Biology Students’ Companion Resources SB025

CHAPTER 5: CELLULAR RESPIRATION AND

FERMENTATION
SUB TOPIC: 5.1 Aerobic respiration
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) State the needs for energy and the role of respiration in living organisms.
(b) Outline the complete oxidation of glucose which involves glycolysis, Krebs
cycle and oxidative phosphorylation.

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 The catabolic pathway of aerobic and anaerobic respiration,
which break down organic molecules and use an electron
transport chain for the production of ATP.

Cellular
Respiration

 A catabolic pathway for organic molecules (glucose), by

Aerobic
using oxygen as the final electron acceptor in an electron
respiration
transport chain and producing energy.

 Most cellular functions require energy, for examples:

a) The contraction of muscle cells – to create movement
of the organism, or peristalsis.
b) Building up proteins from amino acids
c) The process of cell division to create more cells, or
replace damaged or worn out cells, or to make
Needs for energy
reproductive cells
and the role of
d) The process of active transport, involving the
respiration in
movement of molecules across a cell membrane against
living organisms
a concentration gradient
e) The conduction of electrical impulses by nerve cells
 The Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) molecule is the
"molecular currency" of intracellular energy transfer.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 ATP is produced by:
a) Substrate-level phosphorylation
b) Oxidative phosphorylation

Substrate-level phosphorylation
A mechanism of ATP formation involving the transfer of
aphosphate (Pi) from an intermediate substrate to ADP, to
form ATP.
Oxidative phosphorylation
A process by which ATP synthesis is coupled to the
movement of electrons through the mitochondrial electron
transport chain and the associated consumption of oxygen.

 The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox

reactions of electron transport chain.
 ATP is synthesized by the enzyme ATP synthase, by using
energy from a proton (H+) gradient. This gradient is formed
by high-energy electrons from the oxidation of glucose
passing down an electron transport chain
 These electrons, with their energy depleted, are then
donated to oxygen. Hence, known as oxidative
phosphorylation. ATP synthase uses the energy from the
proton gradient to catalyze the reaction:
ADP + Pi → ATP
 Eukaryotes and aerobic prokaryotes produce the vast
majority of their ATP this way.

A complete oxidation of a molecule of glucose involves:

Complete 1. Glycolysis (occurs in cytoplasm)
oxidation of 2. Krebs Cycle (occurs in the matrix of mitochondrion)
glucose 3. Oxidative Phosphorylation : electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis (occurs at cristae/inner membrane of
mitochondrion)

Krebs
cycle

A complete oxidation of a molecule of a glucose

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SUB TOPIC: 5.1.1 Glycolysis

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Illustrate to explain glycolysis pathway: (from glucose to pyruvate).

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Glycolysis is a cytoplasmic pathway which breaks down
glucose into two three-carbon compounds and generates
energy.
 This process takes place in the cytoplasm of a cell.
 Glycolysis means “sugar splitting” by breaking down a
molecule of glucose (6C) into TWO molecules of pyruvate
(3C).
 Occurs with or without O2.
Stage 1:  There are two major phases:
Glycolysis a) Energy investment phase
o 2 ATP used
o Phosphorylate Sugar
b) Energy payoff phase
o 4 ATP yielded
 Net ATP yield: 2 ATP
 Produces: 2 NADH + 2H+
 No carbon is released as CO2

Energy investment phase

- 2 ATP are used in this phase.
- involves 5 steps which are:
1. Glycolysis begins with the addition of energy.
 -Two high energy phosphates (P) from two molecules of
ATP are added to the 6-carbon molecule glucose.
 -Glucose undergoes phosphorylation to become glucose-6-
phosphate
 Catalysed by hexokinase.
 1 ATP is used.
Glycolysis 2. Rearrangement of glucose 6-phosphate and converted to its
pathway isomer, fructose 6-phosphate (isomerisation)
3. Fructose 6-phosphate undergoes phosphorylation to become
fructose 1,6-bisphosphate.
 Catalysed by phosphofructokinase.
 1 ATP is used.
4. Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate split into dihydroxyacetone
phosphate (DHAP) & glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P)
5. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) is converted into
glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

Glycolysis pathway

Energy payoff phase

- 4 ATP yield
- involves 5 steps:
Glycolysis 6. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is oxidized and undergoes
pathway phosphorylation to become 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate.
 NADH is produced.
7. Phosphate group of 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is removed to
become 3-phosphoglycerate.

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 ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.
8. Phosphate group of 3-phosphoglycerate is relocated to
become 2-phosphoglycerate.
9. Water is removed from 2-phosphoglycerate to become
phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP).
10. Phosphate group of phosphoenolpyruvate is removed to
become pyruvate.
 ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation.
11. Therefore 2 molecules of pyruvate produced from one
molecule of glucose.

Summary of
glycolysis

SUB TOPIC: 5.1.2 Pyruvate Oxidation

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Describe conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.

MAIN IDEAS EXPLANATION NOTES

/KEY POINT
 The glycolysis is linked to Krebs cycle by the oxidation of the
pyruvate.
 Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion by active transport.
 The oxidation in the matrix of mitochondrion is carried out by
Pyruvate three reactions as shown in the diagram:
Oxidation 1. Oxidative decarboxylation
 Pyruvate (3C) undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to
produce 2C sugar
 CO2 is released
2. NADH is produced

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3. Coenzyme A (CoA) combined with 2C sugar to form acetyl
CoA.

Pyruvate + NAD+ + CoA → Acetyl CoA + NADH + CO2 + H+

4. The reaction occurs TWICE per molecule of glucose (2

molecules of pyruvate).

SUB TOPIC: 5.1.3 Krebs cycle

LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Illustrate to explain Krebs cycle: (oxaloacetate  citrate  isocitrate 
α-ketoglutarate  succinyl CoA  succinate  fumarate  malate).

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Krebs cycle the cycle of chemical reactions that are the major
source of energy in living organisms.
(Hans Adolf Krebs).
- Also known as Citric acid cycle
- A cyclical metabolic pathway
Stage 2: Krebs
- Occur in mitochondrial matrix of eukaryotic cells or in the
cycle
cytosol of prokaryotes.
- Oxidize every acetyl CoA to carbon dioxide and generate 1
ATP, 3 NADH and 1 FADH2
- NADH and FADH2 produced are then relay their high-energy
electrons to the electron transport chain.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

1
8

H 2O
7
KREBS CYCLE
3

6
4

Explanation : 8 steps of the Krebs Cycle as shown in the figure

above :
1. Acetyl CoA (from oxidation of pyruvate) adds its two-carbon
acetyl group (2C) to oxaloacetate (4C), producing citrate
(6C).
2. Citrate (6C) is converted to its isomer, isocitrate (6C),
• In this step the hydroxyl (–OH) group of citrate must be
repositioned.
• This rearrangement is done in two steps:
1. a water molecule is removed from one carbon;
2. then water is added to a different carbon.
• As a result, an –H group and an –OH group change
positions.
• The product is an isomer of citrate called isocitrate.
3. Process: Oxidative decarboxylation
• Isocitrate undergoes an oxidative decarboxylation
reaction.
• First, isocitrate is oxidized, yielding a pair of electrons that
reduce a molecule of NAD+ to NADH.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
• Then the oxidized intermediate is decarboxylated; the
central carboxyl group splits off to form CO2, yielding a 5-
carbon molecule called α­ketoglutarate.
• NADH + H+ and CO2 are produced.
4. Process: Oxidative decarboxylation
• α-ketoglutarate (5C) is oxidized, undergoes
decarboxylation and attached to coenzyme A(CoA) to
become succinyl CoA.
• NADH + H+ and CO2 are produced.
5. CoA of succinyl CoA is displaced by a phosphate group.
• The energy released drives the phosphorylation of
guanosine diphosphate (GDP), forming guanosine
triphosphate (GTP). GTP can transfer a phosphate to ADP
converting it into ATP.
• The 4-carbon molecule that remains is called succinate.
• ATP is produced by substrate-level phosphorylation
6. Succinate (4C) is oxidized to become fumarate (4C).
• FADH2 is produced.
7. Water is added to fumarate (4C), to produce malate (4C).
8. Malate (4C) is oxidized to produce oxaloacetate (4C).
• NADH + H+ is produced.
Summary of products:
One turn of cycle Twice turn of cycle
(1 molecule of pyruvate) (1 molecule of glucose)
 2 CO2.  4 CO2.
 3 (NADH + H+)  6 (NADH + H+)
 1 FADH2  2 FADH2
 1 ATP by Substrate Level  2 ATP by Substrate Level
Phosphorylation Phosphorylation

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SUB TOPIC: 5.1.4 Oxidative Phosphorylation: Electron Transport Chain and Chemiosmosis
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Illustrate to explain electron transport chain: The pathway of electron
transport is NADH dehydrogenase, Ubiquinone /CoQ, cyt c reductase, cyt c,
cyt c oxidase. Include succinate dehydrogenase for FADH2
(b) Explain chemiosmosis: proton motive force.
(c) Explain complete oxidation of one molecule of glucose in active cells to
produce 38 ATP

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 Oxidative phosphorylation is the process of ATP formation,
when electrons are transferred by electron carriers from NADH
Stage 3: or FADH2 to oxygen.
Oxidative  The energy derived from redox reactions of an electron
Phosphorylation transport chain. Involve the electron transport chain and
chemiosmosis

The component of electron transport chain and chemiosmosis

A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins)

Electron that shuttle electrons down a series of redox reactions that
Transport Chain release energy to form ATP.
(ETC)
 The NADH and FADH2 molecules formed during the first three
stages of aerobic respiration each contain a pair of electrons that
were gained when the electron carrier NAD+ and FAD were
reduced.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 The NADH molecules carry their electrons to the inner
mitochondrial membrane, where they transfer the electrons to a
series of membrane-associated proteins collectively called the
electron transport chain.
 NADH and FADH2 donate electrons to the electron transport
chain, which powers the ATP synthesis via oxidative
phosphorylation.
 The electron transport chain is at the cristae of the
mitochondrion. The components are proteins complexes.
 The carriers are reduced (accept electrons) and oxidized
(donate electrons).
 Oxygen atom is the last electron acceptor, reacts with protons,
to form water.
Electron Carrier in Electron Transport Chain:
Electron Carrier Function
NADH Transfer electron from NADH to
dehydrogenase coenzyme Q.
Pump proton into the intermembrane space
Succinate Transfer electron from FADH2 to
dehydrogenase ubiquinone (coenzyme Q).
Coenzyme Q/Co Q Transfer electrons to cytochrome c
(ubiquinone) reductase.
Cytochrome c Transfer electrons to cytochrome c.
reductase Pump proton into the intermembrane space
Cytochrome c Transfer electrons to cytochrome oxidase.
Cytochrome c Transfer electrons to O2, forming H2O.
oxidase Pump proton into the intermembrane space

What would happen when NADH reaches electron transport

chain?
1. NADH is oxidized to form NAD+. The electrons are
transferred to NADH dehydrogenase.
2. As the high-energy electron is transferred, some of the
energy is used to pump the protons out of the matrix into
the intermembrane space of mitochondria.
3. NADH dehydrogenase passes the electrons to ubiquinone.
Ubiquinone molecule received the electrons and reduced,
NADH dehydrogenase molecule which donated electron is
oxidized.
4. Ubiquinone (a mobile electron carrier) passes electrons to
Cytochrome c reductase
5. Ubiquinone is oxidized, Cyt c reductase is reduced.
6. Cytochrome c reductase passes electrons to Cytochrome c.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
7. Cyt c reductase is oxidized, Cyt c is reduced. As electron is
transferred, protons are pumped into the intermembrane
space of mitochondria
8. Cytochrome c (a mobile electron carrier) passes electrons
to Cytochrome c oxidase.
9. Cytochrome c oxidase is oxidized, Cyt c oxidase is
reduced.
10. Cytochrome c oxidase passes electrons to oxygen (last
electron acceptor). Water is produced.
11. As the electron are transferred, protons are pumped into the
intermembrane space of mitochondria

What would happen when FADH2 reaches electron transport

chain?
1. FADH2 passes electrons to succinate dehydrogenase
2. Succinate dehydrogenase passes electrons to ubiquinone
3. Ubiquinone passes electrons to cytochrome c reductase
4. Cytochrome c reductase passes electrons to cytochrome c
5. Cytochrome c passes electrons to cytochrome c oxidase
6. Cytochrome c oxidase passes electrons to oxygen atom
(final electron acceptor)
7. Oxygen ion reacts with hydrogen ions in mitochondrial
matrix, forming water

The production of ATP via proton movement, through ATP

synthase across a membrane, driven by proton gradient.

How does the mitochondrion couple this electron transport and

energy release to ATP synthesis?
- The chain uses the energy flow of electrons to pump H+ from
(b) the matrix to the intermembrane space of mitochondrion.
Chemiosmosis:
- Resulting a higher concentration of H+ in the intermembrane
proton motive
space.
force
- The gradient of protons across the inner membrane creates
proton motive force
- H+ in the intermembrane space flow back to mitochondrial
matrix.
- Protons enter the mitochondrial matrix via ATP synthase,
which powers the production of ATP.
- ATP synthase uses the energy from the gradient proton to
catalyze the synthesis of ATP.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

What is ATP synthase?

A membrane-bound enzyme in chloroplasts and mitochondria that
uses the energy from the gradient of protons, flowing through it to
synthesize ATP.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
Utilization of 1 NADH transfer a pair of electrons generates 3 ATP.
NADH &
1 FADH2 , transfer a pair of electrons generates 2 ATP.
FADH2

During cellular respiration, most energy flows in this sequence:

Process ATP produce

Glycolysis: Glucose into pyruvate 2 ATP (Substrate Level
Phosphorylation)
Glycolysis: 2 (NADH + H+)
(c) A complete (Glycerol shuttle = 4 ATP) eg: 4 ATP
oxidation of one muscle, brain or
molecule of (Malate shuttle = 6 ATP) In active 6 ATP
glucose cells eg liver, kidney and heart
Link Reaction: Pyruvate (2) to 6 ATP
acetyl CoA yield 2 (NADH + H+)
Krebs Cycle: 24 ATP
2 GTP = 2 ATP
6 (NADH + H+) = 18 ATP
2 (FADH2) = 4 ATP
TOTAL 36 or 38 ATP

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SUB TOPIC: 5.2 Fermentation and its application
LEARNING OUTCOMES: (a) Explain the process of lactate and alcohol fermentation
(b) Describe the importance of fermentation in industry:
i. Bakery
ii. Vinegar, beverage and alcohol production; and
iii. Fermented food (e.g. tapai, kimci tempoyak)

MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
A catabolic process that makes a limited amount of ATP from
glucose (or other organic molecules) without an electron
transport chain and that produces a characteristic end product,
Fermentation such as ethyl alcohol or lactic acid.

Lactate Fermentation
(a) The
process of
lactate and
alcohol
fermentation

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
 This type of fermentation is used routinely in mammalian
red blood cells and in skeletal muscle that has an
insufficient oxygen supply to allow aerobic respiration to
continue (that is, in muscles used to the point of fatigue).
 Pyruvate is reduced by NADH.
 Forming lactate as an end product.
 No release of CO2.
 Some fungi and bacteria - to make cheese and yogurt.
 Human muscle - to generate ATP when O2 is scarce. In
muscles, lactic acid accumulation must be removed by the
blood circulation and the lactate brought to the liver for
further metabolism. Such lactic acid accumulation was once
believed to cause muscle stiffness, fatigue, and soreness,

Alcohol Fermentation

 Pyruvate is converted into acetaldehyde.

o The first reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate
decarboxylase. A carboxyl group is removed from
pyruvic acid, releasing carbon dioxide as a gas.
 Acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to become ethanol.

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MAIN IDEAS
EXPLANATION NOTES
/KEY POINT
o The second reaction is catalyzed by alcohol
dehydrogenase to oxidize NADH to NAD+ and
reduce acetaldehyde to ethanol.
Compare the lactate fermentation and alcohol
fermentation.
Similarities
- Both are in anaerobic condition/ absence of oxygen.
- Both undergo glycolysis.
- Both used 2 pyruvates formed from glycolysis.
- Both used NADH (+ H+) as reducing agent.
- Both produce Net 2 ATP.

Differences
Lactate Fermentation
Produce lactate/ lactic acid
No intermediate substrate
No CO2 released/ no
decarboxylation occur
Occur in mammal muscle
cell// animal cell
Alcohol Fermentation
Produce ethanol
Produce intermediate
substrate which
acetaldehyde
CO2 released/
decarboxylation occur
Occur in yeast// plant cell

(b) Importance of
fermentation in
industry

 Bakery for production of bread to improve the taste, pH and texture of the product
 In brewing, for production of alcohol/ wine / vinegar. Turn starch in malt/rice/ corn
into maltose, dextrin and water
 In dairy industry, for production of cheese & yogurt
 In local / traditional products, eg: tempe/ budu/ tapai /thosai

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