Belay Wuzer SSIP Irr. Agr. Report

SNNPR WATER & IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT BUREAE IRRIGATION CONSTRUCTION
& SCHEME ADMINSTRATION AGENCY
easibility Study of Wuzer Small Scale Irrigation

Project in Gurage Zone –Meskan Wereda
Irrigation Agronomy Draft Report
Belay G. Hiwot
March, 2015
Irrigation Agronomy Draft Feasibility Report of Wuzer Small Scale Irrigation Project
Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................... 3
1.1. BACKGROUND..............................................................................................................................................3
1.2. SCOPE OF THE STUDY..............................................................................................................................4
1.3. OBJECTIVE OF IRRIGATION AGRONOMY STUDY.....................................................................................4
1.4. PROJECT RATIONAL..................................................................................................................................5
1.5. REVIEW OF POLICIES AND STRATEGIES..................................................................................................5
1.6. REVIEW OF PREVIOUS STUDIES...............................................................................................................7
2. APPROACHES AND METHODOLOGY OF DATA COLLECTION................................................7
3. EXISTING CONDITION OF TARGET PROGRAM AREAS...........................................................9
3.1 LOCATION AND TOPOGRAPHY..................................................................................................................9
3.2 AGRO CLIMATIC CONDITION OF THE TARGET PROJECT AREA........................................................10
3.3 RAINFALL DISTRIBUTION OF THE TARGET PROJECT AREA..................................................................11
3.4 WATER RESOURCE..................................................................................................................................12
3.5 SOIL CONDITION OF THE PROJECT AREA……………………………………………………………………………………………..12
3.6 LAND USE OF TARGET AREAS................................................................................................................13
3.7 LIVELIHOODS OF TARGET PROGRAM AREAS.........................................................................................14
3.8 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN THE TARGET AREA............................................................................14
3.8.1. Rainfed crop production pattern and cropping calendar...................................................14
3.8.2. Irrigation and/or Belg crop production and water management....................................15
3.8.3. Existing farming systems and practices.................................................................................15
3.8.4. Agronomic practices......................................................................................................................15
3.8.5. Crop Protection...............................................................................................................................15
3.8.6. Existing agricultural input supply and technology use levels..........................................17
3.9 INSTITUTIONAL SUPPORT SERVICES IN THE PROGRAM TARGET AREAS..............................................17
3.9.1. Agricultural extension communication....................................................................................17
3.9.2. Agricultural research support....................................................................................................18
3.9.3. Agricultural Cooperatives and Unions.....................................................................................18
3.10 AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION CONSTRAINTS IN THE PROJECT AREA.................................................18
4. CROP PRODUCTION WITH PROJECT CONDITION..................................................................19
4.1. CHOICE OF CROPPING SYSTEMS AND CROP ROTATION.......................................................................19
4.2. CRITERIA FOR CROP SELECTION WITH PROJECT CONDITION..............................................................20
4.3. PROPOSED CROPPING PATTERN AND INTENSITIES...............................................................................21
4.4. AGRONOMIC PRACTICES & PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGIES RECOMMENDED....................................22
4.4.1. Maize (Zea mays)...........................................................................................................................22
4.4.2. Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. and T. turgidum L)..................................................................25
4.4.3. Fababean.........................................................................................................................................29
4.4.4. Haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgare).............................................................................................30
4.4.5. Onion (Allium species)..................................................................................................................31
4.4.6. Tomato (Lycopersicon esculenetum).........................................................................................33
4.4.7. Cabbage...........................................................................................................................................34
4.5. RECOMMENDED CROP PRODUCTION INPUTS WITH PROJECT CONDITION..........................................36
4.6. ESTABLISHMENT OF CROP SEED AND SEEDLING GROWERS GROUP..................................................36
5. CROP WATER REQUIREMENT WITH PROJECT CONDITION...............................................37
5.1. LENGTH OF GROWING SEASON AND KC DETERMINATION..................................................................37
5.2. ESTIMATION OF EVAPOTRANSPIRATION (ETO) AND EFFECTIVE RAINFALL.......................................38
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5.3. CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT OF PROJECT COMMAND AREA..................................40

5.4. IRRIGATION SCHEDULING (DEPTH, INTERVAL AND IRRIGATION PERIOD)...........................................42
5.5. PROPOSED METHOD OF IRRIGATION.....................................................................................................44
5.6. WATER MANAGEMENT............................................................................................................................45
5.6.1. WEED MANAGEMENT.........................................................................................................................45
5.6.2. APPROPRIATE CROPPING CALENDAR.................................................................................................45
5.6.3. PROMOTING COMPOSTING AND MULCHING......................................................................................45
5.6.4. WIND BREAKS ALONG FARM BORDERS............................................................................................45
5.6.5. ESTABLISHING IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE...................................................46
6. YIELD PROJECTION WITH THE PROJECT CONDITION........................................................46
7. PROPOSED EXTENSION COMMUNICATION AND CAPACITY BUILDING...........................47
7.1. AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION COMMUNICATION......................................................................................47
7.2. CAPACITY BUILDING................................................................................................................................48
7.3. ESTABLISHMENT OF HORTICULTURAL NURSERIES..............................................................................48
8. POST-HARVEST MANAGEMENT OF FORAGE AND CROPS...................................................48
9. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.....................................................................................49
10. REFERENCE……………………………………………………………………………………………………51
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1. Introduction
1.1.Background
Wuzer Small Scale Irrigation Project found in Gurage Administrative Zone of Meskan
wereda in Wegeram kebele, at the specific target areas called Koretune and Gibe village.
Geographically the targeted area is located 37 432245 -432639 North and USB 904993-
904839 East with in an altitude range of 2148- 2100 meters above sea level.. This altitude
is highly suitable to produce diversity of crops throughout the year if water is available in
the form of irrigation. Meskan Woreda has dense population annual crops as well as
perennials such as “Enset” which is named as a false banana. Farming is totally
traditional which is done almost manually.
The main income source of the local community in the Woreda and also in the target area
is farming mainly crop production followed by livestock husbandry. The major crops in the
project target area are teff, maize, wheat and barley from cereals. Pulses such as haricot
bean, pea, and others are produced in the target area. Traditionally Irrigation crops are
also produced in farmer’s small plot of land including Onion, Potato, Cabbage, Carrot and
Pepper.
The rationale behind this irrigation study is to harness the huge potential agricultural
productivity of the area which is constrained by lack of irrigation water. Secondly, there is
a very high demand of irrigation crop production by the farming community where the
farming community has tried to divert the Wuzer River by their traditional means. This
shows the level of interest of the farmers to use the river water.
The target project area is highly productive with suitable soil type, climatic condition, land
slope and other parameters. The area is found in mid-land (Woyna-Dega agro-climatic
zones) which is highly suitable for crop diversity. The existing situation of the target area
shows that crop productivity of the area is said to be medium due to better use of
agricultural inputs during the rainy season. The level of extension communication is also
said to be good where extension agents are supporting the farming community.
Generally, this irrigation agronomy feasibility study tries to investigate the feasibility of the
project in regard to irrigation crop production. The study employed methodologies
including technical investigation, Focus Group Discussion (FGD), Key Informant Interview,
secondary data collection and review of other study components of the project. Analysis of
irrigation crop water requirement has been done by using CropWat Software version 8.0.
1.2 Scope of the study

The study focuses on the assessment of agricultural development practices, irrigation crop
production situation, farming systems, livelihood means and constraints in the study
Woreda in general and in the target project Kebele in particular. Investigation of existing
crop production input use levels, level of extension communication, level of technology
utilization for crop development, production challenges and constraints, irrigation
practices are the main focus areas of the study. Based on the existing situation, the study
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proposed major cereal, perennial crops, vegetable crops, production methods, irrigation
water management and input use for the success of the project with the project situation.
Generally, the scope of study includes but not limited to:
Review of agricultural development policies, programs and strategies for agricultural

development of the target areas and region;
Proposing agricultural development scenarios for crop production;
Determination of Crop water requirement of crops, calculation of reference evapo-
transpiration, irrigation requirements, and analysis of water requirement;
Review of existing study documents and preparation of feasibility reports for the
target project;
Determining project-specific crops (cropping patterns and area coverage) and
determination of field irrigation water requirements;
Identification of current land use categories including crop-specific distinctions,
supplemented by field visits and inspection for broad verification purposes;
Incorporating the latest available or study generated data and information on crop
moisture requirements for optimum yield and irrigation water application;
Formulation and quantification of crop type area coverage and irrigated agriculture
development plans including the potential distribution of land areas between the
various farm models identified for the development of the area and designing
development scenarios for the program in the target areas
And finally delivering precise and qualified irrigation agronomy report is the target.
1.3 Objective of irrigation agronomy study

This irrigation agronomy and agricultural planning study is one component of Wuzer
Small Scale Irrigation Feasibility Study documents which mainly focuses on agricultural
planning and irrigation management in the target project area for modern irrigation crop
production.
General Objective: The general objective of this irrigation agronomy study is to evaluate
the existing crop production situation and designing future feasible irrigation crop
production in the target area to attain potential yields and crops which in turn makes
target area farmer’s self-reliant and surplus producers for available markets.
Specific Objectives:
Assessing the overall crop production and irrigation practices in the target
area as a prerequisite for project planning;
Assessment and analysis of potential constraints of crop production and
livelihood improvements to design solutions for agricultural modernization;
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Determining irrigation water requirement and irrigation scheduling of the

project area by analysing the climatic condition, soil factors and crop types of
the area;
Defining agricultural planning with special concern of crop production
cropping calendar, cropping pattern, agronomic practices and input
requirements for production;
Proposing overall farm management, extension support and research with the
project condition and the way forwards;
To identify and describe management options for selected land utilization
types recommended for the project area;
Setting way forwards for future irrigation & rain fed farming systems of the
project.
1.4 Project rational

Meskan woreda is highly water demanding area related with high level irrigation practices
and high level dependency on crop production and livestock husbandry. But most of the
irrigation schemes are traditionally diverted with local resources; wood and mud and
straw which are frequently washed away with a single flood at the expense of labor and
irrigation water and also crop production. The local community is suffering from
construction of seasonal diversion structures along rivers with sand filled sacks and
wooden materials. This frequent seasonal construction to harvest the seasonal water flow
is another burden for the environment where large quantities of sand and soil field sacks
are washed away with a single flood.
Moreover, the land is highly productive and suitable for irrigation crop production where
maximum yield can be harvested. The land is well drained, with gentle slope currently
producing Teff, Barley, Maize, Wheat and Perennials during the wet season by farmers’
preference but can produce all types of crops. The area can also allow the farming
community to produce two crops per year with optimum farm management.
To address high and potentially rising levels of vulnerability of the local community for
water scarcity in the area both for livestock and irrigation purpose, constructing modern
irrigation schemes is unquestionable that can increase efficient use of the available
irrigation water sources, Wuzer The demand of the farming community for irrigation water
is more than expected. Farmers are highly volunteer and willing to contribute for the
construction of the irrigation schemes not only in kind and their labor force but also in
monetary terms if the project is implemented on time. This is addressed during public
consultation of the respective Kebele.
Hence, the construction of the irrigation scheme with modern structures and modernizing
development of the area has many justifications. First and foremost, available water can
be available for the local community on time; second, there is huge potential irrigable land
that can transform the livelihood of the farming community just by availing irrigation
water with optimum management practices. Moreover, the project can have a very high
backward and forward linkage in the target area where many industries are available
which demand the agricultural products.
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1.5 Review of policies and strategies

The key policy documents relevant to agricultural development are:(i)Agricultural
Development Led Industrialization (ii) Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP-II), which
promotes commercial agriculture, including private investment where abundant land
exists; (iii) the Agriculture Sector Policy Investment Framework (2010-2020), a road map
which identifies priority areas and estimates investment costs; (iv) regional development
plans which reflect the four pillars of the Comprehensive African Agricultural Development
Program (CAADP); the Ethiopian Strategic Investment Framework (ESIF); and several
agencies concerned with agricultural development activities including the promotion of
sustainable land management
Having many policies, programs and strategies, the realization of most of the policies and
programs is lagging behind mainly in availing water sources both for livestock, and crop
production, agribusiness and extension support unlike their ambitious plan of action.
Moreover, frequent unexpected drought and climate change and climate variability in
Ethiopia are the major challenge to realize the policies and strategies. Despite efforts made
to commercialize and transform agriculture from subsistence crop production to
production of high value crops, performance has been below expectations. National
policies and strategies continue to prioritize irrigation and the expansion of agriculture in
potential development corridors of the country among which the target area is the one
located in the SNNRS.
Ensuring sustainable agriculture through the development of natural resources, aligning

the agriculture development plan with the green economy development strategy coupled
with expansion of irrigation developments are the strategic directions to be pursued with
regard to natural resource conservation and management. Enhancing the income of
farming households through progressive transition from producing subsistence crops into
high value crops, putting in place efficient agricultural marketing system, and enabling
the youth and women in rural areas benefit from agricultural development are the other
strategic directions to be pursued during the GTP II period.
GTP-II of Ethiopia has a plan to carry out sustainable agricultural development enhancing
its productivity through improved water utilization and agro-ecological based irrigation
schemes.Over 4 million hectare of land has been planned to be developed by strengthening
irrigation works that can be undertaken by smallholder farmers during the GTP-II period.
Besides, medium and large scale irrigation development and dam constructions are high
level focus areas of federal and regional government institutions. Hence, Wuzer Small
Scale Irrigation project is one of such planned irrigation schemes in the second GTP of the
nation as well as the region.
1.6 Review of previous studies

Wuzer Small Scale Irrigation project area has no any study document in the previous
times. The project area traditional irrigation practice goes back to many decades and some
elderly said that the irrigation practice back to many decades. Currently, the source of
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prospective irrigation schemes is used for multipurpose; livestock, human consumption,

irrigation and for other domestic purposes.
Hence, this irrigation study is highly mandatory for this new project site related with area
expansion due to efficiency. The study includes up to data of the area for better irrigation
agronomy crop production and agricultural planning. Moreover, the size of irrigation area
will be by far greater than the previous one.
2 Approaches and Methodology of Data Collection

Data and information generation is the primary input for better situation analysis and to
produce reality based report. Because, situation analysis of one target area is the bases to
know the target area potential, gaps and future prediction on what to do and not to do. To
do so, primary data collection including participatory focus group discussion, key
informant interview, technical investigation and observation of the target project area were
major data and information generation means. Public consultation at Kebele level was also
another technique to create public awareness and to hear their views towards the project.
Moreover, secondary data has been collected from regional, zonal, Woreda and Kebele level
offices. Generally, the flowing methods of data collection were employed.
 Participatory Focus Group Discussion with target beneficiaries: FGDs were held
with different groups of the community to investigate their level of production
system and overall situation of the target beneficiaries with the pre-defined
checklists. The participants were nominated by the local leaders based on their
tradition. A total of 12-14 inhabitants were selected for each FGD but more people
in the target area was highly interested and joined the FGD which makes their
number above 24 and the discussion was valuable and useful for accessing
firsthand information. The community was repeatedly promising to contribute in
the project construction period both in labor force and construction materials.
 Technical observation and investigation: In order to have a preview on the

existing situation of the command area, a keen observation and investigation was
conducted in each block of the potential target area and technical investigation
results used for data and information probing of the secondary data. Since there is
a rural road access in the target Kebele, visual observation and technical
investigation of the target area has been conducted.
 Secondary data collection: Access to secondary data was more than expected that
everyone in at Woreda and Zonal levels supplies the secondary data in an organized
soft copy. Secondary data have been collected from respective sectors including
Zonal Department of Water Resource Development, and their respective hierarchies,
and Woreda offices. Even, the Kebele level offices have sufficient data even if it is
politically affiliated.
 Review of policies and programs: Different policies and programs were reviewed to
know the level of attention of the national as well as regional governments towards
irrigation projects and also for agricultural development in the years to come and to
recommend the way forwards regarding policies and programs. With no question,
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irrigation development is mandatory not only to produce enough food but also to
feed the upcoming industries in Ethiopia.
 Key Informant Interview (KII): To cross check data and information from different
source, KII was held with different persons mainly with those who are well aware of
the local area including extension officers, the elderly and local elders. People were
generous and transparent to forward what they know and what is in their mind.
 Source of climatic data: In order to compute crop water requirement of the area, a
climatic data including rainfall, relative humidity, and sunshine hours, temperature
maximum and minimum are paramount importance. Data of these climatic
elements were collected from nearby metrology stations, Butajira.
 Review of research results: In order to project the yield build-up of each crop
based on other agricultural factors such as availability of improved varieties,
recommended rate of fertilizer, seed rate, and their potential yields was accessed
from research results mainly Worabe agricultural research centre which is located
in the nearby area. The potential yield and suitable varieties are selected based on
the data and information from this research institute and other research
documents of the nation.
 Method of Crop water Determination: CropWat software version 8:0 has been
employed to analyse the crop water requirement, irrigation requirement, irrigation
scheduling and duty of the target area. Since measured data of all climatic elements
are available, Modified Penman method of ETo calculation was used which is the
best method at the current level of estimation.
3 Existing Condition of Target Areas
3.1 Location and Topography

Wuzer Small Scale Irrigation Project is found in Gurage Administrative Zone in Meskan
Woreda. Geographically the targeted area is located 37 432245 -432639 North and USB
904993-904839 East with in an altitude range of 2148- 2100 meters above sea level. The
project area is found at a distance of 140 km from regional town, Hawassa, 8.5 km from
zonal and wereda town Butajira.
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3.2 Agro-Ecology of the Project Area

Identifying and characterizing the agro-ecology of the project area help to identify typical
constraints associated with environment, agriculture and land use system and it also
helps to draw applicable strategies. According to the Ethiopian agro-ecology classification
the Wuzer small-scale irrigation project command area has been classified under (Tepid
sub-humid mid highland) agro-ecology zone. The village Wegeram (Koretune) where the
supposed intervention, Wuzer SSIP is therefore, categorized under thermal zone second
(TIII). The identified agro-ecology zone is suitable for the production of wheat, barley, teff, ,
haricot bean, chickpea, lentils, Faba bean, field pea, vegetables and citrus fruits. The table
for Wuzer SSIP indicates the temperature range, altitude, rainfall, thermal zone and ETo
(evapo-transpiration).
Table: 1 the climate of Wuzer small-scale irrigation project
Temperature Total Altitude Mean ETo Therma Agro-Ecology

Range (oc) annual rain Range (mm/day) l Zone Zone
fall (mm)
10.3 oc – 1,006mm 2,100m to 3.37mm/day TIII Tepid sub-
24.1 oc 2,145m humid mid
highland
3.2.1 Length of Growing Period

Length of growing period (LGP) is the time when moisture supply exceeds half-potential
evapo-transpiration. As it drawn from the LocalClim10.0 Wuzer SSIP, intervention area
identified as LGP type six having total growing period 240 days (125 humid and 115
moist). In such type of growing period, cropping secured for annual crops and perennial
crops begin to appear suitable.
The growing period begins by 8-February and ends by 5-October. The graph above shows
that the possible growing period at Wuzer SSIP. The green color indicates moist period,
blue color indicates humid period (18-May to 21-September) and the yellow color stands
for dry season.
3.2,2 Description of Topography of the Project Area

Describing the land topography of Wuzer small-scale irrigation project area help the
analysis of land suitability for the proposed irrigation system, drainage situation and
water logging occurrence probability, susceptibility to land degradation and land
management practices. According to soil and land evaluation study result the slope of
Wuzer SSIP area ranges in between flat and moderately steep undulating type and the
result summarized in table.
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Table: 2 Slope classification and range in percentage for command area of Wuzer SSIP
S/
Slop Class Slope range Area (ha) Area (%)
N
1 Flat or almost flat 0-2% 7.4 7%
2 Gently slope 2-8% 32.4 31%
3 Slopping 8-15% 37.6 35 %
4 Moderately Steep 15-30% 28.2 21 %
5 Steep 30-50% 6.4 6%
Total 110 100%
3.2.3 Agro-Climatic Condition of the Project Area

Climatically, the target project Woreda, Meskan, is found in the mid-lands with optimum
average temperature and bimodal type of rainfall which has better length of growing period
unlike other areas. Traditionally, this long rainy season is considered as “Meher” and
summer season even if there is no clear boundary between the two rainy seasons and
there is no specific crop harvest the so called “belg” rainy season. Long season crops
mainly teff, barley, maize and wheat are planted during “Meher” season and extended from
April to October months for harvesting.
3.3 Source of climate data

Obviously meteorological stations, particularly class I sparsely distributed over the
country Butajira meteorology station selected as a climate data source for the project in
that it is relatively nearest class I meteorology station found in the country. Both
community consultation and rainfall-data analysis method used to determine the rainfall
pattern and intensity for the project area.
Table: 3 Summary of climatic condition and climatic elements of the project area
Month Min Max Humidity Wind Sun Rad ETo
Temp Temp
°C °C % km/day hours MJ/m²/day mm/month
January 10.5 26.9 68 74 5.7 9.1 47.91
February 12 27.6 71 81 6.6 12.2 62.34
March 12.8 27.2 71 84 7.7 16.5 97.12
April 12.9 27 75 92 7.2 18.6 111.17
May 13 27.1 79 76 6.1 18.6 118.07
June 13.1 25.4 78 74 5.8 18.7 113.66
July 13 24.3 80 64 4.8 17 105.11
August 12.9 23.8 79 57 4.5 15.4 93.15
September 12.9 24 82 61 6.5 15.8 84.93
October 12.8 24.3 79 69 4.6 10.8 61.05
November 11.6 26.1 70 67 5.5 9.4 48.35
December 10.1 25.7 66 71 4.4 7.4 41.43
Average 12.3 25.8 75 73 5.8 14.1 984.29
Source: Ethiopian Metrological Agency and own analysis
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3.4 Rainfall distribution of the target project area

Southern Nations and Nationalities People Region of Ethiopia is an area of immense
rainfall and better distribution that makes the region all year round green. Even if this
rainfall is in short of covering two crop seasons for effective crop, the rainfall distribution
is said to be good which is stretched with in the months April to October. The main rainfall
period stretches from April to September months. However, according to the farmers focus
group discussion, the rainfall distribution is highly variable which is a challenge to predict
it and schedule the farm activities in the past two decades. Rainfall is becoming
increasingly unreliable with its frequency and amount.
Climatic data obtained respective metrological station shows that the area has a total
rainfall amount of 1163.5 mm/annum while the effective rainfall is 667.8mm/year having
a variation of 485.7mm. The rainfall is sufficient enough to produce diversified crops
during the rainy season. Sometimes the local community produces two crops with this
amount of rainfall by planting short season varieties such as haricot bean in early
September and harvesting on December to free the land for main season crops.
Table: 4 Total Rain fall & Effective Rain fall

Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Rain 29.2 28.4 66.4 75.9 116.6 161.3 217.5 211.6 135.8 68.8 30.2 21.8
(mm)
Eff. 7.5 7.0 29.8 36.7 69.3 105.0 150.0 145.3 84.6 31.3 8.1 3.1
Rain
(mm)
250
Rainfall and effective rainfalll in mm/month
200
150
100
50
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Rain mm Eff rain mm
Figure 1: Rainfall and effective in mm/month of the area

Source: Ethiopian Metrological Agency
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3.5 Water resource

Water resource for irrigation is a scarce in the area where Wuzer is the main source of
irrigation for many years. Water for domestic purpose and livestock is available from tap
water and River Wuzer in that order. The Woreda has many water sources for irrigation
and livestock watering. Rainfall is an ample source in the target area that can be
harvested for all services. The base flow recorded in critical season, Jan, by using floating
method is about 70 lt/sec after dawn stream release. The local peoples (farmers) also
confirm January is the driest month, there for, the study team decides to use this flow for
the demand and supply analysis of the project.
According to the agronomy report, the maximum gross diversion requirement, Duty is 0.92
l/s/hectares in the month of January; therefore, the project has potential water resource
to irrigate more than 70 hectares of net irrigable land in dry season irrigation time if other
water storage option like (night storage) is designed.
3.6 Soil condition of the project area

Soils of the project area and its environment have been studied at field level and further
verifications of laboratory analysis were carried out. The result of the study indicated that
the soil type of the command area is dominated by clay loam soil. They are characterized
as having a moderately low runoff potential due to moderate infiltration rates. These soils
primarily consist of moderately well drained soils with medium textures with brawn color
soil. Thus, the soils in the command area are most suitable for surface irrigation due to its
optimum water intake rates and high soil moisture storage capacities. They require less
frequent water applications. The depth and structure of the soil also permit high storage of
water to sustain plants for long periods between irrigations and during dry spells in rain
fed cropping.
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3.7 Description of Land Use/Land Cover

The main purpose of describing the land use/land cover for Wuzer SSIP to investigate the
dominant land uses experiences within the command area; to visualize level of soil fertility
from crop performance; to examine the extent of water logging problem and vulnerability
to erosion. According to the data from respective Kebele offices, most of the land area is
suitable for crop production and livestock husbandry. In the existing land use of the
Wergeram and Damu kebele are dominated by land used for cultivation (66%) followed by
forest and bushes.
According to the data from respective Kebeles offices, most of the land area is suitable for
crop production and livestock husbandry. There has been an increase in the area of land
cultivated and a consequent decrease in the area of land open for grazing associated with
high population pressure from time to time. This has been accompanied by a move from
communally to individually held land except burial areas. People have household level
grazing lands around homesteads to keep their livestock. There is no any free grazing in
the target area related with intensive farming.
Table:5 existing land use of Damu kebele of kela wereda

Area (ha)
Land use pattern %
Cultivated land 782 53.4
Annual crops 265.5 -
Perennial crop 516.5 -
Grazing land 40.4 2.7
Forest and bush cover 494 40.6
Others 49 3.3
Total 1465.4 100
3.7.1 Land Tenure and Landholding at LSSIP

During the community consultation, it was identified that most of the growers at Wuzer
SSIP area have 0.125 ha to 2.5 ha (on average 0.50 ha of land) per household. Still the
farming households own the land.
3.7.2 Livelihoods of target program areas

Meskan is an agrarian Woreda with approximately 90%of the inhabitants depending on
crop and livestock production. Production is as usual traditional on small holdings and
everything manual way of doing in the past many centuries. Most households cultivate
teff, maize, barley, wheat, and pulses and also keep livestock including cattle, sheep and
goats in small sizes. Crop production is highly intensified related with reduced land size
and use of production inputs including fertilizer, improved seed, chemicals and better
agronomic practices including crop protection, farming frequencies and other practices.
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Irrigation practice counts many years back for perennial and vegetable crop production by
some innovative individuals. However, traditional diversion structures with mud and wood
structures reduced the water use efficiency and sometimes a single flood washes out the
structures at the expense of crop failure. Some of the farmers in the target area are
involved in petty trade. Generally, livelihood is highly dependent on mixed farming, crop
production and livestock husbandry.
3.8 Agricultural production in the target area

3.8.1 Rain fed crop production pattern and cropping calendar
A variety of crops are grown in Meskan Woredas and in the specific target area wegeram
& Damu kebeles ( at Koretune and Gebe village) Teff, Maize, Barley, Wheat, Haricot
bean,and other vegetables including Onion, Pepper ,Potato, Carrot, and other vegetables.
Teff is the major crop related with it is staple food for the target area community. Even if
the farming community is producing these stated crops, the area can produce diversity of
crops which is suitable for all kinds of crops. Perennial crops mainly inset and “enset”is
also common trend in the target area.
Table 6: Major existing rain fed, crops, productivity and cropping pattern
Kebele Yield/ha Cropping Calendar

Sowing Harvesting
Teff 3-5 July October
Maize 35 Apr October
Barley 23 July September
Wheat 24 June October
Field Pea 15 June September
Faba-beans 22 June September
Source: Respective Woreda secondary data, 2021.
The table above shows that maize teff accounts the lions share from cereal crops followed
by maize and wheat. Cropping calendar of the target area is based on the rainfall pattern,
crop varieties and soli type. Crops of long season variety which are planted on black soils
are planted during early shower of the rainfall which is scientifically accepted. This
enables the crops to tolerate the water logging problem on black soils. Length of growing
period of crops is also another factor for cropping calendar.
3.8.2 Irrigation and crop production and water management

Irrigation crop production is a common practice for many decades producing both
perennial and vegetables. However, water is a scarce resource which is limiting the high
level demand of irrigation crop production. The scarcity of irrigation water is aggravated by
traditional diversion structure washed-out by a single flood and irrigation methods, wild
flooding. The level of demand for irrigation crop production is very high by the farming
community and they are trying their best to have irrigation crop production where their
level of effort is unusual in other areas.
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3.8.3 Existing farming systems and practices

The farming system of the target project area is said to be crop based integrated farming
where crop production is the major activity followed by livestock production and farm
operations are highly dependent on rainfall pattern in terms of land preparations, planting
times, weeding, harvesting practices, and marketing of produce. Generally, teff, maize
followed by wheat are dominant crops in the target project area where 63% of the target
Woreda Kebeles are covered with teff. Vegetables are produced by diverting different rivers
by traditional means and modern irrigation diversion structures.
The farming system is to a large extent dominated by multiple cropping of productive and
marketable cash crops such as vegetables and cereals. In the target area where irrigation
water is available vegetables (onion, pepper, and tomato) are common vegetable crops. Use
of improved inputs (seed and fertilizer) and technologies by smallholders is at its optimum
level related with land fertility deterioration and having cash at had from cash crops
marketing. Intercropping of inset and chat, cereals and beans is a common practice in the
target area. Crop rotation is common by rotating cereals with vegetables even if most
rotation is cereals.
3.8.4 Agronomic practices

Agronomic practices of the farming community is said to be totally manual even if it is
intensive. They plough their land with oxen drawn plough with a total absence of use of
tractors for land tillage. Land is ploughed mostly three to four times (3-4x) that the range
shows the cultivation frequency for soil and crop types. One of the major limitations in the
farming system is very low level of plough depth which is mostly less than 15 cm which is
the major factor for land crusting and low level of infiltration.
Row planting is a common practice in the target area for large cereals including maize and
vegetables’ while other types of cereal and beans are broadcasting. Vegetables are planted
in rows during irrigation season even if spacing is not based on the actual
recommendation.
Weeding and cultivation is commonly by hand pulling of the weeds and use of oxen
plough. Household labor and hired labor at critical times are the common resource used
for weeding and cultivation. Two to four times of weeding is common in most crops since
15
there is high level weed infestation in the target area. Both types of weeds, broad leaved
and grass species are common in the area which makes a challenge to crop production
and productivity. Invasive weeds including congress have infested the crop fields but
highly controlled by the farming community. Harvesting is also commonly done by human
labor related with higher family size. Threshing of sorghum and maize is done manually.
Regarding crop protection, pests and diseases are part of the major production factors
related with lack of fallowing and serious planning of crop protection. Most of the farmers
in the target areas use chemicals crops protection and hand pulling for weed removal and
control of vegetables insects. The level of pest infestation in the project area including
weeds, insect pests and diseases is said to be at its highest level and are predominant
factors for low level of yield. Diversified weed species are found in the target areas
interfering with the crop growth. The most economic important insect pest in the target
areas are army fall worm, stalk borer and cut worm on maize and ball worm on beans.
What makes special in the agronomic practice of the target areas is selection of crops
based their soil type, water holding capacity and other criteria unlike other areas of
blanket recommendation. Farmers are selecting different varieties of maize in the same
Kebele based on their soil type and altitudinal difference and many varieties are planted in
the target Kebeles. Teff (Cr-37), Maize varieties of pioneer, BH540 and BH661 BH660,
barley of HB-1307 are demanded area preferred in the target command area.
3.8.5 Crop Protection

Crop production in the target project area is highly challenged by crop pests, weeds and
diseases related with lack of land fallow and scientific crop protection
Table:7 Crop Insect Pests, Weeds and Diseases and Common Protection Means
Common Weeds and Protection means Common Insect pests and protection
means
Weed Name Projection means Pests Means protection
Guzotia spps Hand weeding &use of chemicals Shoot fly Use of chemicals
Coyndon dactylon Hand weeding and cultivation Cut worm Crop rotation
Datura sp Hand weeding & use of chemicals ball worm Crop rotation
Cyperus sps Hand weeding Aphids No protection
Digitaria sp Hand weeding and cultivation Rust sp Use of resistant varieties
Amaharanths spc Han weeding, seed cleaning Powdery Up rooting
mildew
3.8.6 Existing agricultural input supply and technology use levels

Crop production in Meskan is with optimum input use levels for major crops of teff, wheat,
maize and barley; the farmers are applying the recommended rate of fertilizer. Demands
for agricultural inputs remain very high for achieving maximum productivity of
agricultural out comes. Farmers are well aware of the use of inputs and their positive
impacts on production and productivity including fertilizer, improved seeds, chemicals and
management practices associated with better extension communication in the target
Kebeles. Other important inputs for crop cultivation are human and animal laborers
which are available in the farm households.
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Other agricultural technologies including irrigation pumps are used in a limited quantity.
This needs high level promotion and extension communication in the years to come. Crop
varieties used in the project area are specific and soil type based which is recommended
by Agricultural Transformation Agency soil fertility and soil types.
3.9 Institutional support services in the program target areas

3.9.1 Agricultural extension communication
Government extension services, especially in Ethiopia was largely been concerned with
crop agriculture for many years. Extension is the main means of reaching the community
to empower them with scientific means in doing their farm activities. This is also
addressed in the agricultural policies of Ethiopia even if the realization is lagging behind.
In the study areas, Farmers’ Training Centers (FTCs)are available per Kebele bases staffed
with four to five staffs of crop science, livestock expert, natural resource, livestock
technician, and in some places cooperative expert. And their level of effort is also good
trying to demonstrate scientific agricultural production means. Generally, the extension
system needs a strong firm stand, commitment and devotion for an enhanced and
sustainable provision of advisory services to combat frequent drought emanated from
climate change and variability.
3.9.2 Agricultural research support

Research institutions have been established at different locations both at federal and
regional levels to conduct research for increased agricultural productivity and to make the
research results available to farmers and other actors in the agricultural development of
the states. The regional agricultural research centre is working in the region and target
Woreda. However, its level of support for project farming community is at its low level. The
farmers have no any know-how about its existence in the area.
 The research-extension linkage system is weak; so the technologies or innovations

generated are not effectively delivered to farmers or commercialized for the benefit of
end users. During our field work, there is no any research demonstration of
technologies for extension communication in the target project areas who can
bridge the farming community with research outputs and
 Low level of communication between the farming communities with researchers is
also another major challenge in the area.
 Lack of bottom-up approach: Most of the research ideas are emanated from
researchers’ interest rather than the farmers’ problems and challenges.
3.10 Agricultural production constraints in the project area

Agriculture is a risky venture unless it is supported by science and technology. Related
with the current climate change and climate variability, production challenges in the
target area are more or less related with climatic vagaries. There is a long season rainfall
in the target area which lasts from March–October months which is sufficient enough for
annual crops. However, rainfall variability is affecting the farming schedule of crop
production where the farmers are seriously complaining.
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Some of the key challenges considered by the farming community and development actors
are climate change and variability, crop pests and diseases, variability of rainfall, lack of
supply of inputs, soil acidity, lack of market linkage, and lack of other farming
technologies such as tractors and other machineries with optimum prices.
Limited access of irrigation water source: Scarcity of irrigation water, livestock

watering, and forage development and crop production is the major constraint for the
livelihood improvement of the target area related with low level of efficiency and high level
demand by all farmers of the area. Moreover, scarcity of water affected crop choice of the
farmers which are productive and nutritious. The community has diverted Wuzer River
but frequent washing away of the diversion structure has disappointed the local
community.
Limited use of improved farm implements and technologies: Farmers of the project
command area are using oxen drawn plough, hoe and other hand held implements to
plough their farmland and manual labor for planting or seed placement. The level of
plough depth by using these tools is not more than 15 cm which is aggravating erosion
and crusting of the soil and also infiltration capacity of the soil. Related with this plough
depth, the soil holding capacity of the farm is highly minimal which is observed during
field investigation. Even if there is a trial of mechanization of farming at institutional level
(farmers training centers, and other institutions) level of use of farmers is said to be
limited. Hence, there should be consistent promotion of this mechanization at farmers’
level.
Climate change and climate variability: According to the farmers’ perception climate
change and variability is highly affecting agricultural production by affecting cropping
calendar and pattern. Late onset and early withdrawal of rainfall greatly affects crop
choice, crop calendar, cropping pattern and finally crop yields. Lack of serious prediction
of climatic variability is also another challenge for the farmers to have a planned way of
cropping pattern and calendar.
Crop insect pests, diseases and weeds: Related with intensive farming, crop pest
infestation is very high in the target area. Even if there is no any investigated result of
yield losses, there is an indication of high level yield losses due to these factors. Weed
infestation in the command area is very high both in intensity and diversity. High level
diversity of weeds affects protection activities mainly use of chemical. Grasses species are
common on cereal fields having the same respiratory system affecting application of
herbicides. Moreover, insect pest including stalk borer, cut worm and fall army worm are
major challenges of crop production. Fall army worm was the major challenge during our
field work infesting around 2000 hectare of maize crop field. Yellow rust disease is the
major challenge of wheat production in the area.
4 Crop Production with Project Condition

4.1 Choice of cropping systems and crop rotation
Agriculture must change to meet the rising demand, to contribute more effectively to the
reduction of poverty and malnutrition, and to become ecologically more sustainable.
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Cropping system is an important component of any farming system representing cropping

system used on a farm and their interaction with farm resources and other farm
enterprises and available technology, which determine their makeup. Moreover, cropping
system refers to the spatial and temporal association of crops in a farming system. Choice
of suitable cropping system must aim at maximum and sustainable use of resources
especially water and soil. Cropping systems should depend on rainfall/irrigation water
quantity, length of rainy reason and soil storage capacity. In irrigation crop production the
cropping system is recommended to be single cropping related with water management
challenges for different crops with different water requirement and different length of
growing season. Moreover, crop protection at threshold level is a challenge in intercropped
fields.
However, farmers are practicing intercropping of cereals with beans, inset with chat and
this practice can be adopted in the rain fed fields ’production with the project condition
which can support to maintain soil fertility but with scientific means not to affect crop
protection and remuneration of crop production. The farmers’ practices mainly a kind of
sequential cropping of cereals and haricot beans can be adopted. Moreover, crop rotation
should be based on scientific recommendations to control crop pests and better
production. Crop ration is highly important for the area crop production for soil fertility
management, weed, and insect and disease control. Hence, including legumes is highly
important for crop rotation and land resource management and this report includes
legumes with the project condition where the soil and the agro-ecology is high suitable.
Table: 8 Crop rotation with the project condition
Year1rainfed Year1 Year2 rain Year2 Year3rainfed Year3
irrigation fed Irrigation -Irrigation
Maize Tomato Wheat Potato Faba bean Onion
Haricot bean Cabbage Maize Onion Wheat Potato
Wheat Potato Haricot Cabbage Maize Cabbage
bean
Faba bean Onion Fababean Tomato Haricot bean Tomato
Source: Own analysis
4.2 Criteria for crop selection with project condition

Crop production choice is a multi-criteria task which needs a scientific means for better
use of natural resources in the study particular area both under irrigation and rain-fed
condition mainly depending on national and regional priorities/strategies, farmers’
preference, national policy issues, edaphic factor, crops response to irrigation, existing
socio-economic situation, expected profitability, expected factors of production, existing
food security situation and other risks and opportunities. Criteria Like climatic factors, the
physical, chemical and biological characters of soil and soil depth have direct influence on
crop and livestock production. Therefore, under the irrigated agro-ecosystem, with assured
availability of water, efforts have been made to select the most economical, high yielding
and irrigation responsive crops, which fit well in the production system with high degree of
input use efficiency mainly water and supporting sustainable agricultural production
since water is the major scarce and critical factor of agriculture, crop and livestock
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production. Generally, the following factors have been considered as the prominent factors
for irrigated and rainfed farming in the project target areas:
Food and feeding requirement and farmers’ preference of crops: Currently the project
area farmers are producing cereals with a lion’ share of teff, maize and wheat and
vegetables of their field not only for food requirement but also for marketing related with
better stability and market access for these crops. Farmers’ preference is emanated from
better market price and small land size of the farmers’. Moreover, these crops are not only
selected for their food value but also their high level benefit over other crops in the market
segment. The crop aftermath and residue of maize, wheat, barley and beans is used for
livestock feed in the target areas. For this reason and other interrelated criteria,
recommended rain fed season crops are cereals and beans on the remaining land of
perennial crops. Irrigation crop production is also proposed based on their crop
preference.
Government policy and strategy priorities: Food security is the first priority of the
government of Ethiopia in the past two decades. The government of Ethiopian considers
intensifying and commercialization of agriculture as the sole option to challenge poverty
and food insecurity levels in rural Ethiopia. In the target area, short and medium term
strategies focus on availing water for irrigation crop production to intensify crop
production to have a synergy with establishment of Integrated Agricultural Park (IAP) in
Hawassa. Agricultural Development Led Industrialization (ADLI) is applied in the target
region by modernizing agriculture and establishing industries as an input.
Ethiopian Water Resource Management Policy (MoWR, 1999) states that, irrigation is
meant to improve food security through the implementation of small, medium and large
scale interventions. The policy also outlines that efficient and sustainable management of
water requires management that combines federal level guidance with regional level
implementation-with strong vertical linkages. Management should be at the lowest level of
institutional setup, allowing for user participation and effective decision making.
Generally, crops are proposed to satisfy both food self-sufficiency and cash requirement of
the target beneficiaries.
Abiotic factors (soil, climate, and water and drainage condition: The target project
area is found in mid-land area where climate and soil types are suitable for diversified
crop production including maize, wheat, teff, beans, vegetables and perennial crops that
can change the available radiant energy and irrigation water into food energy. The sun
shine hours and intensity of radiation have high level of impact on photosynthesis
efficiency. Moreover, most of the target project area soil is highly suitable for diversified
crop production. The only major critical factor in the project area for crop production is
water scarcity which should be availed by irrigation water. Other constraints of the
production areas can be solved with optimum management practices.
Labor Availability: Agricultural labor is the prominent factor in Ethiopian agriculture

related with low level of mechanization. However, large family size of the target area
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farmers can manage the existing land size with the proposed irrigation project. Disguised
unemployment is common which is seasonally migrating to the nearby towns and cities.
According to the zonal report of 2016/2017 an average family size of the Woreda is 5 in
number which is sufficient enough to undertake household farm activity.
Market Demand: Unlike previous years’ demand for agricultural products is increasing
from time to time related with high level population pressure, increase in consumption
levels and product diversification and also accelerated urbanization. In the project area,
nearby towns, cities, universities and other government& private educational universities
and others have high level demand of agricultural produce that can absorb the irrigation
production with consistent supply. There are also primary cooperatives which are on the
way to establish agricultural products in near future. Hence, market demand for cereals
and vegetables should not be a challenge.
4.3 Proposed cropping pattern and intensities

Cropping intensity in the target project area is limited only by water scarcity otherwise the
farmers are highly interested to make it more than 200% in the years to come if this most
singled out problem, water scarcity, is solved through modern diversion structure
construction and well aware of efficient water management. Currently the farmers are
practicing 200% intensity by using different strategies like supplementing belg rain with
irrigation water from Wuzer River. Based on this willingness and capacities of the
farmers, proposed cropping intensity is designed to be 200% from the very beginning of
the first year of the project period since there is high level demand from the community.
However, if water is available throughout the year, cropping intensity can be more than
two hundred percent which is a possible scenario with appropriate crop mixes and area
coverage.
The cropping pattern is also based on farmers’ preference, market demand, presence of
market demand, processing industries, dual purpose of crops and their byproducts,
Abiotic factors, feeding habit and other parameters. Based on these criteria, a priority
during rain fed production is for perennials are50% while the other 50% is for cereals,
beans and vegetables. Irrigation season production focuses on vegetable crops since there
is a high demand from target beneficiaries and high market price. However, this figure can
be flexible based on the interests of those parties, sinks (consumers and processing
industries, market) and the government policy issues.
A discussion result with different stakeholders and farmers, the area is fortunate enough
to produce two crops per year if water is availed related with high radiant energy.
Furthermore, there are vegetable and cereal crop varieties which can produce optimum
yield within 90 days due to the best radiant energy shortening the length of Growing day.
The cropping pattern of the area is based on the stated criteria with a more emphasis on
the farmers’ practices and preferences.
Table: 9 Proposed cropping calendar and pattern in (%) of the command area
Rain fed Irrigated Crops
Crops Planting Harvest LGP % Crops Plantin Harves LGP Area
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g t (%)
Maize 01-Apr 03-Aug 14030 Tomato 01-Nov March 120 10
Wheat 01-Jun October 13030 Pepper 15-Oct March 120 35
F, bean 15-Jun October 12020 Onion 20-Oct Feb 120 35
Cabbag
H. bean 01-Apr July 90 20 e 01-Nov March 120 20
Total 100 100
Source: own analysis based on actual situation
4.4 Agronomic Practices & Production Technologies Recommended

Agronomic practice is all about crop production activities from the very beginning of site
and seed selection to the final harvesting, packing and storage. The overall agronomic
practices of crop production include seed /seedling selections, planting area selection,
land preparation (ploughing harrowing and ridging), planting method decision, fertilizer
application, chemical application, weeding, insect pest and disease control, harvesting,
processing and packing. These all processes have their own impacts on crop yields and
product quality. In order to support the area implementing development sectors
agronomic practices of each crop have been summarized as follows.
4.4.1 Maize (Zea mays)

Maize is the most important cereal crop of Ethiopia and the target area which covers 20%
of the target production area. In the target area maize is grown for different purposes,
consumption and its aftermath for livestock feed and also marketing purpose. The grain is
mainly grown for consumption and the cob is for marketing mainly during irrigation
season. Maize is a high priority of the Ethiopian government as well the target area
community to attain food self-sufficiency and food security. Maize has specific
requirements in its production season to produce high yields. The major requirements for
maximum yield are the following.
Soil and drainage requirement: Maize can grow on a range of soil types. However, for
optimum production, it requires fertile, well drained medium textured soils having a PH of
6.0-7.2. The command areas are found in a well-drained and medium textured command.
Required cultural practices: Maize needs serious management practices to provide

maximum yield and the following agronomic practices should be realized.
Land Preparation: Maize is customarily planted on the land that has been cleared and
tilled to incorporate crop residues of the preceding crops, and loosened to an adequate
depth (20 to 25 cm). Seedbed preparation further assists to incorporate the applied
manures with the soil and to destroy perennial weeds as well. The tillage should leave the
soil surface somewhat roughened to facilitate penetration of rainfall and irrigation water
and to minimize runoff and erosion losses. On the other hand, tillage has minimal effect
on crop yields.
Planting Method: Planting should be made in rows for convenience of weeding and pest
control, for ease of irrigation water application and harvesting operations. Therefore, the
crop should be planted in rows 0.75 m apart and 0.25- 0.30m between plants. The depth
22
of sowing varies depending on the soil type and season of cultivation. Since the project
area soil is somewhat silt clay and well- drained it can be sown as deep as 10 cm.
However, under irrigation condition without water stress- planting depth should be kept at
minimum in order to initiate early germination and develop further healthier and stronger
plant. Two seeds should be planted in a hole and thinned out later leaving the most
vigorous one in each hole.
Seeding rates and varieties: It can be influenced by different factors such as variety, seed
size, seed health, germination capacity, planting method, soil moisture content, and
fertility status of the soil and others. Based on the existing situation of the area, a seed
rate of 25-30 kg/ha is recommended.
Varieties: BH661, BH546, BH540, Pioneer, with high priority of Pioneer
Fertilizer Application: Average fertilizer application for the area is 100 kg/ha NPS and
100 kg/ha of Urea. Considering Urea, split application that is half at planting time and the
remaining half at knee-high (five weeks after planting) stage is recommended to enhance
fertilizer use efficiency. Fertilizer must be placed at about 5 to 10 cm away from the crop
plant.
Crop Protection (weeds, insect pests and diseases):
Weed Control: Maize is sensitive to competition from weeds particularly in its early stage
of growth. Therefore, it is important to keep maize fields free of any weed plant. Regarding
hand weeding, a minimum of two hand weddings are recommended. The first hand
weeding must be accomplished when the crop is at four leaf stage (14-21 days after
planting) and the second one at knee-high in the second application of fertilizer. In
addition to hand weeding, other cultural control methods such as proper seed bed
preparation, inter row cultivation, use of weed free clean seed are important prevention
methods. Crop rotation and field sanitation can also help to minimize weed problem. Since
the weeds are mostly used for livestock feed, chemical use is not recommended.
Insect Control: Major insects of economic importance on maize include stalk borer
(Buseula fusca) which is a major pest spotted stalk borer (Chillo partellus). In addition to
these two major insects, aphids and currently fall army worm also attack maize crop.
Stalk borer control:

 Cutting the maize stalk close to the ground level at harvest time.
 Spread the harvested stalk thinly in the field for about one month in order to expose
the hibernating pupa in the stalk to sun’s heat.
 Apply field sanitation and destroy alternative host plants well ahead of sowing time.
 Remove and destroy infected plants with dead hearts within six weeks after
emergence.
 Apply Simbush (Cypermethrin) 1.0 % granule at the rate of 3.5 kg/ha, Furadan TM
3G or 10 g (carbofuran) at the rate of 0.75 kg ai/ha as side dressing, 10 cm away
23
from maize stands, 7 days after emergence or as seed dressing with a sticker prior
to planting.
Armyworm and grass hopper control:

 Dig a shallow trench around the field to retard entrance of Army worm into the field
 Spray different insecticides such as Malathion, Sumathion, Diazinon and Sevin.
To control African boll worm:

 Plough the field deep in order to expose the hibernating pupa to sun’s heat and
different natural predators.
 Apply proper field sanitation.
 Spray Thiodan (Endosulphan) 35 % EC at the rate of 2.0 liter per hectare mixed
with 200-300 liters of water or Thiodan 25% ULV at the rate of 3.0 litters per
hectare.
Aphids Control:
 Avoid planting when there is no rain.
 Use resistant varieties.
 Spray Premophos methel at the rate of 0.5 liters per hectare mixed with 200-300
liters of water.
Disease control: Major diseases on maize are; Rust (Puccinia sorghi), blight
(Helminthosporium tursicum) and Head smut (Sphacelothecia reiliane). Downy mildew
may also the major challenges for the area related with irrigation.
Rust and Leaf blight control:

 Use resistant variety from research results, avoiding repeated planting in the same
field.
Head smut control:
 Use crop rotation
 Treat the seed with appropriate chemical
 Apply proper field sanitation. That is to destroy crop residue and other plant debris.
Harvesting and Threshing: Maize is physiologically mature and ready for harvest when a
black abscission layer develops at the tip of the kernel at its point of attachment to the
cob. Maturity after this period is just a matter of losing moisture. Harvesting can be
accomplished by cutting the entire plant at the ground level or by removing only the cob.
Once the harvested cobs are properly dry, they can either be shelled manually or by
modern maize shelters. To store the grain,
 Clean all storage facilities properly before storing the grain.
 Make sure that the moisture content of the grain is reduced to about 12% before
storing it.
 Storage pests can be controlled by Actelic 2 % powder at the rate of 200-500/100
kg of grain.
 Fumigants like Fostoxin can also be used to control storage insects.
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4.4.2 Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. and T. turgidum L)

Wheat (Triticum spp.) is widely produced in the highlands and mid-altitudes of Ethiopia.
Out of 18 major agro-ecological zones (AEZ) in the country, it is grown in more than eight
AEZ. The major wheat growing areas include Arsi and Bale in the south-eastern, Hadiya
and Kambata in the south, Shewa in the central highlands, and Gojam, Gondar, Wello and
Tigray in the northwest and north. There are also several secondary areas of wheat
production in the country.
Suitable agro-ecology:
Wheat can be grown at altitude between 1500-3200 meters above sea level (masl).
However, areas with mean temperature from 15-250C and altitude of 1800-2800 masl are
more suitable. It requires an average of 500-1200 mm rainfall, well distributed during the
growing season. It performs well on black clay, red clay and brown clay soils. Waterlogged
vertisols are not generally suitable for wheat production. But with special soil
management practices (broad bed and furrow or BBF), such soils can become more
productive. The soil pH should be higher than 5.5.
Soil management: In the past, tilling the soil was recommended in order to accomplish
several tasks, namely; 1) to incorporate plant residues in the soil to allow for residue
decomposition and release of nutrients as well as building up soil organic matter, 2)
improve soil aeration, 3) improve water infiltration, 4) destroy and bury weeds that may
have germinated during the fallow period, 5) to work out the soil with several passes of a
disk harrow or equivalent farm implement in order to pulverize the soil to produce a fine
seed bed for uniform seeding depth placement and even germination, and in general, 6)
improve the physical, chemical and biological properties that collectively govern the root
environment of crops.
Seed bed preparation: Soil should be prepared to allow for optimum germination and
crop growth. Also, ensuring that nutrients and moisture are available within the first 30-
40 cm of the top soil, since 95 percent of the wheat nodal or crown roots will grow within
this soil profile.
Seed bed preparation must be rather location specific and compatible with specific soil-
site characteristics since the number of tilling operations is directly influenced by soil
types, the quantity of crop residue presents at the time of the tilling operations, type and
level of weed infestation, as well as the degree of the slope on the land. For example,
excessive tilling operations that destroy soil aggregates (clods) on bare unprotected soils
may be counterproductive to soil protection. Soils protected by crop residues will help in
increasing dry aggregate size and stability; reduce water erosion by slowing runoff and
increase water storage by enhancing water infiltration.
Prior to sowing during the last tilling operation, the soil should be worked out to smaller
aggregates, not big clods, neither totally pulverized. Depending on the above local
situations, if land has to be prepared by tillage, frequency of tilling may be limited to 2-4
times and 1-2 times for oxen and tractor plough, respectively with an interval of 21-28
days, the first being immediately after the harvest of the previous crop when the soil is not
25
dry. In vertisol, where water logging is a problem BBM having 8-12 cm width and allows a
drainage furrow of 15-20 cm between beds have to be used. As much as possible, land
should be leveled, with good drainage in order to avoid water logging. Land should be
worked out in furrows before planting. Make contour furrowing of the land at about 2- 5%
gradient when sloppy in order to avoid soil erosion and ensure good drainage. The
distance between furrows for planting, should be done at 30 cm between furrows. Never
make furrows following the slope.
Planting method and seed rate: Wheat must be planted in rows at a distance of 30 cm
apart. The reason for this is that 30 cm allows for ease when hand weeding, side dressing
of Urea and implementing other agronomic management practices. Planting at 20 cm
between rows is considered as too narrow for optimum management. Plant the wheat by
drilling 80-100 kg/ha of seed possessing a minimum of 90 % germination. This seed rate
is equivalent at placing one seed every cm. or 100 seeds/meter or 300 seeds/m 2. in
Ethiopia, smallholder farmers do not use farm implements for sowing the wheat crop.
Usually, before the last pass with the traditional plow or maresha, farmers will hand
broadcast the DAP fertilizer (100 kg/ha) followed by hand broadcasting the seed (130-150
kg/ha). Then, the plough will make the last pass burying seed and fertilizer. This
operation is not very efficient and as the result, seed is placed at uneven soil depths
leading to irregular germination across the field. To reduce this problem, on the last pass,
the maresha should be coupled with a small metal bar or medium-heavy wooden log
attached at the end of the maresha to produce a flattening or land leveling effect that will
place all the seed at more even seed depth.
Seeding depth: On most soils, seeds should be planted at uniform soil depth of 2-4 cm to
promote uniform and optimum germination. Deep seeding tends to reduce seedling
emergence and can produce uneven stands. Shallow seeding reduces tillering and
enhances lodging due to poor crown root development. Preferably, seeds should be covered
with soil by foot operation in place of maresha, since this equipment is not reliable on
uniformly covering the seed, thus, resulting in uneven and lower germination. When a
seed drill is used for planting, adjust the planter to deliver the seed at 2-4 soil depth.
Fertilizer type: Crops on most soils in Ethiopia are responding to applications of three
basic nutrient elements, namely: Nitrogen (N), Phosphorous (P), and Sulphur (S).
Nowadays, farmers can use these three nutrients by applying two basic fertilizers; Urea for
N and NPS which contains N, P and S. If NPS is not readily available, farmers can continue
applying the same old DAP as before. Depending on location and research on soil
information, dosage of NPS may vary from one quintal up to one and half quintal/ha.
Fertilizer recommendations can be fine-tuned based on soil fertility maps developed by
EthioSIS. However, a minimum application of DAP or NPS: Urea, should be in the ratio of
1:1 with an application rate of one quintal of each/ha.
Method and time of application: When NPS and Urea are used; the whole of NPS should
be applied basal at time of planting in a mix with 1/3 of the Urea. Apply the mix by
drilling at 7-10 cm depth in the soil, along furrows of the wheat seeds and cover the
26
fertilizer with soil. The remaining 2/3 of the Urea has to be applied at mid-tillering (35-40
days after planting) as side application 3-5 cm far from the row at 3-5 cm soil depth. Side
dressing of Urea should be done immediately following the second weeding operation. If
DAP is used in place of NPS, the method of application of DAP and Urea is the same to
that of NPS and Urea. At FTC and ATVET pre-extension demonstration, Urea can be
applied as a spot application on alternate rows of the wheat crop at 60 cm between
alternate rows and 40 cm within the same row.
Crop Variety recommended: the recommended crop variety for the area is Hidase type
and if there is better release it is better to access information form research stations and
centres.
Crop Protection
Weed control
Thus early weed control is required. Ideally, the crop should be free from weed competition
from the time of seedling emergence until the beginning of stem elongation. That is, during
the first 40-50 days. Infestation can be kept low through common sense farming practices.
In fact, before the advent of chemical herbicides, farmers had to rely almost entirely on
cultural practices to keep the weeds to a minimum. The first piece of advice and most
economical is to use weed-free seed. Purchasing or using weed contaminated seed, can
result in a poor economic investment, especially if new (not known) weed species are
introducing into new farmers’ fields.
Control of diseases such as rusts, smuts and powdery mildew: Planting of resistant
cultivars, use of systemic fungicides such as Rex Duo (Epoxiconazole + thiophanate-
methyl) , Folicur (Tebuconazole) , Alto [(Cyproconazole: 2-(4-Clorofenil)-3- ciclopropil-1-
(1H-1.2.4-triazol-l-il) butano-2-lo], Opus 125(Epoxiconazole), Quadris(Azoxystron),
stratego (propiconazole+frifloxysrobin), Tillt 250 EC, Noble 25 WP, Baylton 25 WP and
others.
Insect pest control:

Diagnosis – scouting, matching symptoms to pest. Usually shoot fly can become a
challenge when germination of seedlings is followed by a dry spell. If chemical control is
required, use of Pyrethroids is recommended because they are environmentally friendly
and offer good control. Consult nearby research centre or bureau of agriculture office for
more information
 Occasionally migratory pests such as army worms could become present and need
immediate control since the wheat crop has very little biomass at early growth
stages and can be devastated by the pest. Normally, government agencies at federal
and regional level are responsible for the control of migratory pests.
 During later stages of wheat developmental stages, usually at booting, aphid
infestations can become a problem under dry spells. These insects usually are
controlled by rain, but if chemical control may become necessary, they can be
27
controlled by application of ½ litre/ha of a Pyrethroids dissolved in 100 litre/ ha of

clean water.
 Consult your nearby research centre or bureau of agriculture for advice. Some of
the herbicides recommended for insect The following herbicides are recommended
for control of insects are mentioned below.
Armyworm: Spray 2-3 liters of Malathion 50 EC or 1.5 kg of Carbaryl powder in 250-400
liters of water/ha. 1 liter Fenetrithion 98% ULV or 1.5-liter Malathion 95% ULV may be
applied on one hectare of crop land.
Aphids: 1 kg of Primor 50% WP or 1.5 litre of Chlorimyphos 50% EC in 300-500 litres
water for one hectare.
Barley shoot fly: Diptrex 95 SP 1 kg/ha mixed with 200-300-liter water for one hectare.
Grasshoppers: 250 g Carbaryl 85% WP mixed with 25-30 kg barley bran or wheat bran
and spread on one hectare, or 0.75 liter of Fenethrithion 98% ULV for one hectare, or 1.5
liters of Malathion 95% ULV for one hectare.
Harvesting and threshing: It is advisable to harvest the wheat crop soon after maturity
when its color is changed yellowish at a moisture level of 16-18% to avoid or minimize
losses from shattering and sprouting, in case of unexpected strong wind and showers of
rain. Traditionally, wheat is harvested manually and threshed on the ground using animal
power. Farmers use the force of wind for winnowing and cleaning. Modern harvesting and
threshing methods, however, involve use of combine harvesters and/or motor mounted
threshers for stationary threshing.
There are various threshers in the market which can efficiently thresh the wheat crop. The
Regional Bureaus of Agriculture should identify the most appropriate thresher for the
region and target the FTCs in the wheat growing areas to operate at least one as a
demonstration. Use of threshers is recommended to reduce broken grain damage and
grain cracking which enhances insect pest proliferation.
Storage: Different storage pests can attack the wheat grain in the store. Proper drying of
grains to about 12.5% moisture level is necessary before putting grains in storage
facilities. Grain store should be constructed in a way that, it is rodent and bird proof and
must be free of weevils before storing grain. It is advisable that the storage facility is
placed in a well-ventilated area. When available, use new bags to keep the grain sound
and safe. If grain is to be stored for more than 3 months, it should be treated before
bagging with Actellic Supper or Malathion 5% dust and be kept on a place that is moisture
free. Metal silos (hermetic) and insect proof bags are highly recommended to use when
available.
4.4.3 Faba bean

Field and ecological selection: Faba bean requires a medium to heavy textured soils, soil
soluble salt levels less than 1.0 mmmoh. Adequate phosphorus and potassium levels and
n carryover of herbicide residues. The faba bean, know n as botanically as Vicia faba is a
cool season food legume crop. In Ethiopia, the crop grows mainly because the chilling
requirement is fulfilled by cold temperatures in the high elevation of the mountains from
28
altitudes of 1900 to 3000 m and sometimes even higher. Hence, it is known as one of the
"highland pulses.
Soil and Seed Bed Preparation: Faba bean requires a well-drained deep fertile soil of
rocky or silty or clay loam nature with pH between 6.0 and 7.0. It is mainly grown on
Nitosols, Cambisols and Vertisols. Most of these soils are acidic with pH less than 6.0 and
are deficient in N and P. Application of N and P, therefore, increases faba bean yields
(Angaw 1994). There has been no significance response toK application.Preliminary results
of an on-going liming study on an acidic soil at Holetta Research Centre indicates that
liming results in healthy growth and increased yields in faba bean.
Climate requirement: Temperature is one of the most important environmental factors

that determine the distribution, growth, and development of faba bean. Faba bean is
essentially a temperate and sub-tropical crop but can be grown in the tropics in countries
such as Ethiopia in the highlands where cool temperature prevails.
Faba bean is cultivated in Ethiopia Between altitudes ol 1800 and 3000 m asl being most
common in the temperate or Weinadega zones, 2000-2500 masl, (Amare and Beniwal
1988). Mean temperature during crop growth, May-November, are 8 and 2 PC at high
altitude areas and 11 and 24°C at mid altitude zones. At higher altitudes (Dega zone) frost
is the limiting factor of production especially in late sown faba bean crops. At lower
altitudes (warmer temperatures) plant growth is adversely affected, disease incidence
especially chocolate spot becomes serious, excessive flower drops are caused resulting in
poor pod set all boiling down to deceased production in faba bean.
Sowing Method: Several researches that compared broadcast and unweeded treatments
with properly weeded row planting resulted in substantial yield advantage of row planting
(5 cm deep) and proper weeding. However, due to heavy workload on the farmer during
planting the tanner in most areas are reluctant to accept row planting in the
recommended packages. Then, broadcast planting accompanied by proper seed bed
preparation and weed removal should be just fine until the advent of mechanized planting.
Seed rate: many research organizations recommended a seed arte of 175 kg/ha for all
crop varieties.
Fertilizer rate: For better performance of the crop 100 Kg/ha of DAP/NPS and 50 kg/ha
of Urea is required depending on the soil fertility status.
Crop protection:
Weed control: Faba bean is very sensitive to weed competition.
Diseases: Chocolate spot (HotrytisJhbae) is the major production bottle-neck for fababean
and the problem is nationwide. Faba bean plants are usually clean and attractive and
hopes for a good harvest are high until they are at flowering and pod setting stage. Then
the diseases sets in and changes everything resulting in light to heavy crop losses (up to
60%) depending on severity(Dereje and Tesfaye 1994). In higher altitudes, where the
temperature is cooler, the crop and the pathogen seem to coexist in equilibrium where by
the disease is there without causing serious damage to the crop.
29
Black root rot (Fusariwn so lan i) disease is most important on Verlisols of Central and
North Shewa and Gojam. Severity depends on drainage where the most poorly drained
fields are the most affected resulting in heavy yield losses from 5 to 100%. Planting faba
bean on ridges and on broad bed and furrows (BBP) significantly reduces the disease
incidence.
Rust (Urotnyces fabae) where it frequently occurs more severely, especially in Vertisol
areas of Ginchi and Ambo and serious crop losses of 30-40% can occur. Recently, lines
that have been identified as black root rot resistant/tolerant are the most affected by rust.
Control measures: For chemical control of rust, Fentin hydroxide 60% fungicide @250
g/ha may be used. Few resistant genotypes against rust have been reported and these
could be used to transfer resistance to high yielding but susceptible lines; and for African
bollworm - Cypermethrin chemical (single spray with 150 g a.i.); for aphids - Pirimor 50%;
For bean bruchids - Primiphos-methyl (6 and 8 ppm); Lindane (5 and 7.5 ppm); Folithion
(5 and 10 pptn); Danfin (8 and 12 pptn); and vegetable oil (20 and 30 ppm).
4.4.4 Haricot bean (Phaseolus vulgare)

Haricot bean is an important pulse crop in Ethiopia and it is widely grown in the hot areas
particularly in the rift valley regions of the country. It has got many uses which include: -
improvement of soil fertility by fixing atmospheric nitrogen, cheap source of protein for
humans, high quality and protein rich livestock feed and an important precursor crop for
crop rotation with cereals and for its high nitrogen fixation. Farmers in the area are
planting as an intercrop and sole crop.
Ecological Requirements: The ecological situation of the area is highly suitable for beans
production. Optimum growing temperature for haricot bean production is 18-30oc for
better performance Haricot bean should be produced in areas with minimum risk of frost
occurrence. Haricot bean can be successfully grown from 550-2000 meter above sea level.
Soil Condition: Haricot bean can grow on a wide range of soil types. However, for better
performance it requires fertile, well drained light clay loam, sandy loam and alluvial soils
with a PH range of 6.5-7.0 for optimum productivity but it can grow within a pH range
5.5-7.5.
Improved Haricot bean varieties: Improved Haricot Bean Varieties which have been
released from different research centers. The major appreciated varieties in the target area
are Nasir and Red Wolita which are reddish in color.
Land preparation: For maximum production the crop requires a fine and properly
prepared seed bed. Poorly prepared seed bed will adversely affect germination thereby
resulting in reduced yield. In this case 2-3 plowings/harrowing should be done using oxen
drawn plough or tractors.
30
Sowing method: Haricot bean seed can be sown either row or broadcast method. But for
maximum production row planting is recommended. When Haricot bean is sowed in rows,
depending upon the growth habit of the varieties (erect, semi-erect and trailing or climbing
types) spacing of 60-75 cm between rows and 5 cm between plants are recommended. For
obtaining high yield spacing of 40 cm between rows and 10 cm between plants are used.
Planting depth: Improper planting depth adversely affects germination and crop
establishment. The recommended planting depth for Haricot bean is 3-5 cm. usually, 5 cm
is considered to be optimum.
Seed rate: Seed rate can be influenced by different factors such as variety, seed size, seed
health, germination capacity planting method, moisture and fertility status of the soil, etc.
For haricot bean having small and large seed size 70-80 kg/ha and 100-110 kg/ha seed is
recommended respectively.
Fertilizer application: Haricot bean produce good yield when grown on fertile soils and it
is important and preferable if soil test based fertilizer application is adopted. However, in
the absence of soil test based specific fertilizer recommendations, use 100 kg/Ha.
4.4.5 Onion (Allium species)

Onion is economically important crop in the target area both as diet and cash crop. Onion
is highly adapted in the target project area produced for the local market. To attain the
genetic production potential of onion, optimum agronomic practices should be applied in
the target project area to harness highly favorable climatic condition of the area.
Soil requirement: Onion needs well-drained sandy loam soils with a high content of
organic matter and PH of 6.0 –7.0. Hence, the command area which is favorable for onion
production is found at the middle and tail end of the project. Hence, onion production
should be done in those areas of the command which is well drained and sandy soil.
Recommended Agronomic Practices (land Preparation-Harvesting)

Land Preparation: The land to be used for Onion production should be ploughed (3-4
times) in order to have fine seed bed to properly grow seeds and transplanting seedlings if
it is oxen drawn ploughing and if it is tractor it should be ploughed ones and harrowed
twice.
Management in the Nurseries: For transplanted onion, seeds are generally sown on raised
nursery beds of 15—22cm height. To cover one-hectare onion area a nursery bed of 560
m2 is needed which can be prepared by each farmer.
Planting methods: When Onion is transplanted in the field, the height of the seedlings
should be 12–15 cm. Seedlings of Onion are usually transplanted in flat bed or flat top
ridges with furrows between ridges and making double rows on the flat ridges 20 cm
31
apart. The spacing between double rows is 40 cm and between plants is 10 cm (40c.m×
20c.m × 10c.m).
Seed rate: Four (4) kilogram of onion seed for a hectare of land is the optimum seeding
quantity to be planted in the nursery for transplanting.
Fertilizer Application: For successful onion production NPK 200 Kg. and 100 Kg Urea is
recommended as the optimum rate. The whole quantity of Phosphorous and half of
Nitrogen should be added to the soil before transplanting. The remaining half Nitrogen
should be applied as top dressing at 30- 45 days after transplanting.
Crop Protection (weeds, Insect pests and Diseases): Crop loss due crops pests and
diseases is very in the target areas where the level of protection is very low. Most of the
crop fields are full of weeds and soil borne disease due to lack of crop rotation and
artificial control measures. Hence, crop protection should great emphasis if boosting
production and remuneration of irrigation and rainfed production is going to be achieved.
Weed control፡ Onion cannot compete with weeds particularly at an early stage of growth.
Therefore, proper and timely weeding and cultivations are needed to destroy weeds at an
early stage of crop development. Three to four weeding and cultivations are required
during the growing season of onion.
Insect control: Trips (Thrips tabaci), a small, yellowish sucking insect which attacks the
leaves of onion are the most injurious insects usually during dry weather conditions and
reducing high level yield of onion.
Mechanisms of Thrips control: Spray cypermethrin 10 % at the rate of 500 ml per

hectare mixed with 200-300 liters of water.
Diseases control: Among major diseases attacking onion plant, Purple Blotch (Alternarea
porri) is the major one. Purple Blotch attacks leaves, seed, stem and bulbs. In the end,
darkened mass of spots develop in the centers of the lesions. The infected leaves turn
yellow and within three to four weeks. Then, the fungus grows down ward into the bulbs if
control measures are not taken in time. Downy mildew (Perenospora destructor) is also
another economic important fungal disease that attacks onion plant.
Control methods of these diseases:

 Use long rotation cropping system.
 For both fungal diseases apply 3.5 Kg Ridomil per hectare mixed with 600 liters of
water and spray it at one-week interval.
 Mankozeb 2.5 kg with 600 liters of water in every 10 days’ interval.
Harvesting: Onion should be harvested when 50 to 80 of the top leaves have fallen over.
Every harvest results in sprouting of the bulbs and late harvest gives also rise to formation
of roots during storage. After harvest, spread the onions in the row in the field and let
them dry in the field for about 5 days. The top part should not be removed until the necks
32
are dry. After the onion is properly dry or cured, the top part of the bulb should be
trimmed to a length of about 2.5 cm.
4.4.6 Tomato (Lycopersicon esculenetum)

Tomato is the most widely grown vegetable crop in the target area in the target project
command area. Farmers have very great interties to produce tomato related to its high
productivity and adaptation to the local climate.
Soil and drainage requirement of tomato: It can be grown in sandy loams to clay loams
with high amount of organic matter and optimum depth where the soil is best for tomato
production.
Land Preparation: Tomato needs fine tilth to grow its roots without any blockage and the
land should be plough ones and harrowed twice if machine based and if not three oxen
drawn plough is enough.
Nursery rising: For raising the seedlings for one-hectare, 250m 2 area nursery is required.
The beds should be covered with a layer of farmyard manure and sand mixed in equal
proportion. The farmyard manure should be used 4kg/m 2. To protect from the incidence of
damping off of seedling, the beds should be treated with 10% formaldehyde. Before sowing
the bed should be drenched with 0.2% Dithane M-45 or treated with Difolaton or Capton.
Solarisation is also useful to reduce the incidence of damping off. The seeds should be
treated with Thiram or Bavistin @ 2g/kg. Seedlings are ready for transplanting 4-5 weeks
after sowing. Before transplanting, seedlings should be hardened by withholding the water
4-5 days before uprooting.
Planting: Row planting recommended with a 45cm x 45 cm and 60cmx30cm based on

variety type.
Stalking: To prevent lodging and carry more loads and also to encourage photosynthesis
by displaying the leaves to the sunlight, staking highly important. This can be done by any
available wood or bamboo which is free from any pest, weed and disease infestation.
Recommended varieties: Marglobe, Money maker, Melka salsa, Melka shola and Roma
VF are recommended varieties
Fertilizer application: Application of compost, lime and NPK at a rate of 70:100:100

Kg/ha is recommended. All compost, lime all phosphate and N 1/3 rd can be applied in the
first phase as basal application while the remaining 2/3 rd of N and K2O should be splinted,
the first part in 24-30 days after transplanting and the balance 8-16 days later of the first
application.
Disease and pest control: Damping off (Pythium spp. and Phytophthora spp.), Aternaria
blight (Alterneria solani), septoria leaf blight (Septoria lycopersici), and bacterial wilt
(Ralastonia Solanacearum), leaf curl (transmitted by whitefly), tomato mosaic virus
(transmitted by contact and seed), spotted wilt (transmitted by thrips). The major insect-
33
pests are fruit borer (Helicoverpa armigera), white flies (Bemisia tabaci), mite (Tetracychus
cinnabarinaes), Sting bugs (Ferrisia virgata), leaf eating caterpillars (Spodoptera litura)
and thrips (thrips tabaci), and others. To control these disease and pests the following
measures should be taken:
 Cultivating disease resistant varieties,
 Proper hygiene of the field such as avoidance of family related weeds
 If insects and diseases are above the threshold level, use of chemicals is a must
Weed control: Control of weeds can be done by hand weeding and cultivating with a hoe
to uproot the weeds. It is also possible to sue chemicals if infestation is very high
Harvesting: Tomatoes are harvested at several-stages like mature green, turning pink, red
ripe and over ripe. The stage of harvesting depends upon the purpose, for which the crop
is harvested. Generally, harvesting is done at mature green to turning stage for distant
marketing. For fresh consumption pink to light red tomatoes are preferred. To increase
their shelf life after harvest tomatoes are cooled rapidly at 13 0C. After harvest they are
graded into A, B and C grades by hand or machine. This should be done scientifically with
the help of the processing factories.
4.4.7 Cabbage
Cabbage is a popular vegetable throughout the world because of its adaptability to a wide
range of climatic conditions, soil, ease of production and storage, and its food value. The
crop is highly produced in the target project area related with its relative better shelf life
and also its ease of production and productivity. Based on its productivity and farmer’s
preference, cabbage has been recommended with the project situation and its agronomic
practices have been stated below.
Soil and drainage requirement: Even if cabbage can be grown on a wide range of soils
but it thrives on well on well drained, moisture-retentive loamy soils well supplied with
organic matter. Hence, it should be grown in those soils of the command which is found in
it. The soil pH is ideal for cabbage production which ranges from 5.5 to 6.5. Cabbage
needs well prepared and cleaned land before eight weeks before planting. The land should
be ploughed deeply with a disc harrow to a depth of 40 to-50 cm and fumigation is needed
to control nematodes.
Planting: Cabbage should be planted by transplanting and in rows with spacing of

60cmx30 between rows and between plants. Since the shape and size of cabbage head is
affected by spacing, the spacing should be based on the cabbage varieties and
recommended practices.
Fertilizer application: Cabbage is a heavy feeder which requires supplemental irrigation

in the form of compost, manure, nitrogen (Urea 200 kg), phosphorus (50 Kg) and
potassium (100Kg). Nitrogen is supplied in split applications, where 50 % to 66 % is
broadcast and ploughed in just before planting. The remainder is side-dressed two to three
34
weeks after transplanting and again three weeks later or applied once-off at about six
weeks.
Weed Control: Weeds are controlled mechanically or by hand as well as chemically

through the application of registered herbicides. Mechanical cultivation should be done
during land preparation until the plants are about half-grown. The first cultivation should
be done two to three weeks after transplanting.
Pests and their control Measures: The most economic important insect pests of cabbage
are aphids (several kinds), diamond-black moth (Plutella xylostella), American bollworm
(Helicoverpa armigera), cabbage webworm (Helula spp.) greater cabbage moth
(Crocidolomia binotalis) cutworm (Agrotis spp.), and thrips (Thrips tabaci and nematodes.
Unless these pests are controlled, total loss of the crop should result. Hence, the following
control measures are recommended including crop rotation, using resistant cultivars,
using registered chemicals but not limited:
Diseases and control measures: Damping off, club root, fusarium wilt or cabbage
yellows, black rot, downy mildew, bacterial leaf spot, and alternaria leaf spot are the most
important ones. The control measures recommended for the area are use of disease-free or
treated seed with hot water, removal or ploughing in plant refuse, chemical control when it
is in threshold level, planting tolerant or resistant cultivars, use, crop rotation, avoid using
sprinkler irrigation, soil fumigation before planting, practicing sanitation, removing
infected plants when symptoms appear and other biological methods like neem powder
spray.
Harvesting method and time: The crop is harvested when the heads attain their full size
and become firm and hard but tender. The color of the head is sometimes used as a
maturity index and harvest when the head has a lighter shade of green. The crop for the
fresh market is harvested by hand with a knife or sickle. Cabbage for storage and/or
processing is harvested at once mechanically. Harvesting should avoid bruising of the
heads as this makes them unattractive. Harvested produce should always be removed
from direct sunlight and transported to the packing shed as soon as possible but if there
is a delay of more than an hour between harvest and packing, a water drench or spray
arrangement can help prevent dehydration and overheating.
Sorting, grading, packing, storage and transport: The injured leaves should be removed
and packed in mesh pockets or sold loose. The optimum storage temperature for cabbage
is 0 °C and relative humidity of 90% to 95 %. Cabbage to be stored should be mature and
disease-free and should not have been exposed to prolonged frost or cold. Further
trimming may be necessary, mainly to remove the discolored butt upon removal from
storage. Transporting care must be taken that trucks are not overloaded on the bottom
layers of produce are crushed. Generally, the produce should be covered with a sheet to
prevent frosting or desiccation, but on warmer days, when sweating and heating might
occur, the sheet should be left-off.
35
4.5 Recommended crop production inputs with project condition

In bioenergetics terms crop production is viewed as conversion of visible spectrum of total
electro-magnetic radiation into chemical energy (protein, fat and carbohydrate) through
the photosynthetic apparatus of crop plants. The object of any crop production system is
to optimize inputs of human skill, wage labor, animal labor, abiotic materials mainly of
industrial origin (fertilizers, machines, pesticides, etc.), other suitable genotype of plants
and other farm inputs within a given ecological situation, to maximize crop plant growth
and by minimizing plant wastage so that an adequate economic return (food and biomass
output) can be obtained.
In order to attain the potential yield of forages and crops it is not only a mere wish rather
to use modern technologies based on the recommended rates, schedules and
specifications. The farming community is highly demanding the agricultural inputs if it is
timely supplied and with reasonable price by the responsible parties.
4.6 Establishment of crop seed and seedling growers group

Even if research centers and stations are found in the region and in Gurage Zone, the
farmers are not accessing improved seeds and seedlings from these research institutes.
Even if there are seed suppliers in the target area including Unions and Cooperatives,
production of improved seeds mainly vegetable seeds is the major challenge. Everything in
the target project areas is business as usual having less or no intervention of scientific
means.
Hence, supporting farmers mainly youth groups to organize seed growers group and
nursery establishment around the reservoir area is highly important that can be effective
enough mainly for improved cereal seed multiplication and vegetable seeding
multiplication, onion, pepper, tomato, and others seedlings and seeds. The support system
can be by the project or other development actors working in the area. Seed growers’
groups can be youth from the local areas who are landless. Establishing the seed growing
nurseries around the reservoir is can support to protect the reservoir from silts and other
destruction activities by limiting free movement of livestock.
The seed growers group should be linked with the research institutes, seed supply units of
agriculture, ministry of agriculture and agricultural colleges to certify their seeds quality
and supervision. Organizing the seed growers into producer groups/cooperative should be
roles and responsibility of cooperative Bureau of the government.
5. Crop Water Requirement with Project Condition

Currently rainfall is becoming highly unreliable for crop production which makes rain fed
farming a risky venture in the target area in particular and in the country in general. Its
amount and distribution are of paramount importance to support successful crop
production in a situation where rain fed agriculture is predominant. Its variability and
unreliability is becoming a frequent visitor for project area affecting crop production
schedule of the farming community. Farmers were complaining on climate change and
climate variability in the past two decades which affects the farm planning and cropping
36
pattern. Hence, availing irrigation water by harvesting water is the only means to
supplement this rainfall variability.
In irrigated agriculture, one of the most important pre-requisites, which needs great
concern is determination of Crop Water Requirements of recommended crops to be
included in the irrigation production system. Crop Water Requirement is defined as the
depth of water needed to meet the water lost through Evapo-transpiration (ETO) of a
disease free crop grown in large scale under non restricting soil and environmental
conditions to achieve the full production potential of the crop in question.
The irrigation requirement is amount of water, which is supplied through the irrigation
system to ensure that the crop receives its full crop water needs. In a situation where
irrigation is the only source of water supply for the crop, then the irrigation requirement
should be almost equal to water requirements of the crop in question. In general, the
irrigation requirement should be more than the actual requirements of the crop in order to
compensate for inefficiencies caused by a variety of factors.
Since irrigation water is under the control of the irrigators’ determination of crop water
requirement, irrigation requirement, irrigation scheduling is highly important for efficient
use of the valuable water. Hence, determination of the water requirement and irrigation
scheduling has been done for irrigation command area by collecting all required data from
respective metrology station which are the nearest stations in the target area.
5.1 Length of growing season and KC determination

Different crops have different water requirements based on their Length of Growing Period
(LGP) and their physiological nature mainly represented by Crop Coefficient (KC). Crops
have different water requirements at different growth stages with different yield response
factor for yield loss. In order to avoid crop yield losses due to in excess or scarcity of water
for crops, adjustment factor for different crop growth stages have been defined. Crop
coefficient (Kc) of a respective crop has been considered at each growth stages of the crop
for crop water requirement (ETc) of each respective plant.
37
Table: 10 Length of Growing Period (LGP) and kc values for project crops
Season Crop Unit Initial Devt Mid-season Late & Harvest

Irrigation Tomato(120 days) KC 0.7 0.75 1.05 0.8
season LGP 25 35 40 20
Crops Cabbage(120 days) KC 0.7 0.75 1.05 0.95
LGP 20 30 30 20
Onion(100 days) KC 0.7 0.75 1.05 0.85
LGP 15 25 30 20
Pepper (120) KC 0.4 0.75 1.15 0.6
LGP 25 35 40 20
Rain fed Maize KC 0.4 0.75 1.15 0.7
cropping LGP 25 35 30 30
Wheat KC 0.3 0.75 1.05 0.25
LGP 20 25 50 25
Fababean(120 KC 0.25 0.85 1.05 0.25
days) LGP 25 35 40 20
Haricot bean (100) KC 0.25 0.85 1.05 0.25
LGP 15 30 35 20
Source: FAO and Research Institutes
5.2 Estimation of Evapo-transpiration (ETo)and Effective Rainfall

Climatic data including wind speed, relative humidity, sun shine hours, maximum &
minimum temperature are used from the same metrological station, located in the nearby
target project area. As stated in (Table1) of this report, the maximum and critical ETo
in almost all target project area is during January and February which needs high amount
of moisture to balance its negative impact on crop yield or staggering crops to the safest
months. However, better rainfall is also recorded on those months which challenge the
adjustment of the calendar. As displayed in (Graph4) the effective rainfall is greater than
ETo from April to September months of the year where irrigation water is not required i.e.
the length of growing period is around nine (9) months.
Since not all rainfall is effective and its part may be lost by surface runoff, deep
percolation and evaporation, only a portion of total rain can enter and be stored in the root
zone. Hence, calculating the effectiveness of rainfall is highly important to make the
irrigation requirement and schedule more precise. FAO dependable effective rainfall
calculation method has been considered for effective rainfall calculation by using CropWat
software version 8.0. Based on this calculation the dependable rainfall of the areas has
been tabulated in (Figure1) of this report. The graph of rainfall versus effective rainfall
shows that the effective rainfall is lower than total rainfall.
As stated in (Graph) crop water needs can be fully met by rainfall in the target project
during the rainy season in the normal years where. Climatic data obtained respective
metrological station shows that the area has a total rainfall amount of 1163.5 mm/annum
while the effective rainfall is 667.8mm/year having a variation of 485.7mm. The rainfall is
sufficient enough to produce diversified crops during the rainy season. Sometimes the
38
local community produces two crops with this amount of rainfall by planting short season
varieties such as haricot bean in early September and harvesting on December to free the
land for main season crops.
250 Total RAIN EFF.RAIN AND ETO RELATION

200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Rain (mm) Eff. Rain (mm) ETo mm/month
Figure 1: ETo, rainfall, and effective rainfall
ETO AND EFF.RAIN RELATION

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Eff. Rain (mm) ETo mm/month
Figure 2: Effective rainfall, and ETo
39
Total RAIN AND EFF.RAIN RELATION

250
200
150
100
50
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Rain (mm) Eff. Rain (mm) mm/month
Figure 3: Rainfall, and Effective rainfall
Since all climatic data are available directly from stations and by interpolating for some
areas, penman monteith method of ETo calculation is used which is the recent and
accurate method of ETo calculation. It is calculated by using CropWat Software version
8.0 which is the recent version of the software.
5.3 Crop and irrigation water requirement of project command area

Crop Water Requirement (ETc): It is amount of water/ the depth of water needed to meet
the water loss through evapo transpiration (ET-crop) of a disease-free crop, growing in
large fields under non restricting soil conditions including soil water and fertility and
achieving full production potential under the given growing environment. ETcrop is
calculated by multiplying the ETo by the respective Kc of a given crop (Etc=ETO*Kc). The
total ETc is highly dependent on its Kc and LGP of that particular crop. Based on the
determined Kc and LGP of all crops, the crop water requirement of each crop has been
determined by using the modified Penman method which can offer the best results with
minimum possible error of plus or minus 10 percent and annexed at (Annex-I) of this
document.
ETc=ETo xKC
40
Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR): It refers to the depth of irrigation water required by
the plant for its proper growth and development. In the determination of Net Irrigation
Requirement (NIR) the contributions of precipitation, stored soil moisture, and ground
(Capillary) water are not taken into consideration. In other words, NIR is the amount of
irrigation water required to bring the soil moisture content around the root zone to field
capacity level from the level it has been before applying irrigation water. Since there is no
any leaching requirement and the level of ground water is below the root zone of all kind of
crops, the NIR is the difference between ETc and effective rainfall:
NIR=ETc−Effective Rainfall
Gross Irrigation Requirement (GIR): It is the weighted gross irrigation water requirement
of all crops grown in the project area using different irrigation systems. Gross Irrigation
Requirement (GIR) is calculated by dividing Net Irrigation Requirement (NIR) by Irrigation
Efficiency. This amount of water includes losses of irrigation water at different pints,
connivance, distribution and field application levels. As presented in (Table13) the first
scenario (perennial crops) require high amount of water since the perennial crops
development is throughout the year.
In order to determine GIR, different efficiency levels have been considered for the project
including Conveyance Efficiency1 (Ec=0.90), field canal efficiency 2 (Eb=0.85) and
application efficiency3 (Ea=0.60) an overall efficiency/project efficiency 4 which is (Ep= Ec
(0.90)*Eb (0.85)*0.50) =0.40).
Project Water Requirement

Daily irrigation water requirement was calculated using the mean monthly rainfall data of
the study area and within Crop Wat 8 windows interface. According to the results, the
gross irrigation requirement of the project is 0.46 l/s/day. Considering twelve hours
irrigation per day, the gross diversion irrigation requirement (Crop Duty) of the project
would be 0.92 l/s/ha in the month of January.
41
Table :1 Irrigation requirement of command area
Crop Type Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Maize 0 0 0 0 39.1 32.7 0 0 0 0 0 0

Wheat 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1.6 0 0 0
Faba-Bean 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.8 1.4 0 0
Haricot beans 0 0 0 0.1 44.7 27.3 0 0 0 0 0 0
Tomato 60.8 47.2 38.9 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 19.9 29.4
Pepper 58.6 47.9 17.3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9.4 27
Onion 25.3 43.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3.2 19.9 35.2
Cabbage 54.8 42 17.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 24.8 29.7
Net scheme irr.req.
in mm/day 1.7 1.5 0.4 0 0.7 0.5 0 0 0.1 0 0.6 1
in mm/month 46.4 45 13.4 0 20.7 15.3 0 0 2.2 1.4 17.2 30.6
in l/s/h 0.23 0.19 0.05 0 0.08 0.06 0 0 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.11
Irrigated area (% 100 100 65 20 50 50 0 0 50 55 100 100
of total area)
Irr.req. for actual 0.2 0.19 0.03 0.00 0.04 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.01 0.01 0.07 0.11
area (l/s/h) 3
GIR (50%) Appl. 0.4 0.38 0.06 0.00 0.08 0.06 0.00 0.00 0.02 0.02 0.14 0.22
Eff. l/s/h 6
Duty at 12 hrs 0.9 0.76 0.12 0.00 0.16 0.16 0.00 0.00 0.04 0.04 0.28 0.44
L/s/h 2
5.4 Irrigation scheduling (depth, interval and irrigation period)

The supply requirements at the field level are determined by the depth and interval of
irrigation. Irrigation schedule indicates how much irrigation water has to be given to the
crop and how often or when this water is given. How much and how often water has to be
given depends on the irrigation water need of the crop.
Irrigation scheduling considers factors such as available soil water (Sa) which is a
difference between field capacity and permanent wilting point; the fraction of available soil
water permitting unrestricted evapo transpiration and/or optimal crop growth; and (iii) the
rooting depth (D) of the crop and application efficiency (Ea) and peak crop evapo-
transpiration. By formulating these data, irrigation scheduling has been calculated by
using CropWat software version8.0.
Irrigation depth: It is the amount of water which can be given during one irrigation
application which depends on the soil type and the crop root depth and readily available
soil moisture. The net depth of water that can be applied during one irrigation application
(d) is the depth of water that can be stored within the root zone between field capacity and
the allowable level the soil water that can be depleted for a given crop and soil.
The derived formula for the software is:
42
( p∗Sa )∗D
Depth of irrigation (d)d= in mm
Ea
Where p= fraction of available soil water permitting unrestricted evapo transpiration

(allowable depletion which is the fraction of the total available moisture (TAM) that can
easily be extracted by crops and is generally between 50– 60%. The 50% of the total
available moisture is depleted at 1 bar SWP.
Sa = total available soil water, mm/m soil depth
D= rooting depth in meters (m)
Ea =application efficiency, fraction
NB: Since p, D and ETcrop will vary over the growing season, the depth in mm and
interval of irrigation in days will vary.
Irrigation interval: Frequency of irrigation is expressed as irrigation interval of the

( p∗Sa )∗D
individual field which is calculated as (i) i=
ETcrop
When to irrigate is a very important decision in scheduling. Crops may need water on daily
bases but in practice it would be very time and labor consuming unless it is drip
irrigation. It is, therefore, preferable to supply the water at a longer irrigation interval by
storing the water in the sol as far as the soil can store it. Depending on the soil type,
irrigation water can be stored in the root zone and gradually be used by the plants on their
demand bases. The irrigation interval has to be chosen in such a way that the crop will
not suffer from water shortage.
Since p, D and ETcrop will vary over the grooving season, the depth and interval of
irrigation in days will vary. However, an average interval and depth of water has been
calculated as following.
Table 2: Average irrigation interval in days and irrigation depth in (mm)

Crops Irrigation interval (days) Irrigation depth(mm) Remark
Tomato 10 35
Onion 8 21
Pepper 12 28
Cabbage 7 15
Irrigation period (t): The other important question that needs decision is how long to
irrigate a farm during one irrigation application, i.e. the delivery time in hours (t) required
for a farm to supply the required gross irrigation depth. The following four irrigation
variables are very important for proper planning and operation:
 Irrigated area (A): the area of the field to be irrigated, in ha;
 Irrigation depth (d): the amount of irrigation water in mm that must infiltrate into
the soil reservoir;
 Stream size (Q): the amount of water per unit time to supply the required irrigation
depth of field canals, in l/s; and
43
 Irrigation/delivery time (t): the time in hours required to supply the irrigation depth.
With three variables known, the fourth can be calculated as follows.
Volume of water needed = Volume of water supplied
Irrigation depth * Area = Irrigation time * Stream size
Q(ls)¿=d ( mm )∗A 9 ha ¿ ¿
t (hr )
Q ( sl )=d (mm)∗(m/1000mm)∗A (ha)∗(10000 m2 /ha)∗¿ ¿

2.78∗d ( mm )∗A (ha)
Q=
t(hrs)
t ( hr )=2.78∗d ( mm )∗A(ha)
2.78∗d ( mm )∗A (ha)

t ( hr )=
l
Q( )
s
Based on this formula, the irrigation period can be simply calculated with a simple
calculator or hand held mobile if the canal water is measured with any convenient
measuring means like pockets, flumes, water meter and others. Every farmer can record
the time the water enters his/her field and the total hours the water should stay in the
field.
5.5 Proposed method of irrigation

Various methods can be used to supply irrigation water for crops having its own
advantages and disadvantages mainly its labor requirement, water use efficiency, high
technology requirement (drip and sprinkler irrigation), cost of the technology and other
factors. By considering different factors of the area including edaphic factors the following
methods of irrigation are applicable.
Furrow irrigation: It is suitable for a wide range of soil types, crops and land slope and it
is a common practice in every irrigation scheme. However, the land slope of the irrigation
field should be uniform flat or gentle slopes, not exceeding 0.5%. Usually a gentle furrow
slope is provided up to 0.05% to assist drainage following irrigation or excessive rainfall
with high intensity. In undulating areas of the irrigation land furrows should follow the
land contours. However, this can be a difficult operation requiring very careful setting out
of the contours before cutting the furrows.
Generally, furrow irrigation is recommended for all types of crops selected but the
construction of furrow length, shape and spacing should be done with scientific means.
Because furrow length must be in consistence with the slope, the soil type, the stream
size, the irrigation depth, the cultivation practice and the field length.
ever, this data only provides approximate information to be used as a guide as the data
are based primarily on each plot of the famers. Hence, furrow structures should be
44
designed in each farmer plot by using leveling instruments that can be available from the
local area with the assistance of extension staffs.
5.6 Water management

5.6.1 Weed Management
Weeds aggravate waste of irrigation water through transpiration and evaporation. The
rapid spread and proliferation of weeds is the major factor for waste of irrigation water in
most of Ethiopian irrigation areas. The most intimidating herbaceous or semi-woody
invader is congress weed, and other grass species. Vast areas of the proposed crop lands
are invaded with this weed species aggravating moisture scarcity in the cropping season.
These species have already proved a threat to crop production and productivity, and did
not receive research and development attention so far which needs serious management
for the successful and crop production.
5.6.2 Appropriate cropping calendar

Appropriate cropping calendar is the major means to balance the available water and crop
production. The cropping calendar is designed for wise use of the available water in the
irrigation area where staggering is highly important for cropping calendar to reduce the
peak water requirement of crops. The high level evaporation seasons are scheduled to be
land preparation to escape high level evaporation which can save high amount of irrigation
water. Hence, implementing the proposed cropping calendar is highly important for the
project realization.
5.6.3 Promoting composting and mulching

Composting of irrigation fields by appropriate composting material can save up to 50% of
water by reducing percolation and evapo transpiration of water and also keeping the
irrigation water in the root zone area. In the project area access to composting material is
good due to mixed farming system where dung is thrown everywhere and in some areas a
heap of cow dung is observed during our field observation. Hence, the implementing
organization can promote composting and or biogas plant establishment for dual purpose,
energy and slurry production. Slurry is highly useful for irrigation crop production that
can increase water use efficiency and in turn high level productivity.
According to Department of Environment and Conservation (2003) mulching can reduce

irrigation after requirement of plants by 70% and reduce soil temperature by 30c. Using
composted soil conditioners improves soil structure, water infiltration, and water holding
capacity of the soil.
5.6.4 Wind breaks along farm borders

One of the evapo-transpiration factors in agricultural fields is wind speed and relative
humidity. In order to reduce the negative impacts of these climatic elements wind breaks
are highly useful. By reducing wind speed, wind breaks can modify the climate in areas
they shelter. The effects of reduced wind speed are moderated soil and air temperatures,
increased relative humidity, reduced evaporation and increased soil moisture.
45
Hence, farmers should be advised to plant wind breaks in their farm land borders with
appropriate tree species which doesn’t have a negative impact on crops including nutrient
competition, and shedding effects. Moreover, since their positive effects are based by the
wind breaks height, length, density, location and species of trees and shrubs, appropriate
considerations of these criteria should be there. Generally, wind speed and direction
should also be considered. Since, the livelihood system is “enset:” based, it can be planted
along the border of farms for dual purpose, food and wind break.
5.6.5 Establishing Irrigation Water Management Committee

Understanding local contexts and dynamics, including social, political and cultural
aspects in the target project areas to establish or revitalize the existing water management
committee should be the first priority. This can help to understand existing traditional
water management systems and strengthen customary institutions as well as build on
their know-how for water scheme management. Because in the target areas, existing water
management is so strong that can be customized for the irrigation water management
rather than establishing news ones. The establishment process should be with high level
involvement of the target beneficiaries with special focus of women beneficiaries since
women are highly responsible for irrigation crop production. Moreover, target beneficiaries
were struggling for the position during the community discussion since there is partiality
between villages.
6 Yield Projection with the Project Condition

Farming is many centuries practice in the target area including irrigation. However,
farming is still done by traditional means including manual operation from site clearing to
harvesting and also transporting. Increasing demand, slower yield growth, pressure on
available land, climate change will continue to put pressure on farmers to increase their
farm productivity. More investment to raise potential agricultural yield, livestock and crop
yield, in the target area is certainly needed. But there is also a considerable gap between
farmers’ actual yield and potential yield that should be further exploited. These yield
difference exists for many reasons including low level of input use, low level of crop
protection, water management, and agronomic practices but emanated from one key
reason, rainfall variability which is becoming more frequent in the target area.
The sustained strong economic growth in many regional economies has translated into
major advances in the availability of basic market infrastructure in rural areas, improved
access to financial and input markets, and improved capacity of both the public and
private sector to invest in extension communication. Given this, which technologies will be
most critical and which delivery mechanisms for these will be appropriate, it is important
for policymakers to understand some of the likely trends in future extension systems to
attain the potential yield as soon as possible with in the given time frame.
46
Table: 3 Yield projection and productivity of the target program areas (tons/ha)
Season Crops Unit Project year
Year1 Year2 Year-3 Year-4 Year >5
Irrigation Tomato qt/ha 180 200 230 250 250
Crops Cabbage ,, 200 220 250 260 260
Onion ,, 120 130 140 160 160
Pepper ,, 5 8 10 12 12
Rain fed Maize ,, 35 40 55 60 60
Crops Wheat ,, 30 35 40 45 45
F. bean ,, 25 35 40 40 40
H. bean , 18 20 22 24 24
Source: Own analysis
Yield projection with the project condition has been proposed based on the availability of
production resources including early maturing and high yielding varieties of crops,
availability of productive soil, irrigation water, adoption of improved agricultural practices
of the community, commitment of regional government to realize its policies and
programs, suitable agro-ecology and other support services from Government and NGOs.
7 Proposed Extension Communication and Capacity Building

7.1 Agricultural extension communication
Following ADLI policy of Ethiopia, and Agricultural Growth Program, large number of
Farmers Training Centers (FTCs) has been constructed at each Kebele level to support the
farming community with modern extension communication systems. But, most of the
development agents at each FTC are not brokering knowledge rather they are doing the
business as usual way of agricultural practices. The same is true for the project area
extension service where the farmers have no any trust on them to modernize the irrigation
and farming system.
In order to make agriculture a business venture, Market-led extension service provision”

trigger the production system by making agriculture remunerative. Private-sector
operators (mainly input suppliers and increasingly processes and traders/exporters)
provide extension services/imbedded services in order to sell product and to ensure that
their supplies comply with specific product characteristics in destination markets.
Information and communication technology (ICT) is expected to continue to gain in
importance as a needs assessment, extension delivery and monitoring tool. ICT offers
many cross-cutting opportunities that could allow public extension systems to respond
better to local demand to manage interventions on a day-to-day basis and to better
quantify the impacts and returns on investments in extension. Moreover, Farm Radio (FR)
for transferring extension services should result in better irrigation agricultural
performance since every farmer has his/her own personal mobile.
47
Introducing a more business-oriented agriculture is likely to help extension service

providers better connect with farmers as clients. If public extension systems can become
more responsive to demand by better understanding localized climatic and agro-ecological
conditions, more farmers will probably see the new technologies as relevant. Generally,
Public-Private-Partnership should be promoted to complement each other.
7.2 Capacity building

Irrigation needs high level performance and synergy of each sector which involves many
sectors including the performance of infrastructure, socio-economic (input supply and
product marketing), plot use (soil management, extension system) and organization (WUA,
Cooperative and block leaders). Hence, to enhance the capacity of all involved stakeholders
and the primary target beneficiaries, capacity building in areas of irrigation water
management, crop production, crop protection, post-harvest handling, technology choice,
approaches, agribusiness and others are highly important.
The target beneficiaries, respective experts and water users’ association committee should
be trained in areas of water management, operation and maintenance, project
management and other important issues. Moreover, manuals, guidelines should be
produced for knowledge and skill base management of the irrigation water which in turn
enables for the sustainability of the schemes. The training should be hands on training
that can sharpen the experts and the farming community in managing irrigation and to
make it efficient and effective.
7.3 Establishment of horticultural nurseries

Lack of improved seeds and seedlings is the major challenge for the farming community in
the target project area. Almost all the farmers are planting their local varieties except some
small vegetables. In order to modernize the farming system and increase production and
productivity, establishment of horticultural nursery that can supply the farming
community with improved varieties should be must to do. This can also help to show the
results of scientific crop production for all walks of life by locating the nursery where it is
visible and every individual can visit and the results of scientific way of doing agriculture.
8 Post-Harvest Management of Forage and Crops

Crop loss in Ethiopia which is mainly associated with disease and pest after crop
maturation, rodents, birds, quality degradation arising from immature crop harvesting,
inappropriate drying, threshing, sorting, storage, and transportation claims more than
35% of product losses. Harvesting, storage and marketing took the lion’s share of crop
losses due to lack of harvesting, threshing and processing industries mainly for
vegetables. Because of lack of these agribusiness ideas, farmers’ priority is based on
access to markets rather than productivity and profitability which aggravates the farmers’
poverty status. Generally, Food losses mainly horticultural crops only have effect on a
social and economic scale, but also represent a waste of resources used in production
such as land, water, energy and other inputs.
48
Therefore, post-harvest handling of agricultural produce is an important component of

development with the project condition, and a catalyst for progressive and sustainable
expansion of agriculture, thereby eradicating waste and ensuring food self-sufficiency,
food security, wealth creation and efficient use of resources. The major activities that
should be done to reduce post-harvest losses are stated below but not limited:
Time of Harvesting: If the crop is harvested early, the produce contains high moisture
and more immature ill filled and shriveled grains. High moisture leads to pest attack and
reduction in germination percentage and impairs the grain quality and total loss of
vegetable crops. Late harvesting results in shattering of grains, germination even before
harvesting during rainy season and breakage during processing.Hence, harvesting at
correct time is essential to get good quality crops and higher yields. Time of harvesting can
be assessed by (i) calculating the growing degree days (GDD),(ii) Assessing maturity from
the duration of crop i.e., at physiological maturity or at harvest maturity.
(a) Physiological maturity refers to a development stage after which no further increases in
dry matter occurs in the economic part. Crop is considered to be at physiological maturity
when the translocation of photosynthesis to the economic part is stopped. Each crop has
also symptoms of physiological maturity such black layer in the placental region of maize
grain, appearance of bleached peduncle in sorghum and loss of green color in from leaves
in the case of soybeans (please see agronomic practice for other crops).
(b) Harvest maturity generally occurs seven days after physiological maturity. The
important processes during this period are loss of moisture from the plants.This can also
help to decide when to harvest the crops.
Threshing: Threshing in Ethiopia is the one which affects the quality of agricultural
products by contaminating the grains with unwanted materials, shriveling the grains and
others. If possible introduction of farmer managed threshing machines is highly important
to reduce grain losses with traditional threshing means and to maintain the required
quality standards. If that is not possible, threshing should be done on clean floors for
quality assurance and to reduce shriveling of the grains.
Availing market Infrastructure/marketing hubs: Town and village public markets

existing in the target area are open air and lack the required facilities, a situation that
fosters spoilage of agricultural products mainly vegetable crops. Hence establishment of
marketing hubs having the required facilities such is cooling systems in the project area
are highly important to reduce product losses. Moreover, this can also reduce the seasonal
demand supply challenges of perishable crops.
9 Conclusion and Recommendation

Irrigation is a centuries old practice in the project area, but its mode of production is
business as usual. Most of the command area is covered by vegetables and also some
perennial crops such as enset. The project area is highly suited for irrigation crop
production having a reasonable topography, excellent soil depth and texture and above all
49
high level of demand of the farming community to modernize irrigation development. If

water is availed, farmers are highly demanding to produce double crops per year to be
surplus producers and self-reliant in food security.The area is highly suitable for diversity
of crops; vegetables, perennials, cereals and pulses that can result in maximum yield
levels.
Investment on irrigation crop production in the project area is highly promising having all
factors lined up on the positive side including edaphic factors, climatic, socioeconomic
(demand, irrigation experience), organizational (cultural groups) and technical matters.
Moreover, forward and backward linkages of farming are at its very good stage where
many industries and universities are established in the nearby area, Hawassa that can
absorb the agricultural products of the irrigation scheme throughout the year.
The project is expected to contribute to agricultural growth and poverty reduction directly
by permitting production intensification (200%) and diversification and hence increased
farm outputs and incomes; increasing agricultural wage employment; and reducing local
food prices and which in turn improve the resiliency of the local community from drought
shocks. Moreover, the project can contribute a drop for industrial input supply mainly for
food processing industries which are currently depending on importing of agricultural
inputs from abroad.
However, in order to attain the stated benefits and outcomes it needs a serious
involvement of all concerned parties, stakeholders and also empowering the target
beneficiaries in all aspects to support the demands and efforts of the farming community
by doing the following way forwards and/or recommendations:
 Since irrigation has four inalienable constituents; irrigation scheme (physical

structure to deliver the irrigation water; plot use (type of crops, agricultural
techniques, allocation of labor, inputs and capital); organization (WUA, cooperatives
and other beneficiaries groups) and socio-economic environment (inter and intra-
relationships of the farmers and farmers’ organizations), there should be cohesive
action of all concerned stakeholders to the maximum possible. This can assure the
implementation of the project and sustaining the benefits of the target beneficiaries;
 Intensified technical support of the farming community on scientific agronomic
practices should be there by committed extension workers, and non-governmental
organization that can enable the target beneficiaries to use research results and
come up with efficient use of irrigation water and use of improved varieties which
are resource efficient;
 In order to effectively and efficiently use the available irrigation water for
production, proposed cropping pattern the project in the irrigation fields should be
implemented to maintain the overall efficient use of resources mainly water;
 Capacity building of the target beneficiaries in areas of overall farm management,
irrigation management, business skills that can instigate the farming community
from their subsistence mentality and to acquaint the synergetic positive effects of
crop and livestock production should be mandatory;
50
 Timely supply of agricultural inputs should be done on a planned and organized

manner which is the major challenge of production where the farmers considered
the prominent challenge in the past many years;
 Since most of the command area is covered with “Chat” awareness creation and
serious discussions should be conducted to implement the proposed cropping
pattern and in order to make the farming community to be food self-sufficient. To
the minimum, the target irrigation area should be planted with selected crops.
 In order to show the comparative advantages of the crops, business plan of each
crop plant should be designed by the respective DAs displayed for the farming
community.
10. REFERENCE
 Journal of Economics and Sustainable Development www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1700

(Paper) ISSN 2222-2855 (Online) Vol.4, No.2, 2013
 Department of Environment and Conservation (2003). Life cycle inventory and life
cycle assessment of windrow composting systems. Report prepared by Recycled
Organics Unit, The University of New South Wales, Sydney.
 Flintan, F. (2013). Plotting Progress. Integrated planning in the drylands of Kenya,

Ethiopia and Uganda. REGLAP
 Miles N and Manson A. D. (2000). Nutrition of planted pastures. In. Pasture

Management in South Africa edited by N. M. Tainton. University of Natal Press
Pietermaritzbing 2000.
 Oromia Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise (2009). Oromia Land Use
Guided Valley Development Program. Draft.
 UNDP. (2014). Dealing with Complexity in Dryland Management in Ethiopia: An

Integrated Approach.
 US Composting Council. (1996). Benefits of Compost. The Field Guide to Compost

Us.
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SNNPR WATER & IRRIGATION DEVELOPMENT BUREAE IRRIGATION CONSTRUCTION

& SCHEME ADMINSTRATION AGENCY

easibility Study of Wuzer Small Scale Irrigation

Irrigation Agronomy Draft Report

5.3. CROP AND IRRIGATION WATER REQUIREMENT OF PROJECT COMMAND AREA..................................40

1.2 Scope of the study

Review of agricultural development policies, programs and strategies for agricultural

1.3 Objective of irrigation agronomy study

Determining irrigation water requirement and irrigation scheduling of the

1.4 Project rational

1.5 Review of policies and strategies

Ensuring sustainable agriculture through the development of natural resources, aligning

1.6 Review of previous studies

prospective irrigation schemes is used for multipurpose; livestock, human consumption,

2 Approaches and Methodology of Data Collection

 Technical observation and investigation: In order to have a preview on the

3 Existing Condition of Target Areas

3.1 Location and Topography

3.2 Agro-Ecology of the Project Area

Table: 1 the climate of Wuzer small-scale irrigation project

Temperature Total Altitude Mean ETo Therma Agro-Ecology

3.2.1 Length of Growing Period

3.2,2 Description of Topography of the Project Area

3.2.3 Agro-Climatic Condition of the Project Area

3.3 Source of climate data

3.4 Rainfall distribution of the target project area

Table: 4 Total Rain fall & Effective Rain fall

Rain mm Eff rain mm

Figure 1: Rainfall and effective in mm/month of the area

3.5 Water resource

3.6 Soil condition of the project area

3.7 Description of Land Use/Land Cover

Table:5 existing land use of Damu kebele of kela wereda

3.7.1 Land Tenure and Landholding at LSSIP

3.7.2 Livelihoods of target program areas

3.8 Agricultural production in the target area

Kebele Yield/ha Cropping Calendar

3.8.2 Irrigation and crop production and water management

3.8.3 Existing farming systems and practices

3.8.4 Agronomic practices

3.8.5 Crop Protection

3.8.6 Existing agricultural input supply and technology use levels

3.9 Institutional support services in the program target areas

3.9.2 Agricultural research support

 The research-extension linkage system is weak; so the technologies or innovations

3.10 Agricultural production constraints in the project area

Limited access of irrigation water source: Scarcity of irrigation water, livestock

4 Crop Production with Project Condition

Cropping system is an important component of any farming system representing cropping

4.2 Criteria for crop selection with project condition

Labor Availability: Agricultural labor is the prominent factor in Ethiopian agriculture

4.3 Proposed cropping pattern and intensities

4.4 Agronomic Practices & Production Technologies Recommended

4.4.1 Maize (Zea mays)

Required cultural practices: Maize needs serious management practices to provide

Stalk borer control:

Armyworm and grass hopper control: