AESF 5310

Advanced Aerodynamics

Lecture 14: 9 Nov 2022

SpaceX Crew Dragon
Demo-2 Launch on Falcon 9 Instructor: Prof Larry Li 1
 Today’s agenda [AS8,10]
• Compressible flow
• 1D isentropic flow in a duct
• Converging nozzle
• Converging-diverging nozzle
• Shock waves
• What is a shock wave?
• Equations for a normal shock

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 SpaceX’s SuperDraco will power the Crew Dragon’s revolutionary launch escape system, the first of its
kind. Should an emergency occur during launch, eight SuperDraco engines built into Crew Dragon’s side
walls will generate over 120,000 pounds of thrust to carry astronauts to safety.

L14 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1_FXVjf46T8 3
 Flow in a converging nozzle [AS10.3]

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SpaceX Merlin 1D (USA) RD-107 (Russia)
 Flow in a converging nozzle [AS10.3]
-Flow induced from large quiescent reservoir by reducing the back pressure 𝑃𝑏
-Pressure in the reservoir 𝑃𝑟 = 𝑃0 (stagnation pressure) because the velocity there is ≈ 0
(i.e. no kinetic energy)
Path 1: If 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃0 → No pressure gradient → No flow
Path 2: If 𝑃𝑏 < 𝑃0 → Pressure gradient → Subsonic flow
within the nozzle → Reduction in 𝑃𝑏 is ‘signaled’ to
the reservoir fluid by a sound wave propagating
upstream (at the speed of sound, of course).
Path 3: If 𝑃𝑏 is reduced further (to 𝑃∗ ) → Still subsonic flow
within the nozzle but sonic flow 𝑀 = 1 at the
nozzle exit! Mass flow rate is maximized (choked).
Path 4/5: If 𝑃𝑏 is reduced even further (below 𝑃∗ ) → Info
about this reduction cannot travel upstream
against the sonic throat → Flow in nozzle
cannot sense the reduction
in 𝑃𝑏 → Mass flow rate
remains unchanged
(at its maximum
choked value).
Choked flow

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 Flow in a converging-diverging nozzle [AS10.3]
Oxidizer Fuel

(if 𝑀𝑡 = 1)

Nozzle

(if 𝑀𝑡 = 1)

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Merlin 1D
 Apollo 11 Saturn V Launch Camera E-8

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 Flow in a converging-diverging nozzle [AS10.3]

𝑃0
𝑇0 𝑀=1
𝑀<1 𝑀>1
𝜌0
Choked
(Sonic, 𝑀 = 1)

𝑀
Path E, F or G: No normal shock within nozzle
Path E: Normal shock at nozzle exit
Between Path E and F: Oblique shocks outside nozzle
Path F: No shocks within or outside nozzle
Path G: Expansion waves outside nozzle
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 Shock diamonds (a.k.a. Mach diamonds)

Shock diamonds behind a Lockheed SR-71 Blackbird in flight A statically mounted Pratt & Whitney J58 engine on
full afterburner while disposing of the last of the SR-
71 fuel prior to program termination. The bright areas
seen in the exhaust are known as shock diamonds.

The diamond-shaped pattern seen in the supersonic exhaust is actually a series of oblique shocks and
expansion fans. The nozzle is designed to be efficient at high altitudes, which means that the shape of the
nozzle is designed to expand the exhaust gases to a very low pressure. When operated at sea level,
however, the nozzle is over-expanded, i.e. the exhaust gases are expanded to a pressure below ambient.
The low-pressure supersonic exhaust must then find a way to reach the high-pressure ambient: it does so
through an oblique shock right at the nozzle exit. This oblique shock, besides raising the pressure, redirects
the gases toward the exhaust centreline. To ensure flow symmetry, two additional oblique shocks form, but
these also raise the exhaust pressure above ambient. Thus, expansion fans form to reduce the pressure,
but these, too, affect the direction of the exhaust gases. The final pattern is a series of progressively weaker
oblique shocks and expansion fans that raise the exhaust gas pressure to match the ambient pressure. 9
 Shock diamonds from a methane rocket

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 Shock waves [AS8]

This stunning National Geographic photo contest winner shows an F-15 banking at an airshow and an array
of fascinating fluid dynamics. A vapor cloud has formed over the wings due to the acceleration of air over
the top of the airplane. The acceleration has reduced the local pressure enough that the moisture of the air
condenses. Some of this condensation has been caught by the wingtip vortices, revealing those as well.
Finally, the twin exhausts have a wake full of shock diamonds, formed by a series of oblique shocks and 11
expansion fans that adjusts the low-pressure exhaust flow to the (relatively high) ambient pressure.
 What is a shock wave? [AS8]
• It is a thin slice (~μm) of flow across which fluid properties change abruptly →
Thickness ~ a few molecular mean free paths.
• It is almost discontinuous, but not exactly so due to momentum diffusion by
viscosity → Internal viscous stresses cause abrupt changes in fluid properties.
• It’s how a supersonic flow (𝑀 > 1) adjusts to an unannounced obstacle.
• Across a shock wave, the flow is irreversible (entropy ↑) but adiabatic (no heat
transfer, but temperature still increases because KE → internal energy).

oblique shocks

A bow shock (i.e. detached oblique Supersonic airfoil with oblique

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shock) forming in front of a blunt body shocks and expansion waves
 What is a shock wave? [AS8]
Today’s lecture

F16 Fighting Falcon: Normal shock inlet

(NSI) is used to slow down the incoming
supersonic flow to subsonic speeds before
it enters the engine compressor → Simple
and robust, but the strong normal shock
leads to big losses at higher supersonic
speeds, which is why faster aircraft tend to 13
use a series of milder oblique shocks
 Equations for a normal shock [AS8.6]
1) Conservation of mass

2) Conservation of momentum

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 Equations for a normal shock [AS8.6]
3) Adiabatic

4) Ideal gas

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 Equations for a normal shock [AS8.6]

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 Equations for a normal shock [AS8.6]

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 Equations for a normal shock [AS8.6]
Non-isentropic character of shock waves

Procedure for shock calculations

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 Equations for a normal shock [AS8.6]
What goes up? 𝑷, 𝝆, 𝑻, 𝒔
What goes down? 𝑷𝟎 , 𝒖, 𝑴
What stays the same? 𝑻𝟎

Before shock: After shock:

Supersonic (𝑴𝟏 > 𝟏) Subsonic (𝑴𝟐 < 𝟏)

𝛾−1
1+ 𝑀12
Mach number 𝑀22 = 2
𝛾−1
[AE8.59]
𝛾𝑀12 − 2

𝑃2 1+𝛾𝑀12 2𝛾
Pressure = = 1 + 𝛾+1 𝑀12 − 1 > 1 [AE8.65]
𝑃1 1+𝛾𝑀22
𝜌2 𝑃2 𝑇1 𝛾+1 𝑀12
Density = = >1 [AE8.61]
𝜌1 𝑃1 𝑇2 2+ 𝛾−1 𝑀12
1
𝑇2 1+2 𝛾−1 𝑀12 2𝛾 2+ 𝛾−1 𝑀12
Temperature = 1 = 1+ 𝑀12 −1 >1 [AE8.67]
𝑇1 1+2 𝛾−1 𝑀22 𝛾+1 𝛾+1 𝑀12

Stag. Temperature 𝑇01 = 𝑇02 Adiabatic

𝛾
𝛾−1
Stag. Pressure and 𝜌02 𝑃02 𝑃2 1+12 𝛾−1 𝑀22
= = <1 Irreversible
Stag. Density 𝜌01 𝑃01 𝑃1 1+12 𝛾−1 𝑀12
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>𝟏 ≪𝟏
 Homework 5

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