of F is the vector function ∇ F
defined by
𝜕𝐹 𝜕𝐹
∇ F x , y = Fx x , y , Fy x , y = 𝜕𝑥 𝑖 + 𝜕𝑦 𝑗

Note: ∇ F x , y , z = Fx x , y , z , Fy x , y, z , Fz x , y, z

Definition

Let F be differentiable at the point P (x0 , y0 , z0) on the surface S given by F(x , y , z) = 0
such that ∇ F x0 , y0 , z0 ≠ 0.

1. The plane through P that is normal to ∇ F x0 , y0 , z0) is called the tangent plane to
S at P.
2. The line through P having the direction of ∇ F x0 , y0 , z0) is called the normal line
to S at P.

To find an equation for the tangent plane to S at (x0 , y0 , z0), let (x , y , z) be an arbitrary
point in the tangent plane. Then the vector

𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑖 + 𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑗 + (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑘

lies in the tangent plane. Because ∇ F x0 , y0 , z0) is normal to the tangent plane at

(x0 , y0 , z0), it must be orthogonal to every vector in the tangent plane. Hence,

∇ F x0 , y0 , z0)∙ 𝑣 = 0

Theorem
If F is differentiable at (x0 , y0 , z0), then an equation of the tangent plane to the surface
given by F(x , y , z) = 0 at (x0 , y0 , z0) is
Fx (x0 , y0 , z0)(x – x0) + Fy (x0 , y0 , z0)(y – y0) + Fz (x0 , y0 , z0)(z – z0) = 0

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