Intrusive volcanic activity and their impact on the landscape

How are intrusive landforms formed?

Intrusive landforms (subterranean movements of magma, or intrusive vulcanicity –
The Physical of Geography of Landscape, Collard, 1988) are formed by magma
towards the surface but cooling and solidifying before being extruded onto the
surface. This is likely to be the case if the magma is rising slowly, if there is a great
thickness of crust to pass through, and if there are few weaknesses in the crust through
which it can flow easily. The magma cools slowly as it is not exposed to the air, and
so mineral crystals, for example quartz in granite, grow to a large size (Dunn, 2009).

Usually only a relatively small amount of magma actually reaches the surface as most
is intruded into the crust, where it solidifies. Such intrusions may initially have little
impact upon the surface geomorphology (the structure, origin and development of the
topographical features of the Earth’s crust), but if the overlying rocks are later worn
away distinctive landforms may then develop (Waugh, 1995). The extent of an
intrusion may partially depend on the fluidity of the magma, for if the silica content is
high and the material is acidic, flow from the point of origin will be restricted
(Collard, 1988).

The rising molten igneous rock, which is often associated with melting geosynclinal
sediments at plate boundaries (Process &Pattern in Physical Geography, Hilton,
1985), can give rise to a variety of different landforms:

Batholiths: Large masses of intrusive rock that may cause a general

doming up of the surface as they are forming. However, they are only
exposed after the gradual weathering/erosion of the less resistant
overlying country rock (strata that is native to the region where it is
observed – geology.about.com). This is facilitated by the fractures
and cracks formed at the surface as it is stretched during uplift. The
heat transferred from the magma to the country rock causes
metamorphic rock to be produced around the intruding magma e.g.
sandstone being metamorphosed into quartzite, and limestone into
marble (Dunn, 2009) (e.g. Yosemite, USA).
Half-Dome, Yosemite, CA, USA

Sometimes Batholiths form from the remains of a volcanic magma chamber (e.g.
Edinburgh), however granite hills in Aberdeenshire are the results of magma rising up
from the mantle millions of years ago, only to cool before reaching the surface (the
degree of contrast in geology between the rock of the intrusion and that of its
surroundings must also be considered regarding the batholith being exposed –
Collard, 1988).

Sills: Sills are intrusions that are formed parallel to bedding planes
in the country rock (i.e. concordant), often, but not always lying
horizontally. The bedding planes provide a line of weakness along
which the magma flows before cooling and solidifying. As it cools,
the magma contracts, producing cracks in the resultant rock (Dunn,
2009). Headlands such as that at Drumadoon on the west coast of
Arran and The Giant’s Causeway in Northern Ireland are examples
The Giant’s Causeway, Northern Ireland
 of these (Waugh, 1995), as are the glacier National Park in Montana and Hadrian’s
Wall in Northumberland (lesson date: 21/2/13).

Dykes: Dykes are discordant because they cut across the bedding planes
of the country rock, often vertically. Magma flows through cracks and
weaknesses but again cools and solidifies before reaching the surface.
Contraction joints develop parallel to the surface as the magma solidifies.
Once exposed, the dykes may appear as linear outcrops of resistant rock
(Dunn, 2009). The material which forms the dyke cools slowly, with
parts that come into contact with surrounding rock cooling more rapidly
to produce a chilled margin with smaller crystals (Waugh, 1995).

Case Study: The Isle of Arran

The Isle of Arran is the largest and most southerly island in what is known
as the Firth of Clyde off the West coast of Scotland. It is located between
Ayrshire and Kintyre, and is 432 square kilometres (167 sq miles) in land
area (http://www.castlekirk.co.uk/island.html).

Around half of Arran consists of igneous rock, many of which are 60

million years old (Tertiary period); as well as volcanic extrusions, many of
the landforms that are present on the isle were formed as a result of rising
magma cooling to form granite intrusions before reaching the surface
(cgz.e2bn.net).
Isle of Arran
These intrusive landforms (physical features) are defined by the Highland
Geology of Arran Boundary Fault (a great crustal crack that separates Highland Scotland
from the Lowlands of the Midland Valley – castlekirk.co.uk/geology/).
which runs through the centre of the isle. The satellite image below shows
the distinctive mountainous geology of the North, and the verdant green
hills of the South; the local climate is influenced by these landforms.
The Northern Hills of Arran were formed as a result of a Batholith intrusion
(involving two types of granite: earlier coarse grained granite, later finer granite -
cgz.e2bn.net) as a result of an upthrust of magma intruding into the sedimentary rocks
of Arran (Waugh, 1995). This formed the Northern Granite.