ELASTICITY

What is a force

• A Push or a Pull
• A physical quantity that can
make an object undergo a
change to its state of motion

• A force can also make an

object to undergo a change of
shape (i.e. becomes deformed)
 Deforming forces along one-dimension
• Compressive force
• A force that is applied perpendicularly ΔL
towards an area or a point on a body
(can cause contraction of length)
• Tensile force
• A force that is applied perpendicularly ΔL
away from an area or point on a body
(can cause extension of length)
ΔL
• Shearing force
• A force acts parallel to an area (can
cause slanting of an object)
Elasticity: A phenomenon that can be observed on an
object, whereby, upon removal of a deforming
force from an object, the object retains its
original shape and size.
• Elastic force – A force applied by an object
that is subjected to deformation.
It is a reaction force a deformed
object exerts against an object
that is deforming it.
(It makes an object to retain
shape upon removal of an
agent responsible for
deformation)
While undergoing deformation, an object can:
• suddenly break/rupture after undergoing little or no
deformation (while deformation force acts upon it) – is
said to be brittle
• when an object undergoes a lot of deformation before
it fractures – it is said to be ductile
Upon removal of a moderate force, the object
• retains its shape – it is said to be elastic
• cannot retain its shape (it is permanently deformed –
it is classified as being plastic
Atomic/molecular level (elastic force)
Atomic/
molecular
forces upon
the surface
atom/
molecule

Deforming force
Deforming force on a spring
• Load on a spring, stretches/
compresses length of a spring.
• Moderate force is proportional
to the amount of distortion
(F α x; Hooke’s law). Within
this range, the spring is elastic.
• ‘Very’ large tensile deforming
force can result in permanent
deformation of a spring; and
even lead to its fracture.
 Typical spring deforming force vs extension graphs

• Ductile material • Brittle material

F D/F
Fult
C D G B G
C

Force (N)
Force (N)

B E A
A

O O
ΔL, ext. (m) ΔL, ext. (m)
• A – Proportionality limit point B – Elastic limit point
• C – Yield point (Point at which yielding begins)
• D/E – Upper/Lower yield point (Point where maximum/
minimum force is required to maintain yielding)
• F – Ultimate breaking force
• G – Point of rupture/fracture
• During yielding, the spring undergoes transition from
being elastic and becomes permanently deformed as
bonds break. As the spring gets more deformed, little
force change result in significant deformation – Yielding;
and spring cannot retain original shape/size – Plasticity
• Interval OB – The spring is elastic (B – elastic limit point)
• Interval OA – Within this region: spring length change is
directly proportional to magnitude of the deforming
force acting on the spring – Hooke’s law.
(A – proportionality limit point)
• From point B, the spring undergoes transition from
temporal deformation to permanent deformation when
subjected to a deforming force.
• At C, yielding commences (Yielding is a process during
which little force change leads to significant/large
deformation)
• At point B, the spring acquires plasticity – undergoes
plastic deformation )
• Ultimate force (at point F) – Maximum magnitude of
deforming force a spring can tolerate
• Ductile material is a material that can be easily
deformed and undergoes a lot of deformation before
rupturing
• Brittle material ‘suddenly’ breaks (without undergoing
significant magnitude of deformation)
• Deformation can occur beyond point D up to E, only
when magnitude of deforming force gradually reduces
• Point of fracture/rupture, G – Spring breaks up; the
spring cannot be elongated further
• Within interval OA, Hooke’s law is applicable: Fs α ΔL.
• Elastic force applied by a spring on an object is also
called a spring force (and is given by: Fs = k(ΔL)), where
k is known as spring constant (it is a property of a
spring that informs on magnitude of its stiffness)
• An object subjected to an elastic spring force possesses
spring potential energy, PEs = = 0.5k(ΔL)2
e.g. 1 A child presses a spring on a 50 g toy to prevent
it from sliding down against a wall. The spring
is compressed by 3.5 cm. If the coefficients of
kinetic and static friction are 0.197 and 0.238,
respectively, what is the magnitude of the force
applied by the spring on the ball ?
Data: m = 0.05 kg, Δx = 3.5 × 10-2 m, Ff
µk = 0.197 and µs = 0.238 Fapp
Note: Force, Fapp, is force applied by FN
the child on the ball Fg
The figure on the right shows a
free-body diagram of forces acting on the toy
Thus, (+Fapp) + (-FN) = 0.0 N . . . (i)
and (+Ff) + (-Fg) = 0.0 N . . . (ii)

Where, Fg = m(9.8 m.s-2), Ff = µsFN)

Thus, Fapp = (Ff /µs) = (m × 9.8 m.s-2)/(µs)
=
Deformation of a surface area
• An object can undergo deformation due to a deforming
force being applied on part of, or its entire surface area
• Magnitude of force per area over which it acts is known
as the stress
Magnitude of the deformaing force
Stress, σ =
Area upon which the force acts
• Magnitude of dimensional deformation per original
dimension, due to a deforming force upon it, is known as
the strain:
Magnitude of deformation ΔL Δ𝐴 ΔV
Strain, ε = ; ;
Original dimension/s Lo 𝐴o Vo
• As magnitude of the applied deforming force on part of
or the entire area increases, so does the magnitude of
atomic elastic force within it
(Recall. At any instant, magnitude of total elastic force
acting on the object is equal to that of the deforming force
when the system is in equilibrium, but their directions are
opposite each other)
• When moderate stress is applied on an object:
magnitude of the stress is directly proportional to the
strain the object undergoes (Hooke’s law): σ α ε
• Types of deformation linked to stress:
• For the tensile and compressive deformations along
one dimension: σ = Eε (where E is Young’s modulus)
• For Shear deformation (due to shearing force):
σ = Gε (where G is shear modulus)
• Volumetric compressive or tensile deformation :
ΔP = -Bε, (B - bulk modulus) where ΔP is pressure
change on an object being deformed
• Modulus is a measure of ‘ease/difficult’ to deform an
object. It is linked to type of deformation the object
undergoes and the nature of the material it’s made of.
Types of deformation linked to stress:

ΔL

• For one-dimensional tensile and

compressive deformations: σ = Eε
(where E is Young’s modulus) ΔL

ΔL
• One-dimensional shear deformation:
σ = Gε (G – shear modulus)
Volumetric deformation (i.e. three-dimensional)

• For volumetric deformation:

ΔP = -Bε (where ε = ((V – Vo)/Vo),
ΔP is the change of pressure on
the surface of the object.
• B – bulk modulus
• Negative in ΔP = -Bε is due to V
fact that when pressure Vo
increases, volume decreases
(and vice versa).
• Modulus used depends on the type of deformation
that an object is subjected to.
• Moduli magnitudes also depend on the
molecular/atomic make-up of a material and
conditions under which it was prepared.
• To a lesser extent, they also depend on the
atmospheric pressure and temperature that the object
is subjected to.

• Gases and liquids only have bulk moduli

 Material E (N.m-2) G (N.m-2) B (N.m-2)
Iron 10 × 1010 70 × 109 90 × 1010
Aluminium 70 × 109 25 × 109 70 × 109
Steel 20 × 1010 80 × 109 14 × 1010
Brass 10 × 1010 35 × 109 80 × 109
Concrete 20 × 109 12 × 109
Wood 10 × 109 10 × 108
Mercury 25 × 108
Air 10 × 104
Water 20 × 108
• Values at normal pressure and temperature.
• Magnitudes depend on the alloy, substance purity, grain directions etc.
e.g. 2 A 0.7 m tall brass cylinder is 0.3 m wide and rests
on a horizontal surface.
2.1 By how much shall its length change upon a
1000 kg mass being placed on top of it?
2.3 By how many degrees shall the cylinder be
deflected upon 0.5 MN shearing force being
applied on each of its circular surfaces, but
along opposite directions?
 Given: Lo = 0.7 m, d = 0.3 m,
ΔL m = 1000 kg, Ebrass = 1010 N.m-2
Lo
2.1 Hooke’s law: ΔL = (Ebrass F Lo)/A
Where F = m × (9.8 m.s-2)
and A = πd2/4

2.2 We have: F2 = 2(0.5 × 106 N) and

Gbrass = 35 × 1010 N.m-2

Therefore θ = tan-1(ΔL/lLo) = tan-1((GbrassF)/A)

σ (N.m-2) Tensile stress – strain graph Regions
A - Elastic region
i ii B - Plastic region
σul
i - Strain hardening
z ii - Necking
y
Points
x x - Proportionality
limit
y – Yield point
z - Point of rupture
Stress
σul - Ultimate strength
O ε
A B
• Strain hardening –This is a process that takes place while
a material (metal) undergoes plastic deformation
• Also known as work-hardening or cold-working
• During the strain hardening process, the material
becomes stronger (while undergoing plasticity), as
magnitude of strain increases
• Strain hardening is due to the increased resistance to
‘dislocations’ movements within a material
• Ultimate strength, σult – Maximum stress that an object
can be subjected to
• Stress greater than σult result in a material fracture
Dislocations and strain hardening
Strain Hardening
During plastic deformation, around the upper yield point,
dislocations start moving within a material.
Around the lower yield point, they dislocations start
restricting each others movement, and those of atoms
within the material; at the same time, more of them are
being formed . Theses processes result in the hardening
of the material.
• Necking – A process in which an object subjected to
tensile stress develops significant reduction
of size around the midpoint, along its length.
Fracturing eventually takes place at the end
of this process.

• Necking hardly takes place in brittle materials

Poisson effect
• Throughout the deformation process, material density
remains ‘almost’ constant or changes slightly
• Length change, implies change along a lateral direction
• Tensile/compressive deformation leads
to the reduction/increase of size of
the thickness (width) of an object
along a direction perpendicular to
that of the deforming force
• The effect is known as the
Poisson effect
• Poisson’s effect can be observed when the deforming
force is either tensile or compressive.
Measure of Poisson effect of a material is known as
the Poisson’s ratio
• Poisson ratio of an object is a measure of transverse/
lateral strain to axial/longitudinal strain i.e. Poisson’s
ratio, ν = -(εtransverse / εaxial)
• Poisson’s ratio is a unit-less number that informs on
how elastic is a material that an object is made of (The
more elastic the object, the higher is its ν value)
• Poisson’s effect is observed also when an object is
compressed. In that case, the object’s length
decreases while its girth increases.
• Poisson’s ratio values range from about -1.0 to about
0.5

• Auxetic materials – Materials that when stretched

become thicker perpendicular to the applied force
(become thinner when compressed)
Poisson’s ratio of some materials
Material Poisson ratio
Copper 0,33
Steel 0,31
Concrete 0,16
Granite 0,18
Rubber 0,42
Glass 0,22
e.g. 3 A uniform granite cube, side-length = 2.1 cm, is
compressed along the z-direction by 0.6 %.
3.1 What happens to length along the x and y
directions?
3.2 What percentage change takes place along
the x-direction?
3.3 What is the final length along y-directions?
Given: Lo = 0.021 m, ΔL = -(0.6/100)Lo, ν = 0.18

3.1 Will expand along both dimensions +z

+y
3.2 Since ν = -(εtransverse ÷ εaxial) +x
and εaxial = - ΔL/Lo.
Therefore, εtransverse =

3.3 εaxial = -[ ΔLx/y ÷ Lo]

Therefore, ΔLx/y =
Bulk modulus
•Deformation along three dimensions has an
effect on the volume of an object subjected
to such tensile/compressive ‘volumetric’
stress.
•The measure of uniform stress or pressure
change along all dimensions per volumetric
strain on an object is known as the bulk
modulus, B, of the object: B = -ΔP ÷ (ΔV/Vo)
V ΔV = V – Vo
Arrows represent
Vo
pressure
e.g. 4 A piece of aluminium is surrounded by air at
a pressure of 1.01 × 105 Pa. The aluminium
is placed in a vacuum chamber where
pressure is reduced to zero. Determine the
fractional change, ΔV/Vo, in the volume of
aluminium?
Data: Pi = 1.01 × 105 Pa, B = 70 × 109 N.m-2
and Pf = 0.0 Pa

We have ΔP = -B(ΔV/Vo)
But, ΔP = Pf - Pi = 0.0 Pa

Therefore, ΔV/Vo = -(ΔP/B) =