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Cell Structure and Cell Division 3

LEARNING OUTCOMES LABORATORY SUPPLIES
These Learning Outcomes correspond by number to the laboratory activities in this exercise.When • Eukaryotic cell model
• Compound light microscopes
you complete the activities, you should be able to: • Microscope slides
• Coverslips
Activity 3.1 Describe the structure and function of the nucleus and major • Toothpicks
organelles in a eukaryotic cell. • 10% methylene blue stain
• Prepared microscope slides of cheek cells
Activity 3.2 Prepare a wet mount of cells derived from your own cheek. • Prepared microscope slides of various
structures
Activity 3.3 Compare and contrast light microscopic and electron • Electron micrographs of various cell
microscopic observations of cell structure. structures
• Prepared slides of whitefish blastula
Activity 3.4 Identify and describe the stages of mitosis. • Coloring pencils

BEFORE YOU BEGIN, CONSIDER THIS . . .

The term cell was first used in 1665 when Robert Hooke was examining a thin slice of cork for a demonstration
at the Royal Society of London. He observed evenly spaced rows of boxes that reminded him of the “cells,” or
living quarters, for monks in a monastery. Hooke did not actually observe living cells because the cork tissue was
dead. All that remained was the cell wall, a structure found in plant cells and bacteria. With the advent of the first
microscope in 1673, Anton van Leeuwenhoek was the first to identify living cells. However, significant advances
in cell biology did not occur until the first part of the 19th century, when microscopes with stronger magnification
and resolving power were developed.
At the beginning of the 19th century, medical studies on the human body paved the way for the development
of what is known as the cell theory. It was during this time that a fundamental understanding of cell structure and
function began to emerge. Gradually, the work of various scientists contributed to the modern cell theory, which
includes the following concepts:
• $ells are the structural buildinH blocLs of all livinH orHanisms.
• All cells arise from preeYistinH cells.
• The cell is the basic unit of life.
• *n a multicellular orHanism, each cell maintains its own metabolism,
independent of other cells, yet
individual cells depend on other cells
for survival.
• The activities of all cells in an Epithelial tissue
organism are essential and highly
coordinated.
Different cell types vary greatly in Connective tissue
size, shape, and function; consider, for
example, the differences in a muscle cell
and a nerve cell. And yet, the cell theory
tells us that all the cells in our bodies The differentiation of the four Muscle tissue
derive from a single cell: the fertilized tissue types from a single cell:
the fertilized ovum
ovum that forms when the cell nuclei of
egg and sperm unite. This means that
despite their variability, all the cells in
your body have the same genetic makeup. Neural tissue
Consider how this can be possible.
EXERCISE 3 Cell Structure and Cell Division 29
 ACTIVITY
3.1 Examining Cell Structure

A In your study of anatomy and physiology, you will focus on
the structure and function of eukaryotic cells because
these are the cells found in the human body. Typically, the largest
structure inside a eukaryotic cell is the nucleus, which contains the
cell’s DNA and directs all cellular activities.
The cytoplasm is the gel-like cell matrix located outside the
nucleus. It consists of a fluid portion, the cytosol, and various
structures called organelles. The organelles are divided into two
categories: (1) membranous organelles, which are surrounded
by a phospholipid membrane, similar in structure to the plasma
(cell) membrane. These membrane-bound structures have
internal compartments with chemical environments that may be
different than the surrounding cytosol; and (2) nonmembranous
organelles, which are not surrounded by a membrane and, thus,
are in direct contact with the cytosol.

Peroxisomes contain
enzymes that
neutralize toxins
produced by cellular
metabolism or taken
in from the outside;
they also break down
fatty acids.
Lysosomes are filled
with digestive
(hydrolytic) enzymes.
They digest old,
worn- out organelles,
and destroy harmful
bacteria, viruses, and
toxins.
Centrioles are paired with cylindrical
structures, arranged at right angles to each
other and located at one end of the nucleus
in an area of the cytoplasm known as the
centrosome. They produce microtubules for
the cytoskeleton, form the bases from
which the cilia and flagella are produced,
and form the mitotic spindle for mitosis.
Microvilli are tiny, fingerlike
extensions that increase the surface
area along the cell membrane of
cells that absorb substances. They
contain bundles of microfilaments
that are anchored to the terminal
web, a filamentous band that runs
just below the cell surface.

The Golgi apparatus is a series of flattened membranous sacs, resembling

a stack of pancakes. This organelle modifies and packages proteins that are
produced by the rough endoplasmic reticulum.

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a highly folded membranous structure

that encloses a network of fluid-filled cavities.

The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is studded with ribosomes (fixed

ribosomes), the sites of protein synthesis. It produces proteins that are
secreted by the cell, incorporated into the plasma membrane, or used by
lysosomes.

The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which lacks ribosomes,

synthesizes lipids and glycogen and detoxifies poisons and various drugs.

The nucleus

The nucleolus is suspended in a gel-like matrix called the nucleoplasm. It

produces ribosomes.

Chromatin is composed of complex molecules of DNA and protein. DNA is

the genetic material of the cell.

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane that separates nucleoplasm

from cytoplasm. It is dotted with numerous nuclear pores that allow the
passage of various substances into and out of the nucleus.

The cytoskeleton The plasma (cell)

consists of three types
of protein filaments—
microtubules,
intermediate filaments,
and microfilaments. They
provide strength and
flexibility for the cell and
support for the various
other organelles.
membrane is
composed of
phospholipids,
proteins, and
carbohydrates and acts
as a selectively
permeable barrier
between the cell and its
external environment.
Free ribosomes produce proteins used for cellular metabolism.
Mitochondria are bean-shaped structures surrounded
by a double membrane. The inner membrane, which
contains numerous inward folds, encloses a gel-like
material called the matrix. Mitochondria produce
most of the cell’s energy in the form of ATP.

30 EXERCISE 3 Cell Structure and Cell Division

 B Study a model of a typical eukaryotic animal cell or the
diagram on the previous page. Word Origins
1 Identify the important cell structures and become The Greek term karyon refers to a nucleus and the prefix
familiar with the basic structure and function of each. eu- means “good.” A eukaryotic cell, therefore, has a true, well-
2 In the table below, identify the cell structure that matches defined nucleus.
each example. ►

Cell Structure Example

Lysosomas White blood cells that fight infections use these organelles to destroy harmful bacteria and viruses.
Rough endoplasmic reticulum Liver cells use this organelle to synthesize blood (plasma) proteins.

Cells in the small intestine, which absorb nutrients, have these structures to increase surface area along theplasma
Microvilli (cell) membrane.

Cells that divide regularly, such as the cells in the epidermis of the skin, use these organelles to produce themitotic
Centrioles spindle prior to cell division.

Muscle cells, which expend a large amount of energy when they contract, have a large number of theseorganelles
Mi to produce ATP.

C The basic structural component of the plasma (cell)

very flexible. Cholesterol, a second lipid component, is
membrane is the phospholipid bilayer, which is composed of interspersed between phospholipids in both layers of the
two layers of phospholipid molecules. At normal body membrane. $holesterol provides some deHree of stability to the
temperature, the membrane has a fluid nature and, therefore, is phospholipid bilayer structure.

1 Explain why the phospholipid EXTRACELLULAR Glycocalyx Integral protein Phospholipid

(extracellular with channel
molecules are arranged as a bilayer. FLUID carbohydrates) bilayer
►Los fosfolípidos en la membrana celular
están dispuestos en dos capas, llamadas Glycolipid Cholesterol
bicapa de fosfolípidos.

2 The plasma membrane has integral

proteins that are firmly inserted into the
lipid bilayer and peripheral proteins that
rest loosely on the inner surface. In the
diagram on the right, proteins are shown
in blue. Notice that two integral proteins
have channels passing through them. Based
on this structural feature, speculate on the
Integral
function of these proteins. = 2 nm glycoproteins
►Las proteínas integrales con canales a través de ellas CYTOPLASM
permiten el paso a través de la membrana celular de
sustancias que no pueden pasar directamente a través de la Integral (transmembrane) proteins Peripheral Cytoskeleton
bicapa de fosfolípidos. proteins (microfilaments)

MAKING CONNECTIONS
Why is it important for the plasma membrane to be flexible? What do you think would happen if it became too rigid?
►cuando la membrana de plasma es flexible, puede proteger la célula y ayuda a regular los materiales dentro y fuera de la
célula. Si la membrana celular es demasiado rígida, no podría proteger a la célula y las proteínas no se unirían.

EXERCISE 3 Cell Structure and Cell Division 31

B Electron Microscopy

1 The three electron micrographs shown on this page illustrate

various organelles found in endocrine cells located in the lung.
In the table below, list the organelles that you can identify in each
micrograph. ►

Organelles
(a)

Retículo endoplásmico, ribosomas libres, citoesqueleto, peroxisomas,

lisosomas, autofagosoma, endosoma,

(b)
Mitocondrias, citoesqueleto, aparato de Golgi, ribosomas libres

(c)
Retículo endoplasmático, retículo endoplasmático rugoso, retículo
endoplasmático liso

(a) TEM × 10,000

2 Name the two cell structures

that are surrounded by a double
phospholipid bilayer (a double
membrane). ►
1. mitocrondias
2. cloroplastos

(b) TEM × 10,000 (c) TEM × 10,000

3 Examine other electron micrographs of cells that are

available in the laboratory and identify the organelles that MAKING CONNECTIONS
you observe. $ompare the amount of detail that you observed throuHh the
In the spaces below, note the difference in magnification light microscope and electron microscope. Which structures
between these micrographs and your earlier observations could you examine in greater depth with the electron
with the light microscope. ► microscope?
Magnification ►
Minimum Maximum
Light microscope

Electron microscope

EXERCISE 3 Cell Structure and Cell Division 35

 Cell Structure and
Name
Lab Section Date
Cell Division
REVIEW SHEET
3

QUESTIONS 1!8: Identify the labeled structures in the diagram by writing the name next to the appropriate number in column A of the
table. $olor the structure with the color indicated in column B of the table.

A. Structure B. Color
4
1. green

2. yellow

3. red 5
4. dark blue 6

5. brown
1
6. purple
2
7. orange

8. light blue 7

3 8

9. When preparing a wet mount of cheek cells, why is it important not to overstain your preparation?

10. Embryonic stem cells give rise to all cell types in the developing embryo. Would you expect the interphase period of stem cells to be
long or short? Explain.

EXERCISE 3 Cell Structure and Cell Division 39

11. Both of the images below show cell nuclei. Which structures in the nucleus can you identify using an electron microscope that you
cannot identify using a light microscope?

Cell nuclei
Nucleus of a cell

TEM × 41,750

LM × 270

QUESTIONS 12!16: Match the phase of mitosis in column A with the appropriate event in column B. One event in column B will not be
used.
A B
12. Early prophase d a. The chromatid pairs separate and are pulled to opposite ends
of the cell.
13. Late prophase c
b. The DNA in the nucleus replicates.
14. Metaphase f
c. The nuclear membrane breaks down.
15. Anaphase e
d. The chromatin molecules in the nucleus become highly
16. Telophase a
condensed, forming chromosomes.
e. A nuclear membrane forms around each new set of
chromosomes.
f. The chromosomes line up, end to end, along the equator of
the cell.