Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238

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Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ifset

Non-thermal hybrid drying of fruits and vegetables: A review of current MARK

technologies
Daniel I. Onwudea,b,⁎, Norhashila Hashima, Rimfiel Janiusa, Khalina Abdana, Guangnan Chenc,
Ayobami O. Oladejob
a
Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
b
Department of Agricultural and Food Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Uyo, 52021 Uyo, Nigeria
c
Faculty of Health, Engineering and Sciences, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD 4350, Australia

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Fruits and vegetables are very perishable commodities that have enormous industrial and commercial im-
Non-thermal technology portance. To preserve its quality attributes, increase shelf life, and reduce transport weight, fruit and vegetable
Hot-air assisted drying can be processed by drying. Over the years, conventional drying techniques have been widely applied, both
Fruits and vegetables industrially and commercially for the processing and preservation of fruits and vegetables. However, most of the
Product quality
conventional techniques are time and energy consuming, and affect important quality attributes of final pro-
Modelling techniques
ducts. Recently, there has been increased interest in the use of non-thermal drying methods in combination with
other conventional drying techniques for preserving fruits and vegetables. These methods have been reported to
enhance the quality attributes of dried products, reduce drying time and energy demand, and increase the
overall drying efficiency. In this regard, the development of a cost effective non-thermal hybrid drying systems,
such as combined ultrasound (US) and hot-air drying, ultraviolet (UV) and hot-air drying, and pulse electric field
(PEF) and hot-air drying have recently been researched on. These drying techniques have become potential
substitute for conventional industrial and commercial dryers, owing to their advantage of producing quality
dried fruit and vegetable products, with reduced drying time and energy consumption. This study therefore
attempts to highlight recent developments of the commonly used non-thermal combined convective hot-air
drying (CHAD) techniques for fruits and vegetables, with emphasis on drying time, drying rate, quality attributes
of products, and modelling approach. This study further highlights the primary constraints for industrial ap-
plication of this technology as the inadequate medium of transmission for power ultrasound, cost of design and
installation, and the limited study on (UV) and PEF assisted CHAD. The necessity for conducting more detailed
studies on non-thermal assisted convective hot-air drying of fruits and vegetables was emphasized.

1. Introduction
Drying is perhaps the oldest and widely used method of postharvest
food preservation. It involves the removal of moisture from a product
due to couple heat and mass transfer (Erbay & Icier, 2010; Onwude,
Hashim, Janius, Nawi, & Abdan, 2016b). Drying improves postharvest
handling and packaging, increases the ease of product transportation,
and improves other processing operations such as milling, and mixing
(Mujumdar & Law, 2010). As an important unit in postharvest opera-
tion, especially for food and agricultural processing industries, it re-
mains an area of incessant interest for food research.
The most commonly used conventional methods for drying fruits
and vegetables include vacuum drying (Akbudak & Akbudak, 2013),
solar drying (Fadhel, Abdo, Yousif, Zaharim, & Sopian, 2011), sun
drying (Akpinar, 2006), freeze drying (Vergeldt et al., 2014), fluidized
bed drying (Arumuganathan, Manikantan, Rai, Anandakumar, & Khare,
2009), tray drying (Kadam, Goyal, & Gupta, 2011), and hot-air drying
(Onwude, Hashim, Janius, Nawi, & Abdan, 2016a; Ratti, 2001). With
the exception of freeze drying, these drying methods largely depend on
the application of heat to the product either through convection, con-
duction, or radiation. These heating modes have been reported to in-
fluence the drying process, efficiency, and quality of dried materials
(Perera & Rahman, 1997; Zhang et al., 2017).
Different novel techniques that involve the application of some of
these heating modes or a combination thereof have recently been de-
veloped, specifically for drying of fruits and vegetables (Aktaş,
Şevik, & Aktekeli, 2016; Bonafonte, Iglesias, & Bueno, 2002; Chong,
Figiel, Law, & Wojdyło, 2013; Mongpraneet, Abe, & Tsurusaki, 2002).

⁎
Corresponding author at: Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
E-mail address: onwudedaniel@uniuyo.edu.ng (D.I. Onwude).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2017.08.010
Received 4 January 2017; Received in revised form 20 May 2017; Accepted 21 August 2017
Available online 24 August 2017
1466-8564/ © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
D.I. Onwude et al.
However, the choice of the most appropriate drying technique depends
on various factors such as the product type, drying conditions, drying
efficiency, and cost of drying operation. Other critical selection para-
meters include energy consumption, and quality of the final product.
Convective hot-air drying (CHAD) is widely used in the industry for
preserving and processing fruits and vegetables, owing to the advantages
of convective hot-air drying (CHAD) over other conventional drying
methods. CHAD provides uniform distribution of hot-air and temperature
over the product, compared to other traditional methods, it reduces energy
consumption and drying time and provides better dried products when
utilising optimum conditions (da Silva, Rodrigues, e Silva, de
Castro, & Gomes, 2015). In addition, hot-air dryers are easy to construct,
simple in operation, and are very familiar to operators both industrially
and commercially (Ratti, 2001). However, due to drying process condi-
tions: temperature, air velocity, and relative humidity, important product
properties, such as texture, colour, total carotenoid content, phenolic
composition, total phenolic content, antioxidant capacity and other
bioactive compounds could be affected (Degirmencioglu, Gürbüz,
Herken, & Yildiz, 2016; Jangam, 2011; Onwude, Hashim, Janius,
Nawi, & Abdan, 2017; Silva, Oliveira, & Branda, 2015). Although some
studies have attempted to address the challenges associated with CHAD
including drying products using low temperature, low relative humidity,
and optimized drying parameters in order to improve the quality of dried
products (Ratti, 2001; Sturm, Hofacker, & Hensel, 2012), practically, the
quality attribute of final product is still affected. More so, these approaches
still require high amount of energy and drying time, and the associated
total cost becomes unacceptable. In order to improve overall efficiency,
reduce operating cost and enhance the quality of dried products, in-
novative methods which involve the combination of non-thermal techni-
ques and CHAD (either as pre-treatment or simultaneously) have recently
gained increasing interest in the advancement of drying technology.
Application of non-thermal (NT) technologies which include ultra-
sound, pulsed electric fields, and ultraviolet radiation may cause a
change in the temperature inside a product, but does not generate heat
within the product. During non-thermal processing, the quality of the
food product is preserved due to the temperature difference inside the
product which is lower than the temperatures during thermal proces-
sing (Raso & Barbosa-Cánovas, 2003). Additionally, non-thermal pro-
cessing does not often rely on limiting heat transfer coefficients and
temperature boundary conditions. Other advantages of non-thermal
techniques include enhanced quality attributes, reduced drying time
and increased processing efficiency (Cullen, Tiwari, & Valdramidis,
2012).
The combination of NT and CHAD, otherwise known as non-thermal
hybrid drying provides the synergistic effect during the heat and mass
transfer process within a product. This effect leads to a better quality and
stable dried product, increased energy saving, reduced drying time, and in-
creased drying efficiency (Andrés, Fito, Heredia, & Rosa, 2007; Beck, Sabarez,
Gaukel, & Knoerzer, 2014; Moses, Norton, Alagusundaram, & Tiwari, 2014).
Recently, several research involving combined non-thermal CHAD, also
known as hurdle technology (Cullen et al., 2012) have been carried out; in
particular, the application of ultrasound (US) assisted CHAD for fruits and
vegetables over the past decade. Still, there are less industrial and commercial
application of this technology due to inadequate information, poor under-
standing of operation mode, energy requirements and overall energy effi-
ciencies, efficient transmission of acoustic energy (in the case of US) and the
practical difficulties in adapting the technology at an industrial scale. More-
over, there are less information on the quality of dried products and mod-
elling approach using these techniques. This knowledge gap is a serious
setback for the advancement of emerging drying technology, and the pro-
duction of quality dried fruits and vegetables. In view of this, the objective of
this review is to highlight recent advances of non-thermal assisted convective
hot-air drying of fruits and vegetables, with emphasis on drying time, drying
rate, combination mode, quality attributes and modelling approach.
224
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
2. Non-thermal hybrid drying
Non-thermal processes, as the name suggest, are processes that do
not involve the generation of heat, but can cause a change in tem-
perature inside a product. In other words, these processes do not de-
pend on the temperature of source. According to Cullen et al. (2012),
non-thermal techniques involves technologies that are effective at room
or less intense temperatures. They also stated that some of these tech-
nologies could result in the rise in temperature during processing.
The application of non-thermal technology has gained momentum
in recent years due to its numerous advantages over traditional thermal
technology, which include short processing time, increased process ef-
ficiency, environmentally friendly, and better product quality amongst
others (Cullen et al., 2012; Morris, Brody, & Wicker, 2007; Ortega-
Rivas & Salmerón-Ochoa, 2014; Vicente & Castro, 2007; Witrowa-
Rajchert, Wiktor, Sledz, & Nowacka, 2014). This technology can be
used to develop hybrid drying systems.
Hybrid drying involves the combination of two or more different
processing unit operation or drying system either as a single unit or
multistage arrangement (Atuonwu, Van Straten, Van Deventer, & Van
Boxtel, 2013). The combination of NT and CHAD can improve and
control the lethal influence of CHAD, minimize the severity of each
technology due to the synergetic effect, enhance the final quality of
dried product, and higher overall drying efficiency as compared with
utilising just CHAD. Several researches regarding to combined NT and
CHAD have focused on combined ultrasound (US) and CHAD, combined
pulse electric field (PEF) and CHAD, and most recently, combined ul-
traviolet (UV) and CHAD. The examples covered in this paper include
combined US and CHAD, combined pulse electric field (PEF) and
CHAD, and combined ultraviolet (UV) and CHAD.
3. Combined ultrasound and hot-air drying
Ultrasound (US) is a type of sound energy transmitted by waves in the
form of pressure at frequencies of 20 kHz and above (Demirdöven & Baysal,
2008; Witrowa-Rajchert et al., 2014). US can be categorized into high fre-
quency (low energy, low intensity) at frequencies > 100 kHz (MHz range),
and low frequency (high energy, high intensity) at frequencies range of
20–100 kHz (Jambrak, Mason, Lelas, Herceg, & Herceg, 2008; Witrowa-
Rajchert et al., 2014). High frequency-low intensity ultrasound technology is
often applied as an analytical method for non-destructive quality and process
inspection, and control, such as to determine various food properties, to
check the quality of food product, to measure severity of spoilage, to measure
flow rate, and so on (Dolatowski, Stadnik, & Stasiak, 2007; Jambrak, Lelas,
Mason, Kresic, & Badanjak, 2009; Knorr, Zenker, Heinz, & Lee, 2004;
Zheng & Sun, 2006). Low frequency-high energy also referred to as “power
ultrasound,” produces variety of effects that results in cavitation (swift de-
velopment and implosion of gas bubbles), which can regulate enzymes (ac-
tivate or inactivate), and enhance the rate of heat and mass transfer for dif-
ferent postharvest applications on agricultural crops, like drying, freezing and
osmotic dehydration (Dolatowski et al., 2007; Gallego-Juárez et al., 2007;
Kek, Chin, & Yusof, 2013; Ortuno, Perez-Munuera, Puig, Riera, & Garcia-
Perez, 2010; Ozuna, Cárcel, Walde, & Garcia-Perez, 2014; Riera-Franco De
Sarabia, Gallego-Juárez, Rodríguez-Corral, Acosta-Aparicio, & Andrés-
Gallegos, 2002; Santacatalina, Contreras, Simal, Cárcel, & Garcia-Perez,
2016).
3.1. Mechanism of operation
As an emerging NT technology, US drying is very promising and can
be easily applied together with other conventional drying technology
such as CHAD. Unlike the thermal drying technologies (Onwude,
Hashim, & Chen, 2016), US basic drying principle is based on me-
chanical mechanism and less on heating mechanism, which leads to a
D.I. Onwude et al.
reduced drying time without significantly heating the product (Puig,
Perez-Munuera, Carcel, Hernando, & Garcia-Perez, 2012). During US
operation, the generated acoustic energy results in periodic velocities
and pulsation of the tissue particles at the interfaces during which the
water molecules bonding with the surface of the product may be
broken. Cell cavitation occurs, leading to diffusion from within the
product to the boundary layers (Mason, 1996).
Mulet, Carcel, Sanjuan, and Bon (2003) added that the series of
oscillation results in alternative compressions and expansions of the
product when ultrasonic waves travel through it. The ultrasonic waves
may produce cavitation needed for removing strongly attached
moisture. The application of more US power may cause an increase in
the alternating stress, which becomes greater than surface tension of
the moisture within product capillaries, creating small porous channels
within the product resulting in increased water movement from within
the product to the surface. Therefore, all water vapour formed at the
surface of the product due to power US can easily be removed by ap-
plying convective hot-air.
Combination of US and CHAD can be associated to sound trans-
mission in the air, liquid or solid (Mulet et al., 2003). Sabarez, Gallego-
Juarez, and Riera (2012) argued that the major limitation associated in
combining US and CHAD is the generation and transmission of ultra-
sonic energy from the transducers to the product. Liquid mode of
transmission has been reported to accelerate drying process due to the
direct coupling to the agricultural crop during drying (Garcia-Perez,
Carcel, Riera, & Mulet, 2009). The direct contact between the trans-
mission medium and the product can enhance the drying process due to
the efficient transfer of ultrasonic energy from the vibrating element to
the product (Sabarez et al., 2012). However, this technique is practi-
cally not adaptable to conventional hot-air drying processes. Thus, in an
attempt to overcome this drawback, another mode of transmission,
which is airborne has also been investigated (Beck et al., 2014; Sabarez
et al., 2012). The US system with airborne transmission medium works
without direct contact between the vibrating element and the product.
Nevertheless, due to air being a highly attenuating media, it can
therefore absorb the acoustic energy, preventing its adequate transfer to
the product to be treated. Additionally, this system could be limited due
to the enormous impedance difference between the emitting system and
transmission medium, especially at different US frequencies. Recently,
Charoux, Ojha, O'Donnell, Cardoni, and Tiwari (2017) reported that
significant progress has been attained regarding to improved design of
airborne acoustic transducers, which can improve transmission of en-
ergy through the air.
The combined US and CHAD technique with airborne transmission
medium has proven to be most likely applied in the drying of fruits and
vegetables on a continuous process in industrial scale, largely due to its
positive effect on product quality, and improved efficiency (Beck et al.,
2014; Ozuna et al., 2014). From the literature reviewed, as shown in
Table 1, combined US assisted CHAD of fruits and vegetables may be
grouped into 3 main types, namely: sequential US and CHAD (US
+ CHAD), simultaneous US and CHAD (US - CHAD) and intermittent
US and CHAD (IUS-CHAD). The sequential US + CHAD is often carried
out when ultrasonic devices are directly coupled to the product in liquid
medium for a short period (Fernandes, Linhares, & Rodrigues, 2008;
Kadam et al., 2015; Nowacka, Wiktor, Śledź, Jurek, & Witrowa-
Rajchert, 2012), after which the product is placed in a hot-air dryer.
Although, this process can promote an enhanced drying process, as
earlier discussed, it is limited by decreased overall drying efficiency. On
the other hand, the simultaneous and intermittent US and CHAD are
often carried out using the airborne ultrasound (air as a means to
transmit sound energy; see Fig. 1). Fig. 2 shows a schematic of a typical
US-CHAD combined dryer. It is good to note that sequential US
+ CHAD can also be carried out using this set-up (Fig. 2). Several re-
cent studies have shown that US and HA combined drying is applicable
in the drying of fruits and vegetables (see Table 1).
225
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
3.2. Effect of combined US and CHAD on the drying kinetics
As to date, some studies have shown promising results using si-
multaneous combined US and CHAD of fruits and vegetables. Table 1
summarises some significant findings on combined US and CHAD,
showing the effect of this drying technique on drying rate and time of
fruits and vegetables.
Sabarez et al. (2012) demonstrated a decrease in drying time of
about 46–57% during US-CHAD drying of apples when compared with
results of CHAD, with an increase in the drying rate as the ultrasound
power was raised. Similarly, Schössler et al. (2012) reported a reduced
drying time by 27% during US-CHAD and 18% during IUS-CHAD when
compared with results of CHAD alone. They also observed that there
was no significant difference between US-CHAD and IUS-CHAD at 50%
sonication time. Gamboa-Santos et al. (2014) investigated the drying of
strawberries using combined US-CHAD. The results of their study
showed average drying time reduction of 13–44% based on tempera-
ture range of 40–70 °C and USP of 60 W, as compared with results of
CHAD alone.
In a more recent study, Rodríguez et al. (2014) investigated the
drying of apples using US-CHAD. Using both low (30 °C) and high
(70 °C) temperatures, US power of 18 ± 0.9 kW/m3 and 30.8 ± 0.9,
a constant sample thickness and air velocity, they observed a reduced
drying time of about 37% (30 °C and 18 kW/m3) and 53.8% (30 °C and
30 kW/m3) when compared with results of CHAD alone. However, an
increase in temperature to 70 °C resulted in a reduced US-CHAD effects
on apples, with a reduced drying time of 8.7 and 17.4%, at USP 18 and
30 kW/m3, respectively when compared to drying using CHAD alone.
The effective moisture diffusivity, which increased with increased
temperature, were also higher than that of CHAD alone. The higher
reduction in the drying time at low temperature, is due to the extra
energy provided by US during the combined drying process, which is
less intense at higher temperatures than lower ones. In other words, the
application of ultrasonic energy becomes less relevant when the drying
temperature increases. In addition, the reduction in the drying time (up
to 80.3%) also depends on the US power applied, higher power level
results in shorter drying time (García-Pérez et al., 2007; Santacatalina
et al., 2016). The improvement in the drying rate and time of fruits and
vegetables using combined US and CHAD also depends on the drying air
velocity and the type material to be dried. This is evident in the case of
combined US and CHAD drying of lemon as reported by García-Pérez
et al. (2007). They mentioned that US power affects the influence of air
velocity on drying behaviour of lemon, by reducing the boundary layer
thickness. They also observed that US-CHAD improved drying rate at
lower air velocity and reduces the drying rate with increase in air ve-
locity. This same finding was recently collaborated by Fernandes,
Rodrigues, Cárcel, and García-Pérez et al. (2015a, 2015b). They found
that combined US and CHAD has more effect on the drying rate and
time at lower velocity than at high air velocity. A possible explanation
for this idea may be the disruption of ultrasonic field at high air velo-
cities, preventing the ultrasonic waves from effectively reaching the
products. When compared to drying using CHAD alone, it was observed
that the effective moisture diffusivity was 54% higher than values of
CHAD alone and a 35% reduction in the drying time when compared to
results of CHAD. Similar reduction in the drying time during US-CHAD
as a result of low temperature and air velocity was also observed by
Kowalski and Pawlowski (2015).
Generally, several authors have also observed the influence of air
velocity during combined US and CHAD on the drying rate and time of
various fruits. Taylor et al. (2007) studied the US – CHAD drying of
persimmons. They showed a decrease in the influence of US on the
drying kinetics at higher velocity. García-Pérez et al. (2007) further
showed that US-CHAD improved drying rate of persimmons at lower air
velocity. They highlighted two important aspect of US-CHAD drying as
air velocity and material characteristics. However, they further
 Table 1
Published data on combined ultrasound and hot-air drying of fruits and vegetables.

Fruits and Combination mode Drying process Significant findings Modelling approach References
vegetables conditions
D.I. Onwude et al.

Apples US - HAD h = 0.1 m; v = 1 m/ Def- Diffusion model (Rodríguez et al.,

− 10
s; T = 30–70 °C; f = 3.07 × 10 −- 2014)
− 10 2
USP = 18 ± 0.9 k- 11.60 × 10 m /s
W/m3 and as temperature and
30.8 ± 0.9 kW/m3; power increases
validation
(T = 40 °C;
24.6 ± 0.9 kW/m3)
Apples (cv. US - HAD L = 1 cm; No significant Semi-theoretical (Schössler,
Braeburn) IUS - HAD W = 1 cm; difference between Midilli et al. model Jäger, & Knorr,
h = 1 cm; Pt = 10 s; US-HAD and IUS- 2012)
Rt = 10 s (50%) and HAD was observed
90 s (10%); (50% sonication
T = 70 °C; time); at 50%
USP = 42 W sonication time, US
effect on drying
characteristics
reduced to an extent;
US-HAD had no
significant effect on
shrinkage;
Def-
−9
f = 0.28 × 10 − 3-
.96 × 10− 9 m2/s

226
Apples (cv. Grany US-HAD h = 5–10 mm; The sample thickness – (Sabarez et al.,
Smith) v = 1 m/s; largely affect the 2012)
RH = 25%; drying rate of apple
T = 40–60 °C; during US-HAD;
USP = 75–90 W retained quality
parameter of product
Apples (Malus US-HAD h = 8.8 mm; The higher the power Diffusion model (Santacatalina
domestica cv. L = 8.8 mm; level, the shorter the et al., 2016)
Grany Smith) v = 2 m/s; drying time.
RH = 15 ± 5%;
T = −10 °C–10 °C;
USP = 25–75 W
Apples (Malus US - HAD L = 8.5 mm; USP has more effect Diffusion model (Fernandes,
domestica L. W = 8.5 mm; at lower velocity and Rodrigues,
var. Royal h = 8.5 mm; power; at 45 °C and Cárcel, & García-
Gala) v = 1–5 m/s; 1 m/s, the Deff was Pérez, 2015a)
T = 45–60 °C; 54% higher than
USP = 75 W at when drying using
21 kHz HAD alone.
Apple (var. lobo) US-HAD L = 40 mm; Increase in drying – (Kowalski & Pawl-
W = 20 mm; efficiency which is owski, 2015)
h = 5 mm; due to the “vibration
v = 0.7 m/s ± 0.1; effect” and less due
T = 45 °C; to the “heating
USP = 100 W effect”.
Carrot (Daucus US - HAD h = 8.5 mm; Decrease in the effect Diffusion model (Cárcel, Garcia-
carota var. L = 8.5 mm; of US sonication at Perez,
Nantes) W = 8.5 mm; higher load densities Riera, & Mulet, a.,
v = 1 m/s; due to reduction in 2011)
(continued on next page)
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
 Table 1 (continued)

Fruits and Combination mode Drying process Significant findings Modelling approach References
vegetables conditions
D.I. Onwude et al.

T = 40 °C; transfer area;

USP = 75 W increase in Deff by
40%.
US – HAD L = 18 mm; Def- Diffusion model (García-Pérez,
− 10
W = 18 mm; f = 1.27 × 10 −- Cárcel,
h = 18 mm; 2.8 × 10− 10 m2/s Benedito, & Mulet,
v = 0.5–12 m/s; a., 2007)
T = 40 °C;
USP = 75 W;
SOP = 154.3 dB
Eggplant (Solanum US – HAD L = 2 cm; The drying time was Diffusion model (Puig et al., 2012)
melongena var. d = 2.4 cm; shortened by 50%
Black Enorma) h = 2 cm; v = 1 m/ (45 W) and 75%
s; T = 40 °C; (90 W) when
USP = 45–90 W; compared with
USPD = 18.5–37 W/ results of HAD alone.
L
Flos Lonicerae US-HAD L = 3.5 cm; Drying rate was – (Liu, Sun, Miao,
v = 1 m/s; 121%, 155%, 185% Li, & Luo, 2015)
T = 40–70 °C; and 205% of drying
dus = 10–30 cm; using HAD alone at
USP = 0–160 W USP of 40, 80, 120
and 160 W,
respectively;
Def-
− 11

227
f = 5.05 × 10 −-
20.33 × 10− 11;
ΔE = 36.05–28.90 k-
J/mol
Lemons (Citrus US- HAD h = 10 mm; Def- Diffusion model (García-Pérez
−9
limon var. v = 0.5–12 m/s; f = 3.42 × 10 − 4- et al., 2007)
Fino) T = 40 °C; .13 × 10− 9 m2/s
USP = 75 W;
SOP = 154.3 dB
Oranges (Citrus US – HAD L = 80 ± 2.5 mm; Reduced drying time Diffusion model (Garcia-Perez,
sinensis var. W = 40 ± 2.0 mm; by 30–45% when (external resistance Ortuño, Puig,
Navelina) h = 5.9 ± 0.4 mm; compared with HAD; model - ER and non Carcel, & Perez-
v = 1.0 m/s; reduction in energy external resistance Munuera, 2012)
T = 40 °C; consumption of model – NER)
R.H = 26.5 ± 0.9% about 12–20% when
USP = 90 and 45 W compared with HAD
US - HAD h = 5.95 ± 0.41 m- Reduction in drying Diffusion model (Ortuno et al.,
m; v = 1 m/s; time by 45% 2010)
T = 40 °C; compared to HAD
USP = 90 W; alone; reduction in
SOP = 154.3 db energy consumption
by 30% compared to
HAD; Increase in Deff
from
4.04 × 10− 9 t-
o 6.13 × 10− 9 m2/s
Peppers (red bell) US - HAD L = 1 cm; Drying time savings Semi-theoretical (Schössler et al.,
IUS - HAD W = 1 cm; of 18–23% for US- Midilli et al. model 2012)
h = 0.5–1 cm; HAD when compared
(continued on next page)
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
 Table 1 (continued)

Fruits and Combination mode Drying process Significant findings Modelling approach References
vegetables conditions
D.I. Onwude et al.

Pt = 10s; Rt = 10 s with HAD alone; IUS-

(50%) and 90 s HAD resulted in
(10%); T = 70 °C; drying time
USP = 42 W reduction by 20%;
Def-
−9
f = 0.71 × 10 − 5-
.31 × 10− 9 m2/s
Persimmons US-HAD hc = 30 mm; Deff increased at low – (Taylor, Cárcel,
(Diospyros d = 13 mm; air velocity; Riera, & Mulet,
kaki) v = 0.5–12 m/s; Def- 2007)
− 10
USP = 75 W; f = 6.75 × 10 −-
T = 50 °C (to avoid 6.09 × 10− 10 m2/s
sugar degradation) with increase in air
velocity with the
existence of external
resistance
Persimmons US-HAD L = 30 mm; Reduction on drying Diffusion model (García-Pérez
(Diospyros kaki d = 13 mm; time was observed as et al., 2007)
var. Rojo v = 0.5–12 m/s; compared to drying
Brillante) T = 50 °C; using HAD alone;
USP = 75 W; Def-
− 10
SOP = 154.3 dB f = 3.02 × 10 −-
6.18 × 10− 10 m2/s
Potato (Solanum US-HAD L = 8.7 mm; Increase in Deff about Diffusion model (Ozuna, Cárcel,
tuberosum var. W = 8.7 mm; 64% compared to García-

228
Monalisa) h = 8.7 mm; experiments with Pérez, & Mulet,
v = 1 m/s; HAD alone at 40 °C 2011)
T = 40 °C; (from
USP = 6–37 kW/m3 4.58 t-
o 7.51 × 10− 10 m2/
s)
Seaweed (A. US + HAD L = 2–3 cm; Retained the colour Empirical Wang and (Kadam,
nodosum) v = 0.3 m/s; US properties of Singh model Tiwari, & O'Donne-
time = 10 min; seaweed ll, 2015)
T = 50 °C
USI = 7–75.78 W c-
m− 2
Strawberries US – HAD h = 2.5 ± 0.5 mm; Increase in Diffusion model (Gamboa-Santos,
(Fragaria v = 2 m/s; temperature Montilla, Cárcel,
ananassa T = 40 °C–70 °C; increases the Deff Villamiel, & Garci-
Duch) USP = 30–60 W value; a-Perez, 2014)
Def-
− 1-
f = 0.763 × 10
0 − 2.293 × 10− 10
m2/
s; increase in USP
also increases Deff by
18 and 42%, at 30
and 60 W,
respectively.
Sweet potato US-HAD h = 5 mm; Effect of US on – (Liu et al., 2017)
(purple- d = 40 mm; sample reduces as
fleshed) v = 1 m/s; MC decreases;
T = 40–70 °C; Def-
USP = 30–60 W;
(continued on next page)
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
D.I. Onwude et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238

demonstrated that the effect of US power (low air velocity) exist only in

Rodrigues, García-
low porous product. Conversely, in highly porous product such as

Pérez, & Cárcel,

lemon peel and orange, the effect exists even at high velocity especially

(Fernandes,
References

when the acoustic energy is low. On the other hand, Kowalski, Mierzwa,

2016)
and Stasiak (2017) stated that high air velocity and temperature during
combined US-CHAD are not favourable in drying of fruits (apple sam-
ples) because of disruption in the US field.
For vegetables, the effect of combined US-CHAD on drying kinetics
of carrot was studied by Cárcel et al. (2011). Similar to the effect on
fruits as earlier discussed, the authors observed increased drying rate
when compared with CHAD alone. A 30% reduction in the total drying
time was also observed. In addition, US increased the effective moisture
Modelling approach

diffusivity by 40% when compared with CHAD alone. The results of

Empirical Weibull

their study showed a decrease in the effect of US sonication at higher

load densities due to reduction in transfer area. Increase in the reduc-
tion of boundary layer thickness due to US power and air velocity were
model

also observed. This same behaviour was also observed for the drying of
various fruits. Similar findings on the effect of US-CHAD on the drying
kinetics of carrot has earlier reported by García-Pérez et al. (2007).
There are enormous literature demonstrating the effect of US power
and air velocity of the drying characteristics of other vegetables. Kadam
et al. (2015), in their study of the sequential combined US + CHA
drying of seaweed, observed that the increase in US power, reduces
drying time. At the highest US intensity, a 12.62% reduction in the
time up to 43% and
Reduction in drying

drying time was observed when compared with CHAD alone. Ozuna
m /

compared to results
Significant findings

45 °C, respectively,
2

drying using HAD

as compared with
− 1-

65% at 60 °C and
preservation and
higher RR when

et al. (2011) observed that the combined US-CHAD of potato resulted in

0 − 5.471 × 10− 10

s; better colour
f = 1.058 × 10

increase in drying kinetics (heat and mass transfer rate), reduction in

under same
conditions.

the drying time of up to 40% in comparison with drying using CHAD

of HAD.

alone, and increase in the effective moisture diffusivity of about 64%

compared to experiments with CHAD. Liu et al. (2015) observed the
effect of US power on the drying kinetics of Flos Lonicerae leaves, in a
combined US-CHAD conducted experiment. They observed a 7–41.2%
reduction in drying time when compared with drying using CHAD
alone. Notably, the drying rate was higher than those dried using CHAD
alone. There was improvement in the heat and mass transfer process,
thereby causing a significant increase in moisture diffusivity. Drying
rate of US – CHAD of Flos Lonicerae leaves was 121% (40 W), 155%
USI = 0.17–0.34 W/

(80 W), 185% (120 W), and 205% (160 W) of the results of CHAD
Drying process

T = 45–60 °C;
v = 1–3 m/s;

USP = 75 W;
W = 15 mm;

alone.
h = 10 mm;
L = 15 mm;

ƒ = 21 kHz
conditions

In a more recent study, Liu et al. (2017) observed the effect of US-
CHAD on the drying of sweet potato. They observed a reduction in
cm2

drying time of about 31.5–47.7% at US power range of 30–60 W, re-

spectively, when compared with results of CHAD. More so, they ob-
served an increase in the drying rate by 50.8% and 100.8% at 30 W and
60 W, respectively, compared to results of CHAD alone. They also found
that the effect of US-CHAD on sample decreases as moisture content
(MC) reduces. The observed decrease in MC due to US-CHAD could be
attributed to the fact that although the increase of US power could
enhance the drying process, the strengthened effect of US is better when
Combination mode

MC is high than at lower MC. At high moisture content, the free water
content in the material is high, aiding the easy penetration and trans-
mission of ultrasound wave into the material. This increases the pres-
US-HAD

sure inside the material and causes cavitation; it also causes mechanical
effect which eventually enhances internal mass transfer. Conversely,
when the MC becomes low, the resulting cavitation and mechanical
effect of US become weaker, significantly reducing the strengthening
effects of US on moisture diffusion. Further application of US to the
product may result to the loss of products quality and structural matrix.
Thus, the need to model and optimize the US power during combined
US and CHAD drying of vegetables.
Other drying conditions that can affect the drying kinetics of ve-
Table 1 (continued)

Cerasiforme)
lycopersicum

getables include temperature, and material characteristics. Fernandes

(Solanum

et al. (2015a, 2015b) showed the effect of drying temperature on the

vegetables
Fruits and

Tomatoes

var.

drying kinetics of tomatoes during combined US-CHAD. The results of

their study showed a reduced drying time up to 43% and 65%, at 60 °C
and 45 °C, respectively, as compared to CHAD under same conditions.

229
D.I. Onwude et al.
They noted that the influence of US-CHAD was higher at low drying
temperatures as earlier reported for fruits. In a separate study, Puig
et al. (2012) showed that the drying time of eggplant was shortened by
50% (45 W) and 75% (90 W) when compared with results of CHAD
alone. They further reported an increase in effective moisture diffu-
sivity when compared with results of CHAD, due to a reduced internal
resistance to mass transfer. Specifically, the effective moisture diffu-
sivity values were one order of magnitude higher than those of CHAD
alone. This was attributed to the “sponge effect” i.e. the alternative
expansion and contraction of the product as a result of US effect. They
also reported that the microstructure of eggplant was better preserved,
due to the shortened drying time and the weak mechanical effect of US
on the sample endocarp cells. Another way to increase the efficiency of
combined US and CHAD of vegetables is by drying intermittently. Al-
though, there are few reports on the use of this approach in combined
US and CHAD of vegetables, investigation by Schössler et al. (2012)
during combined IUS-CHAD of peppers shows the reduction in the
drying time by 20% when compared with results of CHAD alone.
However, more study on intermittent US and CHAD for fruits and ve-
getables is required in order to fully understand the mechanism of this
drying approach, and for effective and efficient industrial machine
design.
3.3. Effect of combined US and CHAD on energy consumption
To really ascertain the overall drying efficiency of combined US and
CHAD, another important feature to be considered is its energy effi-
ciency. Despite the additional power feed required by US assisted sys-
tems (Musielak, Mierzwa, & Kroehnke, 2016) such as combined US and
CHAD, a reduced drying time due to accelerated heat and mass transfer
process may cause a corresponding reduction in the amount of energy
required in comparison to CHAD (Kowalski & Mierzwa, 2015;
Kowalski & Pawlowski, 2015; Musielak et al., 2016).
According to García-Pérez et al. (2007), a reduced energy con-
sumption of about 12–20% was observed during the drying of orange,
when compared with CHAD. In a similar study on combined US-CHAD
of oranges, Ortuno et al. (2010) found a reduction in the energy con-
sumption by 30% compared to CHAD, as a result of corresponding re-
duction in the drying time. Sabarez et al. (2012) observed a 42–54%
reduction in the energy consumption during combined US-CHAD
drying of apples when compared with results of CHAD. Similarly,
Rodríguez et al. (2014) demonstrated that a reduction in the drying
time due to increased drying rate resulted in a corresponding reduction
in the energy consumption rate and increased efficiency during com-
bined US-CHAD.
For vegetables, Puig et al. (2012) also observed a great decrease in
the energy consumption during combined US and CHAD of eggplant, as
US power was raised due to shorten total drying time, high rehydration
capability and hence reduced energy consumption. In a different com-
bination approach, Kadam et al. (2015) studied the sequential com-
bined US + CHA drying of seaweed. They observed that increase in US
intensity, led to the reduction in energy consumption of seaweed when
compared with results of CHAD. This can be attributed to the reduced
drying time. Further, Fig. 3 shows the total electrical energy con-
sumption during drying of potato using different drying methods
(Kroehnke et al., 2014). Although the ultrasound assisted drying pro-
cess is more energy-intensive per unit time (Bantle & Eikevik, 2014;
Kowalski et al., 2017), it requires lesser amount of energy when com-
pared to CHAD. Kowalski and Mierzwa (2015) also demonstrated the
energy savings when using combined US-CHAD. They reported the
energy saved when using US-CHAD as compared to CHAD alone was
5.39 kWh/kg and the energy efficiency ratio was 10.08%. Although the
values obtained were lower than expected (perhaps due to heat loss
230
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
during the experiments and laboratory apparatus limitations), the re-
sults showed that appropriate application of US-CHAD can reduce en-
ergy demand when compared to drying using CHAD alone. However, it
is not clear if the reduced energy consumption due to shorter drying
time will results in a more cost-effective process, which is a basis for
further research.
3.4. Effect of combined US and CHAD on product quality
The demand for mild drying technique have seen the increased in-
terest in combined NT and CHAD techniques, particularly due to their
immense influence on the quality parameters of fruits and vegetables
(Rawson, Patras et al., 2011; Rawson, Tiwari et al., 2011). Several re-
search and development, have shown that combined US and CHAD can
be used to obtain high-quality dried fruits and vegetables with im-
proved functional and nutritional properties (García-Pérez et al., 2007;
Mason, 1996). As a result, in recent years, combined US and CHAD has
become well established (Lebovka, Shynkaryk, & Vorobiev, 2007).
Nonetheless, several changes occur during the combined US and CHAD
drying process of fruits and vegetables. These changes could affect the
quality attributes of the products. The most common quality parameters
associated with dried fruits and vegetables include colour, shape of
product, texture, flavour, microbial load, retention of nutrients, and
rehydration properties (Ratti, 2005).
Rodríguez et al. (2014) showed that the quality attribute of apple
was enhanced during the simultaneous combined US-CHAD. In the
same manner, Fernandes et al. (2015a, 2015b) observed an increase in
the availability of Thiamine (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), pan-
tothenic acid (B5) and Pyridoxine (B6), and improve vitamin E and
carotenoid retention, thus improve overall nutritional quality. Similar
results on the improvement of the quality attributes of apples using
combined US-CHAD have been reported (Sabarez et al., 2012;
Santacatalina et al., 2016; Schössler et al., 2012).
Furthermore, Liu et al. (2017) observed that US-CHAD had pro-
nounce effect on the structural properties of the sample tissue, resulted
in better colour preservation and higher rehydration rate when com-
pared to results of CHAD. Kadam et al. (2015) showed that US-CHAD
led to great improvement in the colour properties of seaweed.
Fernandes et al. (2015a, 2015b) also observed an increase in the
availability of B1–B6, increase in vitamin E and carotenoid retention, of
tomato during US-CHAD. Conversely, Kowalski et al. (2017) observed
the overall colour change of apple dried using combined US-CHAD was
slightly higher for than those dried using CHAD alone, but low value of
water activity further validate the use of combined US-CHAD in mi-
crobiological stability.
Generally, at low temperature, combined US and CHAD has been
shown to results in better quality of final product. However, more
studies need to be carried out to determine the effect of drying condi-
tions of physiochemical, nutritional and functional properties of fruits
and vegetables during combined US and CHAD.
The advantages of using combined US and CHAD in the drying fruits
and vegetables include:
• Significant reduction in the total drying time
• Increase in drying rate especially during the initial drying period
• Enhanced diffusion of heat and mass transfer
• Effective at low air velocity, low temperature, low US power and
high MC of the product.
• Better product quality and reduced energy savings.
3.5. Limitations of Combined US and CHAD
• For an industrial application, US is better applied during the initial
D.I. Onwude et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238

drying period (where the drying rate is high), further application of

US could result in wastage of energy as sonic waves.
• Inadequate medium of transmission for power ultrasound
• High US frequencies (over 16 kHz) can cause hearing loss in op-
erators if safety precautions are not taken.
• The US intensity required to achieve significant mass transfer en-
hancement can lead to the formation of free radicals
• High capital cost of design
• Practical difficulties for industrial-scale requirement
• Process conditions and complexity with equipment design.

Although the above limitations, combined US and CHAD could still

be commercially viable particularly for food industries that require
short drying time, better product quality and higher product
throughput, notwithstanding the high cost of equipment design and
installation.

4. Combined pulse electric field (PEF) and hot-air drying

Pulse electric field (PEF) comprises the use of very short pulses (μs) Fig. 1. Ultrasound in air.
of high voltage (kV/cm) to agricultural food materials kept (Adapted from Kowalski & Pawlowski, 2015)
between electrodes (Elez-Martinez, Sobrino-Lopez, Soliva-Fortuny, &
Martin-Belloso, 2012; Vega-mercado, Gongora-Nieto, Barbosa-
Cánovas, & Swanson, 2007; Witrowa-Rajchert et al., 2014). PEF is a
non-thermal technology since heating is not the main mechanism of
operation. This non-thermal technology is often perceived as an alter-
native to conventional thermal based processes usually used for agri-
cultural crop preservation (Barba et al., 2015). In the application of PEF
to agricultural crops, the electrical properties must be determined be-
cause PEF is often applied on materials with low electrical conductivity,
high electrical resistivity, and those free of bubbles, although it can also
be efficiently applied on materials with high conductivity only for a
short period (micro-pulses). In parallel to thermal drying, the combined
effects of PEF and CHAD may results in enhancement of the drying
kinetics due to the synergistic effect. This hybrid or hurdle technique
may represent an alternative to conventional drying methods.

4.1. Mechanism of operation

Various authors have reported different mechanism for PEF appli-

cation on food. Zimmermann (1986) argued that during PEF treatment,
compounds of opposite charges in the food tissue is accumulated due to
increase in the trans-membrane potential of cells. A continues increase
in the cells trans-membrane increases the pressure on the cell, de-
creasing the membrane thickness and eventually results in pore for-
mation. On the other hand, Tsong (1991) suggested the osmotic swel-
ling of cell results in the weakening of the membrane until it burst. This
process is due to electroporation in the protein channels and lipid do-
mains. Tsong (1991) called this concept the poration theory (cell death
by PEF). Although the mechanism of PEF on food is not well under-
stood, generally the mechanism could be called an electroporation or Fig. 2. Schematic of combined US and CHAD. 1. Fan; 2. Heating unit; 3. Anemometer; 4.
electropermeabilization (Donsi, Ferrari, & Pataro, 2010). While there is Valve; 5. Thermocouple; 6. Sample loading chamber; 7. Coupling material; 8. Pneumatic
no well-defined explanation in scientific literature linking PEF treat- system; 9. US transducer; 10. Vibrating cylinder; 11. Drying trays; 12. Weigh balance; 13.
Impedance matching unit; 14. Digital power meter; 15. Power US generator; 16. PC.
ment mechanism to the drying of agricultural food product, PEF process
(Adapted from Gamboa-Santos et al., 2014)
have been used to enhance the drying of fruits and vegetables, to par-
tially reduce or totally eliminate some limitations of traditional drying
or pre-treatment operations (osmotic dehydration), mainly due to the years, Table 2 shows that PEF have been applied sequentially prior to
electroporation or electropermeabilization phenomenon. CHAD (PEF + CHAD) of fruits and vegetables (Fig. 4).
The combination of PEF and CHAD can be based on poration theory.
As aforementioned, during electroporation of the product tissue, in- 4.2. Effect of combined PEF and CHAD on drying kinetics and energy
crease in the formation of pores occurs. This reduces internal cell re- consumption
sistance and increases the heat and mass transfer process on the ap-
plication of hot-air (HA). Considering the scientific literature in recent In spite of the limited study on PEF assisted CHAD of fruits and

231
D.I. Onwude et al.
vegetables in recent years, some study have shown promising results as
can be seen in Table 2. Lebovka et al. (2007) investigated the combined
PEF + CHAD drying of potato tissue. The results of their study showed
that PEF + CHAD enhanced drying rate. The contact between the PEF
electrode and the sample tissue reduces the effectiveness of the process.
The effective moisture diffusivity increases with increased degree of
PEF. They also observed that drying at low temperature resulted in
improved drying rate when compared with drying at high temperature.
It was noticed that the increased rate of diffusion depends on the drying
conditions used (PEF process parameters) and the type of agricultural
crop to be dried. For instance, the highest increase occurred during
combined PEF + CHAD of apples (Wiktor et al., 2013). Using the air
velocity of 2 m/s, temperature of 70 °C, electric field strength of
18.75 kV/cm, and pulse time of 1 s, Wiktor et al. (2013) observed that
PEF + CHAD enhanced drying process when compared with drying
using CHAD alone. A reduction in the drying time by 12%, increase in
effective moisture diffusivity by 20% and reduction in the overall en-
ergy consumption were observed when compared to CHAD alone. In a
more recent study, Wiktor et al. (2015) observed a reduced process time
by 6.2–8.2% compared with CHAD alone, during the PEF + CHAD of
carrot. The shortest drying time occurred at pulse number of 10, which
is not the highest number of pulse time, suggesting that there are op-
timal parameters for the application of PEF + CHAD for every fruits
and vegetables. Such knowledge is useful regarding to the modelling
and optimizing of combined PEF + CHAD process of fruits and vege-
tables. Shynkaryk et al. (2008) studied the effect of combined PEF
+ CHAD of red beetroot tissue different drying temperatures
(30–100 °C). They observed that combined PEF + CHAD allowed re-
duction of drying time and the drying temperature by 20–25 °C. This
reduction in the drying time is due to the increased rate of moisture
transfer caused by the electroporation mechanism. Basically, PEF
treatment is more sensitive to resistibility and size distribution of plant
cells. The larger cells are easily damaged electrically, while more
resilient and smaller cells have more resistance (Lebovka,
Bazhal, & Vorobiev, 2002; Lebovka, Shynkaryk, & Vorobiev, 2006).
Hence a limitation in the application of combined PEF and CHAD for
drying fruits and vegetables. In terms of energy efficiency, Raso and
Barbosa-Cánovas (2003) reported the energy requirement for water
evaporation of food during PEF assisted CHAD, which depends on
temperature and pressure is between 2.5 and 2.7 MJ/kg, whereas the
total energy input required for CHAD alone is between 4 and 6 MJ/kg
of removed water. This further proves that combined PEF and CHAD
has the potential of reducing the total energy required for drying fruits
and vegetables, due to increased mass transfer rates and reduction in
drying time.
4.3. Effect of combined PEF and CHAD on product quality
The effect of combined PEF and CHAD on the quality attributes of
fruits and vegetables has not been widely investigated. This is due to the
limited study on the application of this technology for fruits and vegetables
in the past. Nevertheless, in recent years, combined PEF and CHAD has
seen increased interest both in laboratory scale and pilot scale drying
processes (Lebovka et al., 2007). However, only a few studies on the effect
of combined PEF and CHAD on quality parameters of fruits and vegetables
have been reported in the literature in the past 9 year, thus a basis for
future research. A very important quality selection criteria is the colour of
a product (Barbosa de Lima, da Silva, Pereira, dos Santos, & Barbosa de
Lima, 2015). Wiktor et al. (2015) demonstrated a decrease in the lightness
(L*) value of carrot up to 25.3%, when compare to results of CHAD, due to
electroporation phenomenon. In contrast, Shynkaryk et al. (2008) further
demonstrated that PEF + CHAD results in improved colour attributes of
beetroots when compared to the results of CHAD. However, higher tem-
peratures above 100 °C could result in the browning component. Specifi-
cally, combined PEF and CHAD can promote an enhancement in the
colour parameters of fruits and vegetables due to the fact that the severity
232
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
of individual technology (i.e. PEF or CHAD) is moderated when using the
combined method.
Another relevant quality factors are the shrinkage effect and rehy-
dration compliance. A technology that will reduce the shrinkage of
fruits and vegetables during drying is indispensable. The shrinkage ef-
fect and rehydration capability can be also used as a quality indicator
during the drying of fruits and vegetables. Shynkaryk et al. (2008) re-
ported that combined PEF + CHAD resulted in greater degree of tissue
shrinkage and hence increase in rehydration time. All the above ob-
servations are useful for future research.
The following are some of the advantages of combined PEF and
CHAD drying processes:
• Combined PEF and CHAD drying improves the colour of fruits and
vegetables
• Combined PEF and CHAD causes uniform rise in product tempera-
ture
• Works better for thermal sensitive products at moderate tempera-
tures
4.4. Limitations of Combined PEF and CHAD
• Inadequate proper processing conditions
• Complex equipment design and installation
• Suitability and electrical properties of fruits and vegetables
• Increased product damage electrically, with increased resistance of
smaller cells
The potential for combined PEF and CHAD in the food and agri-
cultural processing industries is promising due to the following reasons:
• The potential for saving energy and minimising product quality
damage. For example, in the bakery industry, the energy of con-
sumption in the production of crackers and cookies can greatly be
reduced and the final product quality enhanced. This could translate
into lower price of premium products for the consumers.
• Moderate electric field strengths at lower temperature leads to
higher quality of products, in terms of microorganism inactivation,
nutritional and functional properties. This is also very useful in the
industrial production of premium foods.
• The uniform moisture distribution experienced when using this
novel non-thermal method is particularly important for industries
requiring uniform drying.
• This technology can also result in minimal alteration in product
taste. This also useful in the industrial production of premium
snacks and cookies.
Fig. 3. Comparison of electrical energy consumption (Kroehnke, Musielak, & Boratynska,
2014).
D.I. Onwude et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238

5. Combined ultraviolet and hot-air drying

Maimamuang, & Phimphilai, 2014)

(Shynkaryk, Lebovka, & Vorobiev,
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation falls in the electromagnetic spectrum with
wavelengths between 100 and 400 nm. Traditionally, the UV light is

(Kose & Erenturk, 2010)

mainly classified into UV-A (315–400 nm), UV-B (280–315 nm), UV-C

(Lebovka et al., 2007)

(Wiktor et al., 2013)

(Wiktor et al., 2015)

(200–280 nm) which is considered the germicidal range, and the vacuum
UV (100–200 nm) (Gomez-Lopez, Koutchma, & Linden, 2012; Pataro,
Sinik, Capitoli, Donsì, & Ferrari, 2015). UV technology is a non-thermal

(Phimphilai,
References

technology that is free of chemicals and waste discharges, making it a very

2008)

ecological friendly energy source. Although UV treatment has been asso-

ciated with the term “irradiation”, however UV light is a non-ionizing
radiation and it must not be associated with other types of irradiation (e.g.
Midilli et al. model

Midilli et al. model

Semi-theoretical

Semi-theoretical

Semi-theoretical gamma radiation) (Gomez-Lopez et al., 2012). In the last decade, UV light
Diffusion model

Diffusion model
Modified Page radiation has been used in pharmaceutical, electronics and aquacultural
Modelling
approach

model industries as a medium of disinfection, inactivation of microorganisms in

liquid food (Koutchma, Forney, & Moraru, 2009; Pataro et al., 2011), and
as post-harvest treatment of fruits and vegetables (Pataro et al., 2015).
–

Nonetheless, in recent years, UV light has gain momentum not only in

tissue shrinkage, as well as in longer time of
An increase in the moisture diffusivity; also,

Decreased drying time by up to 38% when

increase in Deff by 20% when compared to

inactivating many types of food organism but also as an alternative to

UV had effect on the drying rate at higher
Reduction in the drying time by 12% and

Deff increases with increase degree of PEF

colour quality was also preserved; Higher

decrease in the L* value of up to 25.3%.

The shortest drying time was at n = 10;

chemical sterilization and conventional thermal heating processes (Pataro

et al., 2015). However, to the best of the author's knowledge, there are
compared to results of HAD alone

only two reports on the application of UV in the convective drying of fruits

and vegetables. This results in a knowledge gap which is a serious setback
in the application of a more environmental friendly technology to the
temperatures (75 °C).

drying of agricultural crops.

Significant findings

rehydration

5.1. Mechanism of operation

HAD alone

UV-C (254 nm) light has been reported to be the best in the treat-
ment of food materials, because the peak germicidal effect occurs at
hc = 5 ± 0.7 mm; d = 30 ± 0.5 mm; v = 2 m/s; Pt = 2 s; T = 70 °C; E = 5 kV/cm

wavelength 254 nm (Guerrero-Beltran & Barbosa-Canovas, 2004;

d = 40 mm; hc = 10 mm; v = 6 m3/h; T = 30–70 °C; E = 500 V/cm; n = 1–30,000
h = 5 mm; d = 35 mm; v = 2 m/s; T = 70 °C; E = 18.75 kV/cm; n = 5; Pt = 1 s

Pataro et al., 2015). Although there is no proven theory in the literature

regarding UV-C assisted CHAD, Phimphilai et al. (2014) observed that
UV-C assisted hot-air drying was able to lower microbial load thereby
h = 5 mm; d = 24 mm; T = 30–100 °C; E = 200–1000 V/cm; n = 5–500

T = 60–75 °C; UVP = 60 W; λ = 254 nm; duv = 2.5 cm; UVet = 70 min

assisting the drying process. The scanning electron microscope results

of their research further revealed that samples dried using UV-C com-
bined CHAD showed deeper shell layers which caused higher rate of
moisture evaporation as compared to drying using CHAD. Generally,
v = 0.5–1.5 m/s; T = 60–80 °C; UVP = 15 W; duv = 15 cm

during UV-C treatment process, microorganisms that are exposed to the

UV-C light are affected at the DNA, thereby inhabiting microbial
growth. The formation of pyrimidine dimers changes the structure of
DNA helix and block microbial cell replication. Thus, the injured re-
productive systems of cells, which become unable to repair, leads to the
death of cells. This process could eventually result in increased pore
Published data on PEF and UV combined hot-air drying of fruits and vegetables.

formation, thereby increasing the rate of moisture transfer on the ap-

plication of other sources of heat.
Drying process conditions

5.2. Effect of combined UV and CHAD on drying kinetics

The combination of UV and CHAD works on the above principle

(Section 5.1). A schematic of a typical combined UV and CHA dryer is
shown in Fig. 5. The application of combined UV and CHAD to fruits
and vegetables has not been widely investigated (see Table 2) despite
the numerous advantages in UV treatment of fruits and vegetables.
However, simultaneous combined UV and CHAD (UV-CHAD) has
Combination

PEF + HAD

PEF + HAD

PEF + HAD

PEF + HAD
UV + HAD

shown to accelerate drying rate of Mistletoe (Kose & Erenturk, 2010).

UV – HAD

Kose and Erenturk (2010) further observed a decreased drying time by

mode

up to 38% when compared to results of CHAD alone.

In a more recent study, Phimphilai et al. (2014) demonstrated that
the sequential UV and CHAD (UV + CHAD) had significant influence
Longan (cv. Daw)

Potatoes (Agata)
Beetroots (red)

on the drying rate of longan at a high temperature (75 °C). They noticed
Baltimore)
Apples (Malus
domestica
‘Idared’)

a significant reduction of the total drying time when compared to

Carrot (cv.
vegetables
Fruits and

Mistletoe

drying using CHAD alone. This may be due to the deeper shell layers
Table 2

caused by the UV light on longan tissue leading to higher evaporation of

moisture, shorter drying time and reduction in the energy consumption.

233
D.I. Onwude et al.
5.3. Effect of combined UV and CHAD on product quality
As earlier stated in the case of combined US and CHAD, and com-
bined PEF and CHAD, quality is a critical parameter which determines
the suitability of a given drying method. Regrettably, most drying
methods affects the quality attributes of agricultural products (Alam,
Gupta, Khaira, & Javed, 2013; Musielak et al., 2016; Omolola,
Jideani, & Kapila, 2017; Toontom, Meenune, Posri, & Lertsiri, 2012). In
the case of UV assisted CHAD of fruits and vegetables, only 2 articles
were reviewed. Nevertheless, Kose and Erenturk (2010) was able to
demonstrated that combined UV – CHAD can results in lower a*/b*
values and higher L* values of Mistletoe. The quality of dried products
when using this technology may effectively depend on the dosage (in-
tensity x drying time) of UV radiation been supplied. Again, more study
on the use of combined UV and CHAD is required.
UV combined CHAD is a promising non-thermal technology espe-
cially for industrial applications. This technology, when fully devel-
oped, has the potential to become an environmental friendly, easy to
operate, cost and energy effective drying technology. Other advantages
of using combined UV and CHAD technology in the drying of fruits and
vegetables include:
• Higher drying rate
• Reduction in drying time
• Reduction in energy consumption
• Easy and affordable to design and install
• Better product colour when compared with drying using CHAD
5.4. Limitations of Combined UV and CHAD
• Drying mechanism is not yet understood
234
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
Fig. 4. (a) A schematic set-up of sequential PEF + CHAD (b)
Scheme of the PEF + HAD chamber.
(Adapted from Lebovka et al., 2007)
Fig. 5. A schematic of UV and HA combined dryer.
(Adapted from Kose & Erenturk, 2010)
• No specified process conditions for achieving optimum result
• Still in the early stages and needs further research before accept-
ability
6. Modelling approach
Drying is a complex process that involves so many sophisticated
phenomena associated to the heat and moisture transfer. Due to the
complications of such processes, an effective yet sufficient basic un-
derstanding of the underlining principles is still inadequate. Moreover,
due to the various drying mechanism for different mode of heat and
moisture transfer, the rate of water removal can therefore be over-
estimated. Therefore, this challenge can be overcome by modelling the
drying processes.
Modelling the mass transfer and drying process of combined NT and
CHAD for fruits and vegetables is a very useful tool, with regards to
optimization and process control during drying. The theoretical, em-
pirical and semi-theoretical models of moisture and quality changes are
widely applied to fruits and vegetables. The most frequently developed
drying models for fruits and vegetables or other agro-products have
been extensively reviewed (Erbay & Icier, 2010; Ertekin & Firat, 2017;
Onwude et al., 2016b). Therefore, several researchers have developed
the models to predict moisture and quality changes during combined
NT and CHAD.
To describe the drying process and kinetics of apples during com-
bine US - CHAD, Rodríguez et al. (2014); Santacatalina et al. (2016);
Fernandes et al. (2015a, 2015b) found the empirical diffusion model as
the most suitable based on the experimental conditions used (see
Table 1). Similarly, Cárcel et al. (2011), and García-Pérez et al. (2007)
observed that the most appropraite model to predict the drying kinetics
and processes of carrot during combined US-CHAD is the diffusion
D.I. Onwude et al.
model. This model has also been reported as the best in predicting the
drying behaviour of other fruits and vegetables such as eggplant (Puig
et al., 2012), lemon (García-Pérez et al., 2007), oranges (García-Pérez
et al., 2007; Ortuno et al., 2010), persimmon (García-Pérez et al.,
2007), potato (Lebovka et al., 2007; Ozuna et al., 2011), and straw-
berries (Gamboa-Santos et al., 2014), during the combined US – CHAD,
and PEF + CHAD.
On the other hand, Schössler et al. (2012), and Wiktor et al. (2013)
stated that the best model for describing the drying kinetics of apple is
the semi-theoretical Midilli et al. model. While the former used the
intermittent combined US and CHAD technique, the later used the
combined PEF + CHAD method. Wiktor et al. (2015) further reported
that the Midilli et al. model is best in decribing the drying kinetics of
carrot during combined PEF + CHAD. Similarly, this model have
shown to be appropriate in describing the drying kinetics of peppers
using combined US – CHAD (Schössler et al., 2012). Other empirical
models such as the Wang and Singh model, and the Weibull model have
been used to describe the drying process of seaweed (S. U. Kadam et al.,
2015), and tomatoes (Fernandes et al., 2015a, 2015b), respectively.
7. Current status and challenges of combined NT and CHAD
Although the potential of combined non-thermal and convective
hot-air drying has been investigated for many fruits and vegetables
applications, challenges persist prior to extensive application and
adoption of the technology. One common drawback associated with the
application of all the combined non-thermal and convective hot-air
drying technology reviewed is the non-standardized reporting of
methodology and drying parameters. This is largely because current
investigations are still at the experimental stages, carried out at la-
boratory scale.
Despite the numerous advantages associated with combined US and
CHAD of fruits and vegetables as a cost effective and highly efficient
technology, there are some drawback that must be addressed before it
can widely be developed and deployed industrially. As earlier dis-
cussed, one of the major drawback is the medium of energy transmis-
sion (Soria & Villamiel, 2010). Although, the use of airborne US assisted
CHAD has proven to be effective, more study need to be done to enlarge
the penetration depth of cavitation (Mason, Riera, Vercet, & Lopez-
Buesa, 2005), and automate the process so as to further enhance its
efficiency and adaptability. Additional challenges for industrial com-
bined US and CHAD are the developments of the heterogeneous
moisture profiles in sequential drying and the high US extra energy in
the system (Bantle & Eikevik, 2014). On the other hand, the effect of
drying conditions of the drying kinetics of fruits and vegetables has
shown that the air velocity, temperature, power, intensity, and material
structure largely affect the rate and efficiency of drying. For an im-
proved efficiency, modelling and optimization is required. Considering
the design and set-up of combined US-CHAD, the modelling process is a
complex phenomenon consisting of the cavitation phenomenon,
medium of transmission, temperature profile of the product, shrinkage
phenomenon, correlation between the different drying conditions (air
velocity, temperature, power, and material structure) and type of
combination mode. Thus, the application of this technology is still
limited by inadequate modelling information and data, which can be a
basis for future research and development.
In terms of the adoption of combined PEF and CHAD, and UV and
CHAD for fruits and vegetables, the efficiency and adaptability of the
technology is currently being investigated as most of the study are in
the experimental stages. In view of this, more research and develop-
ment activities are required to understand, optimize, and apply this
complex drying technique to its full potential. Aside understanding the
235
Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238
drying mechanism of combined PEF and CHAD of fruits and vegetables
(e.g. effect of electroporation) (Wiktor et al., 2015), another challenge
to the development of this technology is the cost of operation due to
limited amount of product to be dried at a time. Also, the effect of this
drying method (PEF and UV assisted CHAD) on quality attributes of
fruits and vegetables need to be studied and validated to gain popu-
larity and broaden the category of non-thermal assisted processed
commercial products.
Generally, for industrial drying, the major goal is to reduce pro-
cessing time while reducing the overall cost of production, in order to
justify the investments. Therefore, combined NT and CHAD is a pro-
mising technology with respect to processing time and quality of final
dried product. However, for combined NT and CHAD technology to be
widely accepted industrially and commercially in the foreseeable fu-
ture, several limitations highlighted in this article must be overcome.
Some of the ways of overcoming most of the challenges in the industrial
application of combined NT and CHAD include: optimization of energy
through mathematical modelling, computer automation, control and
monitoring of drying processes, and intermittent drying.
8. Conclusion
Recent advances of drying technologies in agricultural, process and
food engineering research and development for preserving fruits and
vegetables has gained increased interest as a potential method to re-
place, at least partly, the conventional preservation methods. The re-
cent application of non-thermal assisted technologies (ultrasound, pulse
electric field and ultraviolet technologies) with hot-air drying of fruits
and vegetables are presented in this paper. The findings of this study
have demonstrated that these techniques provide great potential in the
development of an environmental friendly drying technology.
The scientific literature considered have shown that combined ul-
trasound and convective hot-air drying is indispensable in accelerating
the moisture diffusion within fruits and vegetables, thereby reducing
drying time (up to 80.3% of hot-air drying) and energy consumption,
increase drying rate (up to 205% of hot-air drying), enhance the overall
process efficiency, and improve quality of final product. The drying
conditions such as drying temperature, product dimension, sonication
time, ultrasound power level, and air velocity considerably affect the
drying process of fruits and vegetables, indicating the need to establish
the optimum drying conditions for specific fruit and vegetable, and
ultrasound applications. Similarly, combined pulse electric field and
convective hot-air drying, and combined ultraviolet and convective hot-
air drying techniques just like other non-thermal combined hot-air
drying, can shorten the drying time of up to 12% reduction (PEF
+ CHAD), and 38% reduction (UV – CHAD) when compared to results
of hot-air drying alone. This technique has shown to improve energy
savings, low cost of design and improved final quality of dried fruits
and vegetables.
With regards to modelling, the most often used models are the
empirical Diffusion models, and the semi-theoretical Midilli et al.
models. However, various models were seen to describe the drying
process of different products. For effective optimization of existing
systems, and design of new concepts, further investigation is required.
A modelling approach that will minimize or eliminate experimental
trials, provide adequate information on the process parameters that
would otherwise be unavailable, and can be applied to a wide range of
fruits and vegetables, irrespective of the mode of heat transfer is de-
sirable.
The application of the combined non-thermal and convective hot-air
drying produced better quality of dried products, with great retention
of colour and nutritional attributes. In addition, combined non-thermal
D.I. Onwude et al. Innovative Food Science and Emerging Technologies 43 (2017) 223–238

and convective hot-air drying are cost effective alternate systems to Acknowledgement
drying systems with single mode. Therefore, an optimal drying system
for preserving fruits and vegetables is a system the reduced the drying The authors would like to thank the Department of Biological and
time and energy consumption, lower operating cost, and with minimum Agricultural Engineering of Universiti Putra Malaysia, for the facilities
reduction in the final quality of dried products. In this case, both the used in conducting this investigation.
combined ultrasound and convective hot-air drying, and combined
pulse electric field and convective hot-air drying are therefore ideal References
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