Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Tribology International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/triboint

The evolution of foil bearing technology T

a a b,∗
P. Samanta , N.C. Murmu , M.M. Khonsari
a
Surface Engineering and Tribology Department, CSIR-Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute, M G Avenue, Durgapur, India 713209
b
Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Louisiana State University, 3283 Patrick Taylor Hall, Baton Rouge LA70803, USA

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents a state-of-the-art survey on the development of the foil bearing technology. Foil bearings
Foil bearings represent a proven technology with many promising features. Nevertheless, there are a number of inherent
Stiffness and damping challenges in their designs, analyses, and performance characteristics that must be taken into consideration for
Foil bearing installation proper functionality and safe operation. To this end, complexities associated with geometrical configurations
Thermal run-away
with the compressible flow, dynamic performance and stability associated with stiffness and damping, frictional
characteristics associated with low- and high-speed operations, and thermoelastic instability leading to ther-
mally-induced runaway are discussed in depth with particular attention to their progressive evolutions.

1. Introduction the FB technology is in its third generation [30].

A Foil Bearing (FB) is a special class of gas bearing that operates on
the principles of hydrodynamic lubrication. What distinguishes an FB
from the conventional gas bearing is the implementation of a series of
flexible surfaces affixed onto the inner radius of the rigid bearing sur-
face. The dominant characteristic of an FB lies in its ability to generate
self-acting hydrodynamic pressure by simply utilizing the surrounding
gas (e.g., air) and hence eliminating the need of dedicated lubrication,
pressurization system, and costly supply arrangements. This self-acting
and self-cooling system also reduces the overall system weight, com-
plexity, and maintenance cost. Indeed, the overall simplicity renders it
highly desirable for many of today's most advanced turbo-machinery
systems such as the air cycle machine in aircrafts [1,2], turboexpander
for cryogenic applications [3,4], turbocharger [5–9], turbojet engine
[10–14], turbofan engine [15], helicopter propulsion system [16], high
temperature blower [17,18], high speed machining center [19,20],
high speed compressor [21], turboalternator [22,23], small Brayton air
refrigerator system [24], micro-power generator system [25–28], and
micro gas turbine engine [29].
Although an FB is deceptively simple from an operational point of
view, its relatively complex structure and strong dependency of the
foil's flexibility on the pressure generation makes it difficult to predict
its performance. Therefore, early stages of FB development were ex-
perimentally driven. Over time, the advancement of analytical treat-
ment methodology and capability for predicting both static and dy-
namic performance enabled designers to tailor the stiffness and
damping of foil structures and improve thermal management. Today,
In this paper, we review of the key technological innovations in
structural foil designs that leverage the stiffness and damping of foil
structure for high-speed and high-load applications. The key techno-
logical innovations, their corresponding issues in particular bearings,
the methodology used to solve those issues and major findings from
those works are summarized in Table 1 for the benefits of the reader-
ship. The main feature is the implementation of the bending-dominated
corrugated bump FB rather than the earlier tension-dominated gen-
eration, which has no commercial application [31].
2. Brief early development and previous literature surveys
The effect of flexibility on the hydrodynamic film was first observed
by Blok and Von Rossum [32] in the 1950s. This was followed by Gross
[33] who performed pioneering work on the development of FBs. These
early generations of bearings were all tension dominated and it took
almost 20 years to find the first commercial application in the air cycle
machine [34]. DellaCorte's paper published in 2008 provides a very
insightful early-stage development history of FBs [31]. By scrutinizing
the overall technical development path of the technology, he concluded
that FB's full potential is yet to be realized. Agarwal (1997) had pre-
viously described the history of utilization of FB in air cycle machine
chronologically [1]. Agarwal's paper is a nice compendium on the de-
velopment of FB during the period of 1970s in which the author pro-
vides the development statistics and forecasts the possibility of a host of
applications in aviation gas turbine engine, cryogenic turboexpanders
and auxiliary power unit for aircraft operating at high temperature with

∗
Corresponding author.(M. M. Khonsari).
E-mail address: khonsari@lsu.edu (M.M. Khonsari).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2019.03.021
Received 23 November 2018; Received in revised form 6 March 2019; Accepted 6 March 2019
Available online 11 March 2019
0301-679X/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
 Table 1
Comprehensive summary of research papers and their foci.
Focus Area Issues Methodology Used Type of FB Ref. Major Findings
P. Samanta, et al.

Dynamic characteristics Theoretical analysis Coupled one-dimensional numerical analysis Leaf and bump type Journal and [37] Film shape, support stiffness and load
thrust FB
Dynamic characteristics Theoretical analysis One dimensional numerical analysis Leaf type journal and thrust FB [38] Experimentally validated performances
Dynamic characteristics Theoretical analysis One dimensional numerical analysis Bump type journal and thrust FB [39] Experimentally validated performances
Dynamic characteristics Theoretical analysis FEM with friction at leaves interface Multi-leaf journal FB [40] Friction affects lift-off speed, starting torque and damping
Dynamic characteristics Theoretical analysis Elastohydrodynamic (EHD) Multi-leaf foil journal FB [41] Load and EHD are time-consuming methods
Dynamic characteristics Theoretical analysis Parametric analysis Bump type Journal and thrust FB [42,43] Stable operation depends on combining stiffness of foil and film
Dynamic characteristics Operational Stability Experiments on Coating of foils Bump type Journal FB [45,46] Increment of load capacity and stability
Dynamic characteristics Stiffness of bump strips Incorporating interface friction of bumps Bump type thrust FB [47,48] Existence of variable stiffness in bump strip and verified
experimentally
Dynamic characteristics Damping of bump strips Based on closed hysteresis loop Bump type Journal FB [49,50,55] Source and mechanism of non-linear behavior of bumps foil and
Coulomb damping are examined theoretically and
experimentally
Dynamic characteristics Structural damping Experiments Foil journal FB [51] Direct stiffness and damping decrease with increasing dynamic
amplitude
Dynamic characteristics Structural stiffness and damping Experiments and theory Foil thrust FB [52] Effect of coating, lubricant and bump geometry on structural
stiffness and damping
Dynamic characteristics Structural damping Experiments Foil journal FB [53] Direct stiffness and damping increase with increasing static load
Dynamic characteristics Structural damping Theoretical perturbation method Foil journal FB [54] Dynamic stiffness and damping coefficients
Dynamic characteristics Dynamic coefficients Finite Element based perturbation approach Foil journal FB [56] Effects of FB number, FB compliance, Coulomb friction and
membrane stiffness on dynamic coefficient
Static characteristics Misalignment Finite Element Method Foil journal FB [57] Effects of misalignment on load capacity, minimum clearance
and moments
Static characteristics Model of elastic foundation Finite Element Method Foil journal FB with [58] Effects of membrane stiffness and stress on structural model
incompressible fluid

306
Dynamic characteristics Measurement of dynamic parameter Theory and Experiments Foil journal FB [59,60] Measurement of stiffness and find its effects on load, speed,
clearance, bump geometry and dry-friction
Dynamic characteristics Measurement of dynamic parameter Theory and Experiments Foil journal FB [61,62,64] Find effect of frequency, amplitude, load on damping and its
effect on stability
Static and Dynamic Stability Theory and Experiments Circular and non-circular foil FB [63] Shape of FB has greater influence on load carrying capacity and
characteristics its stability
Static and Dynamic Structural complexity Theory and Experiments Metal mesh foil FB [65,67–69] Performance analysis and test on different parameters like wire
characteristics diameter, relative density, and radial interference of mesh.
Static and Dynamic Structural complexity Theory Protuberant structure of bump [70] Predict static and dynamic characteristics for different FB
characteristics foil number, protuberant support
Dynamic characteristics Structural damping Experiments Insertion of viscoelastic material [71,72] Improved viscous damping characteristics and reduce vibration
near bending critical speed
Dynamic characteristics Stability Theory Spirally wound foil FB [73] Effect of compliance on stability
Dynamic characteristics Stability Theory and experiments Shimmed foil FB [74,76-78] Effect of shim on rotor dynamic performances
Dynamic characteristics Structural stiffness and damping Theory and experiments Nested compression spring foil [79,80] Improved stiffness and damping coefficients
FB
Dynamic characteristics Structural stiffness and damping Theory and experiments Hybrid bump-metal mesh FB [81–84] Improved assembly accuracy, viscous damping and stability
Dynamic characteristics Stability Theory and experiments Three-lobed FB [85] Improved system natural frequency and rotor dynamic stability
Dynamic characteristics Stability Theory and experiments Spring foil or wing foil bearing [86–90] Enhanced damping and stiffness properties
Dynamic characteristics Higher friction at lower speed Experiments Hybrid electro-magnetic foil FB [91–95] Enhancement of stability at higher speed and reduction of
initial friction
Dynamic characteristics Fluid-structure coupling analysis Quasi-transient and full transient analysis Single pad bump FB [96] Transient motion of foil enhance the damping of FB
Dynamic characteristics Fluid-structure coupling analysis SIMPLEC method with isothermal turbulent Three pads bump journal FB with [97] Turbulent flow at high FB speed create more frictional heat in
flow cryogenic fluid the FB film
Dynamic characteristics Solution for fine grid particularly at Wall Compressible wall function with forth-order Thrust FB with cryogenic fluid [98] Reduction of allowable time step and computational cost for
boundary artificial dissipation term high aspect ratio cells
Dynamic characteristics Effect of slip flow on performance of Numerical perturbation method with Bump foil journal FB [99] Effect of slip flow on performance is significant at high
journal FB modified Reynolds equation temperature in the low FB number region
(continued on next page)
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
 Table 1 (continued)

Focus Area Issues Methodology Used Type of FB Ref. Major Findings

Static and Dynamic Coupled solution Fully coupled finite element solution with Bump foil journal FB [100,101] Found solution with rapid convergence and film thickness
P. Samanta, et al.

characteristics shell structure of foil undulation in exit region of gas film

Static and characteristics Coupled solution Finite difference approach Bump foil journal FB [102] FB has better stability characteristics than rigid bearing
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping Theory and experiment with hysteresis Bump journal FB [103–105] Damping and dynamic coefficients of friction are depended on
approach frequency, amplitude and load
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping Multiple harmonic balance (MHB) approaches Bump FB [106] Inclusion of load-dependent friction element improve dynamic
prediction
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping Multi-degree of freedom system with Bump FB [107] Inclusion of interaction among bumps foil flexibility accurately
interaction
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping Finite element method with large Bump FB [108] Dynamic simulation shows the existence of stick-slip in foil
displacement structure
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping Nonlinear structural model for entire Bump FB [109] Both structural deflection and friction in foil surface contribute
structure to instability
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping Non-linear transient using FEM with stick-slip Bump FB [110,111] The vibration amplitude at resonance is controlled and multiple
motion static equilibriam is found due to Coulomb friction
Dynamic characteristics Modeling frictional damping FEM and virtual work principle Bump FB [112] Good agreement of model with experiments in low frequency
range
Static and Dynamic Modeling frictional damping FDM and FEM with top foil bending moment Bump FB [113] Top foil deflection play a role in determining the static and
characteristics dynamic characteristic
Static and Dynamic Modeling frictional damping One (1D) and two (2D) FEM model for top Bump FB [114,115] 1D FEM model reproduce closely the experi-mentally obtained
characteristics foils min film thickness
Dynamic characteristics Non-linear rotor dynamics Bifurcation plot, Pioncare maps, nonlinear Bump FB [116] The journal center motion is highly non-linear
dynamic
Dynamic characteristics Non-linear rotor dynamics Self-excited Harmonic Balance (HB) method Bump FB [117,118] Unique ability of HB to correctly quantify the behavior of
structural damping
Dynamic characteristics Non-linear rotor dynamics Quadratic stiffness model on measured Journal and thrust FB [119,120] Non-linear structural behavior of foils is responsible for the

307
stiffness data non-linear motion of journal
Dynamic characteristics Non-linear rotor dynamics Effect of unbalance on rotor dynamic Three pads journal FB [121] The model quantitatively and qualitatively predict nonlinear
performance steady-state rotor response
Dynamic characteristics Non-linear rotor dynamics Nonlinear time and linearised frequency Bump FB [122] Found discrepancies in accuracy of classical frequency domain
domain method
Dynamic characteristics Non-linear rotor dynamics Truss representation with foil mass and Bump FB [123] The model predicts natural frequency and mode shape well
friction
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) Using energy equation with “Couette Bump FB [126,127] Predict FB temperature with 8–19% over-estimation compared
Approximation” to experimental results
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) Using 3D energy equation Bump FB [128] The rotor expands more thermally than foil structure and FB
temp vary parabolically
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) Using 3D energy equation Bump FB [129] Parametric studies on temperature rise with wide range of
speeds and loads
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) 2D THD bulk flow with lump parameter Bump FB [130,131] Rotor speed influence more on film temperature than applied
thermal model load
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) 3D THD with foil structure and rotor Bump FB [132] To compare THD model experiments should be designed based
centrifugal expansion on certain THD model
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) THD using bump thermal contact and inlet Bump FB [134] Inlet flow mixing and bump thermal contact improve physical
flow mixing model prediction
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) 3D transient THD model Three pad journal FB [135] This model is able to predict thermal instability found in the
experimental measurements
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) 3D THD model Thrust FB with radially arranged [136] To avoid thermal runaway at high speed, FB clearance and
bump foil cooling air pressure to be selected judiciously
Dynamic characteristics Thermohydrodynamic analysis (THD) THD with bending and mem-brane effects of Bump FB [137] Thermal strain in the top film is to be taken for film thickness
the top foil along the side edge of an FB
Dynamic characteristics Experimental thermal characteristics Measuring friction and wear data for coated Bump FB [138] Thick solid hard coating on journal surface is effective for better
surface performance
Dynamic characteristics Experimental thermal characteristics Temperature effect on stiffness and damping Bump FB [139,140] Stiffness decreases and damping mechanism shift from viscous
type to frictional type
(continued on next page)
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
 Table 1 (continued)

Focus Area Issues Methodology Used Type of FB Ref. Major Findings

Dynamic characteristics Experimental thermal characteristics Effect of temperature on load capacity and Bump FB [141,144] Reduction of load capacity with temperature
P. Samanta, et al.

durability
Dynamic characteristics Experimental thermal characteristics Effect of dynamic load on stiffness Bump FB [142,143] Dynamic stiffness increases with dynamic load amplitude and
frequency
Dynamic characteristics Thermal Instability Experiments with high-temperature FB Bump FB [145–149] High temperature leads to seizure which could not be detected
by vibration signal of rotor
Dynamic characteristics Thermal Instability Experiments with highly loaded FB Thrust FB [150] Inadequate thermal management may create thermal distortion
due to non-uniform film
Dynamic characteristics Thermal Instability Analytical model of thermoelastic instability Bump FB [151] Evaluate critical speed for TEI using perturbed heat wave
(TEI)
Dynamic characteristics Thermal management Forced air cooling method Bump FB [153–155] Find optimum cooling flow and double bump strip layer to be
more effective for cooling
Dynamic characteristics Thermal management Different method of cooling Bump FB [156–158] Axial cooling method found to be more effective and heat
remove by convection method
Dynamic characteristics Thermal management Three-dimensional performance map Bump FB [159] Select operating point always in the low-load region to avoid
thermal runaway
Static characteristic Enhancement of load-carrying capacity Multi-stage bump FB Bump FB [160,161] Static characteristic, Enhancement of LCC, Multi-stage bump FB
Static characteristic Enhancement of load-carrying capacity Segmented bump foil along radial and axial Bump FB [162] Configuration gives improved alignment and prevents excessive
direction deflection
Static characteristic Enhancement of load-carrying capacity Multi-stage bump FB Bump FB [163–165] Configuration yields high load carrying capacity along with
high stiffness and stability
Static characteristic Enhancement of load-carrying capacity Composite profile of foil structure Thrust FB [166–170] Static characteristic, Enhancement of LCC, Composite profile of
foil structure
Static characteristic Enhancement of load-carrying capacity Changing environmental pressure Bump FB [171] By increasing the environmental pressure load carrying
capacity can be enhanced
Static characteristic Enhancement of load-carrying capacity Effect of clearance on load carrying capacity Bump FB [172] Found optimum value of clearance for better load and avoiding

308
thermal runaway
Static characteristic Estimation of load carrying capacity “Rule of Thumb” for estimation of load Journal and thrust FB [173,175] Load carrying capacity is proportional to surface speed,
diameter and radial position for thrust pad
Static characteristic Limiting load carrying capacity Limiting solution of Reynolds equation Journal and thrust FB [174,176] Pressure value of FB tends to become saturated at extremely
high speeds
Static characteristic Foil fixing “C” shaped roll and spot welding Bump FB [179,180] Welding the top foil prevent rotation
Static characteristic Foil fixing “T” shaped retainer Bump FB [181] T-shaped retainer divide the interior bore into like plurality of
lobes
Static characteristic Foil fixing Making protrusion of top or bump foil and Bump FB [182–184] This method prevents thermal stress generation into foil due to
groove in the sleeve heat from the weld
Static characteristic Coating on foils Patented PS304 coating material Bump FB [185] Substrate material has a minor role in imparting cohesive
strength of PS304
Static characteristic Coating on foils Patented Korolon TM coating material Bump FB [186] The minimum coefficient of friction less than 0.1 is observed
Static characteristic Coating on foils Soft polymer and hard ceramic Bump FB [187] Load carrying capacity is increased polyimide coated foil run
against as-ground journal surface
Static characteristic Coating on foils Combination of alumina, MoS2 and PS304 Bump FB [188] Providing lubrication to FB via a shaft coating is better than
depending on foil coatings
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
P. Samanta, et al.
enhanced efficiency and reduced cost. DellaCorte's paper published in
2012 also provides the past, present and the future challenges and
opportunities of oil-free bearing supported turbo-machineries [35].
There, he points out that even though FBs show great promise for uti-
lization in advanced turbo-machineries, they still face challenges as-
sociated with high starting torque, lower damping and low-load car-
rying capacity (LCC) as well as lagging behind the rigidity of
conventional bearings.
In what follows, we highlight the developmental path for tackling
different challenges associated with the FB technology and their eva-
luation over the last five decades. The main focus of this review is on
foil journal bearings; but because the techniques for foil thrust bearings
are similar, references to the thrust configurations are also made where
appropriate.
3. Advances in analyses and experiments
Analysis of FB is complex. It requires simultaneous solutions of non-
linear Reynolds equation with provision for compressible flow and non-
linear elastic deformation equation for supporting foils [1]. The treat-
ment of the problem becomes more involved when a solution to the
Reynolds equation is needed for operating conditions with high com-
pressibility or bearing number (Λ) —a situation that commonly occurs
at high speeds in air bearings. This is so because, at high compressibility
numbers (when Λ > 100), the numerical solutions tend to experience
oscillation due to the dominance of the advection fluid transport term
[36]. During earlier stages of development, most of the FB developers
like AiReserach, Hamilton Standard used semi-empirical methods that
utilize analytical and experimental results to arrive at a solution [1].
AiResearch, of the division of Garrett Corporation, pioneered the ana-
lysis of the leaf-type FBs for use in air cycles. The analysis of a primitive
form of today's most popular bending-dominated bump FBs was first
carried out by Mechanical Technology Incorporation (MTI) for use in
the propulsion system, prepared for Air Force Aero Propulsion La-
boratory (AFAPL) in 1973. Walowit et al. (1973) analyzed two types of
bending-dominated FBs (cantilevered bump-type) for the first time
wherein the top metal foil is supported by a corrugated foil. Both of
these configurations were applied to the journal as well as thrust
bearings [37]. By coupling the elasticity equation and the one-dimen-
sional hydrodynamic pressure equation to determine the film shape,
these analyses were developed to predict the static stiffness of resilient
support. The LCC to meet the loading requirement for maneuvering
actions in MIL E 5007C engine was determined. Start-stop and high-
speed rub tests were also conducted at environmental temperatures up
to 1000 °F with the engine supported on two foil bearings coated with
MLF-5 and AFSL-28. The results revealed that MLF-5 film is effective
under start-stop conditions but AFSL coating shows better wear life in
the high-speed rub tests [37]. Thus, Walowit et al. [37] concluded that
an integrated analytical and a test program for optimization of foil
geometry that yields the maximum LCC is necessary in order to control
the thermal distortions and improve the self-alignment capabilities of
foil bearings. Zorzi (1977) of the AiResearch Division of Garrett cor-
poration had also analyzed the leaf type journal as well as thrust FB for
advanced turbomachines [38]. Ruscitto et al. (1978) from MTI analyzed
the bump type compliant surface FB for an automotive gas turbine
engine [39]. The predictions of the bearing performance using the one-
dimensional analysis were compared to experimental results. Work on
the multi-leaf foil journal bearings was reported by Oh & Rohde [40] as
well as Arakere & Nelson [41]. Oh & Rohde (1976) used the finite
element method to solve the Reynolds equation along with the load-
deflection equation by considering the friction between the leaves as
well as the friction between leaves and the journal surface. They
showed that the coefficient of friction directly affects the lift-off speeds,
starting torque, and the damping of the bearing. The treatment by
Arakere & Nelson (1992) involved solving an elastohydrodynamic
(EHD) method to predict the load. They concluded that EHD solution is
309
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
a time-consuming process.
The most comprehensive model of 1980s was reported by Heshmat
et al. [42]. They investigated the effect of different design variables
such as the geometric, structural and operational parameters on the
bearing performances. They showed that the most stable operations in
compliant surface FB can be achieved by proper selection of the com-
bined stiffness of film and foil structure. A similar performance analysis
for thrust FB was also reported by the same authors [43]. In both
analyses, Heshmat et al. highlighted the effect of bearing's stiffness on
the rotor-dynamics of the system. In what follows, we review some of
the key advances made on the dynamics of FBs.
3.1. Explorations on dynamic characteristics
In an FB assembly, the top and bump foils act as supporting ele-
ments for the air film. The resulting system's dynamic parameters, i.e.
the stiffness and damping, for both the air and the supporting foil
structure operate in series. The stiffness of air film increases with the
rotor speed. As the dynamic parameter ratio between the air film and
the supporting foil increases with speed, the equivalent term for the
dynamic parameters of the bearing system approaches the dynamic
parameter values of the supporting foil structure [44]. Therefore, the
stiffness, as well as the Coulomb and structural damping of the foil
structure, play an important role in controlling the dynamic char-
acteristics at higher speeds. In what follows, the overall dynamic
characteristics of the FBs are explored under different sub-categories.
3.1.1. Exploring stiffness and damping parameters
Stiffness and damping play an important role in the stability of
bearings. Walowit et al. (1973) first introduced a model to quantify the
structural stiffness of the compliant surface of FBs by assuming that the
foil's structure has a uniform stiffness [37]. Later on, Heshmat et al.
(1981) experimentally evaluated the effect of coating on the foil sur-
faces, LCC and stability of supported rotor [45,46].
In a comprehensive theoretical model, Ku and Heshmat (1992), for
the first time, introduced the frictional interaction forces between
bumps and with sleeve surface to investigate the deformation me-
chanism of the bump strip used in thrust bearings [47]. They showed
the existence of variable stiffness in the bump strip and provided an
experimental proof for their theoretical model [48]. The same authors
subsequently extended their theoretical model to determine the dy-
namic stiffness and viscous damping coefficients [49,50] where small
displacement or velocity perturbation was applied to the steady-state
operating conditions and results were experimentally verified [51–53].
Instead of differentiating the load numerically, Peng and Carpino
(1993) first introduced small pressure perturbations into the Reynolds
equation [54] and subsequently extended the work to include the
Coulomb damping effects due to frictions in the sub-foil [55]. In a
follow-up work, Peng and Carpino (1997) predicted the dynamic
coefficients for a broad range of bearing configurations using the finite
element approach for modeling both the fluid and structure [56] They
incorporated the effects of the bearing number, bearing compliance,
sub-foil Coulomb friction, and foil membrane stiffness on the dynamic
coefficients of the bearing. Carpino et al. (1994) studied the misalign-
ment effect of the journal on the performance of the FB [57]. They also
reported an analysis of an incompressible foil journal bearing with
provision for the effect of membrane stress resulting from combined
bending, membrane and elastic foundation effects [58].
What followed in the late 1990s was significant efforts by different
teams to investigate the stiffness and damping characteristics of FBs.
Noteworthy publications include the work of Howard (1999) who re-
ported experimentally measured FB stiffness [59] and Grau et al. (2004)
who numerically showed the effect of bearing stability on structural
damping using viscous damping model [60]. Rubio and San Andres
(2006) theoretically and experimentally investigated the dependency of
structural stiffness on the bump geometry and material, dry-friction
P. Samanta, et al. Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323

coefficient, load orientation, clearance and preload [61], Salehi et al.

(2007) reported experimental measurements of the dynamic stiffness
and damping characteristics of 21.6 cm (8.5 in) diameter FB [62].
Kim (2007) performed analyses on both circular and non-circular
with multi-pad FBs [63]. He observed that the overall shape has a
greater influence on the static and dynamic performance than the
spatial variation of bump stiffness within the bump foil. A circular
Fig 2. Protuberant bump foil (Reproduced from ref 70 with kind permission of
shape bearing was found to have a greater LCC whereas the three-pad
Elsevier, Netherland).
bearing had a higher instability threshold in speed compared to the
circular bearing. Kim and San Andres (2008) investigated the perfor-
mance of heavily-loaded foil gas bearings. They showed that the fre- the rotor bending critical speed and also tends to restrain the sub-
quency-depended direct stiffness coefficients and damping coefficients synchronous vibration at speeds above the bending critical speed.
increase as the static load increases and at highest load, the static Vleugels et al. (2006) performed a steady-state as well as dynamic
stiffness approaches closely the bearing structural stiffness [64]. coefficients and linear stability analysis for mesoscale high-speed
Clearly, the foil's structural configuration figures prominently on the bearing [73]. Apart from the conventional semi-cylindrical bump, they
performance of these bearings. This aspect is reviewed next. proposed a spirally-wound bump where the flexible element is modeled
as a double camped beam as shown in Fig. 4.
Kim and San Andres (2009) investigated the effect of three equally-
3.1.2. Exploring new structural configuration of bump foils and its analysis
spaced identical metal shims beneath the bump foil strip as shown in
Since the dynamic characteristics of the FBs are greatly influenced
Fig. 5 on rotor dynamic performances of FB [74]. They showed that this
by the structural behavior of the foils, researchers have experimented
mechanical preload increases the rotor-bearing natural frequency as
with different types of bump foils apart from the conventional corru-
well as the LCC due to hydrodynamic wedge effect. Due to an increase
gated structure to mitigate the structural non-linearity of the bearing.
in the direct coupled stiffness resulting from the “lobing effect”, this
Among the different types, metal mesh FBs by San Andres and
design decreases the motion amplitude and yields the distinct ad-
Chirathadam is noteworthy [65]. The authors analyzed the metal mesh
vantage of delaying the onset of subsynchronous vibrations [75]. Kim
bearing by integrating the bump foil uniform stiffness with the finite
et al. [76] and Sim et al. [77] repeated the same test on a turbo-charger
element (FE) model of the top foil and coupled the FE model with the
rotor and found the same effect. To further increase the bearing stabi-
Reynolds equation (RE) model of the gas film. In their work, the RE was
lity threshold, Schiffmann and Spakovszky (2013) introduced selective
treated using the control volume scheme with an exact flow advection
shimming having a variable thickness optimized via multi-objective
model [66], and the simulation results were verified by comparing with
optimization to tailor the fluid film pressure distribution [78].
available experimental measurements [65,67,68]. Feng et al. (2016)
Feng et al. (2017) presented a theoretical and experimental study on
analyzed the metal mesh analytically by considering the metal mesh
a novel nested compression-spring, gas FB as shown in Fig. 6 [79,80].
substructure as assembled springs with dry friction joints and per-
The main advantage of this structure is that by varying the number and
formed parametric analysis considering several factors such as relative
size of the springs, one can readily control the stiffness and damping of
density, wire diameter, geometrical size and radial interference of metal
the support. It is observed that as the number of springs is increased
mesh substructure; see Fig. 1 [69]. The simulation results revealed that
from 31 to 47, the direct stiffness, damping coefficient, and the loss
viscous damping coefficient and relative density of metal mesh have a
factor increase. By reducing the stiffness of both ends, the LCC of the
pronounced influence on the bearing's dynamic performance.
bearing can be significantly improved.
Yu et al. (2011) reported a finite element analysis of a new FB
Feng et al. (2016) developed a hybrid bump-metal mesh FB com-
having protuberant bump foil of hemispherical shape as shown in Fig. 2
bining bump foil (BF) and metal mesh foil (MMF) blocks beneath the
[70]. Both static and dynamic analyses were performed wherein the
bump foil as shown in Fig. 7 [81,82]. A comparison study shows that
protuberances were modeled as a hemispherical shell with fixed
each bearing has its own merits and demerits. The BF bearing shows
boundary conditions having no deflection, and the top foil was modeled
higher stiffness and maintains higher precision clearance but exhibits
as a strip of a rectangular thin plate supported at a rigid point.
deficiency in terms of the material loss factor or structural damping and
Lee et al. (2004) analyzed the performance of FBs theoretically as
instability caused by sub-synchronous vibration arising from high cross-
well as experimentally at room temperature with the visco-elastic
coupled stiffness. The MMF bearing exhibits higher material loss factor
polymer sheet beneath the top foil shown in Fig. 3 and reported su-
or structural damping due to micro-slip in the metal mesh. Thus, due to
perior damping characteristics [71,72]. They observed that the adding
progressive deformation of metal-mesh under high stress and tem-
viscoelastic material helps to attenuate large amplitudes of motion near
perature, over the time, the bearing tends to lose its clearance, stiffness
and operational stability. By combining the two bearings, however, one
can take advantage of the positive features in terms of the accuracy in
assembly, stability as well as the capability of offering a greater viscous
damping depending on the metal mesh density [83].
Cable and San Andres (2018) developed a novel Rayleigh-step metal
mesh foil thrust bearing (MMFTB) as shown in Fig. 8 and performed
experiments on a dedicated test rig [84]. Total of six pads made of steel
having thickness of 0.127 mm and extent angle of 45° each were sup-
ported by copper mesh sheet. Pads were coated with 3 μm thick
polymer with a step of 20 μm height using the chemical etching process.
The measured values of structural stiffness and material damping of
MMFTB are similar to those of the conventional bump-type foil thrust
bearing. When the operating speed was increased from 15 krpm to
40 krpm under a light load (< 7 kPa), one or more pads experiencd
severe damage. The primary cause of failure was attributed to the un-
Fig 1. Metal mesh foil bearing (Reproduced from ref 69 with kind permission of evenness of the copper mesh.
Elsevier, Netherland). Sim et al. investigated the performance of a three-lobed gas FB

310
P. Samanta, et al.
Fig 3. Bump foil with visco-elastic polymer sheet (Reproduced from ref 71 with kind permission of Elsevier, Netherland).
Fig 4. Spirally wound Bump foil (Reproduced from ref 73 with kind permission
of IOP, UK).
Fig 5. Shimmed foil bearing (Reproduced from ref 74 with kind permission of
Taylor and Francis, UK).
whose configuration is shown in Fig. 9 [85]. This lobed-shaped bearing
provides high wedge effects, mechanical preload, and decreases de-
stabilizing forces. The rotor supported by this bearing demonstrates
higher system natural frequency with enhanced rotor-dynamic stability.
Bosley invented relatively new concepts of FBs type (the 3rd gen-
eration) with specific variations in the distribution of individual elastic
supports, both circumferential and axial, to provide engineered bearing
stiffness as shown in Fig. 10 [86]. An elastic foil sheet positioned un-
derneath a top with chemically-etched slots of a customized pattern was
found to behave akin to a cantilever beam subjected to bending during
installation in the cartridge. This cartridge had a contoured aperture
311
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
Fig 6. Nested compression spring foil bearing (Reproduced from ref 79 with
kind permission of Elsevier, Netherland).
Fig 7. Hybrid bump metal mesh foil bearing (Reproduced from ref 82 with kind
permission of Elsevier, Netherland).
with multiple converging ramps and diverging joggles and a cir-
cumferential preload bar. This additional preloading technique helps to
reduce the starting torque and low lifting speed [87,88].
The aforementioned technique has some drawbacks [89]. In parti-
cular, the available operating tab geometries are limited to those
achieved by flexing only and yield very shallow angles. It is thus dif-
ficult to implement this techniques in shapes other than the three-pad
bearing. To eliminate those drawbacks, Swanson et al. invented the
concept of wing foil as shown in Fig. 11 [90]. The wing foil is formed
P. Samanta, et al.
Fig 8. Rayleigh-step metal mesh thrust bearing (Reproduced from ref [84] with
kind permission of ASME, USA).
Fig 9. Lobed foil bearing (Reproduced from ref [85] with kind permission of
Taylor and Francis, UK).
Fig 10. Spring Foil [86].
from a single sheet having tab cutouts that form the spring elements.
These tab shapes can be optimized in various ways —having different
bends, twists, shape, length, thickness, tab array formation, etc.— to
impart different stiffness values. Those shapes can be readily manu-
factured using etching or electrical discharge machining process,
making them suitable for mass production.
It has also been observed that by combining a FB with an electro-
magnetic bearing (Fig. 12) one can similarly take advantage of the
positive features of each individual bearing while minimizing inherent
weaknesses [91,92]. Heshmat et al. (2000) found that an FB performs
312
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
Fig 11. Wing Foil [90].
Fig. 12. Hybrid electromagnetic and foil bearing (Reproduced from ref [91]
with kind permission of Elsevier, Netherland).
well when operating in high speeds but experiences high friction at
lower speeds. Hence, given that a magnetic bearing is vulnerable to
rotor bending or structural resonances at high speeds [93], one can use
it in a hybrid with an FB for a full range of operating condition.
Nevertheless, the rotor supported by foil bearings may experience an
increased vibration amplitude due to a sudden imbalance or at critical
speeds. A hybrid foil magnetic bearing can control such vibrations
[94,95].
3.1.3. Exploring fluid-structure coupling analysis
Being a flexible structure, the foil assembly tends to deflect de-
pending upon the pressure developed in the fluid-film and the bearing
clearance changes accordingly. Hence, there is a strong coupling be-
tween the fluid-film and the foil structure.
Braun et al. (1996) reported a quasi-transient and full transient
dynamic analyses of the foil-fluid-journal interaction using the two-
dimensional Navier-Stokes equations combining with finite element
simulation of structural foundation [96]. In this coupling analysis, they
captured the transient effects of the journal motion with the dynamics
of the lubricant and the foil structure and presented a performance
comparison with a rigid bearing. In a full transient analysis, they found
higher damping effect of FB due to the transient motion of foil. They
also reported an improved stability compared to a rigid bearing due to
the reduction in the cross-coupling stiffness.
San Andres (1995) used an axially averaged pressure to couple the
turbulent bulk-flow field of a cryogenic liquid to the structural de-
formation [97]. This is a good compendium on the comparative studies
for the dynamic performances between the rigid and compliant surface
bearings. The paper also provides information on how the dynamic
force coefficients in an FB change due to the excitation frequency and
the foil structural damping. The analysis reveals that an FB dissipates
the same level of shear-induced power as does the rigid surface bearing.
Similar simulations of turbulent flow for foil thrust bearing supercritical
P. Samanta, et al.
CO2 power cycle system are reported by Qin et al. (2017) [98]. To
accurately predict the friction and heat fluxes for FBs operating with
highly dense CO2, a fine mesh density is necessary for the regions close
to wall boundaries. Given that such high-aspect ratio cells demand high
computational costs, Qin et al. used a compressible wall function and a
fourth-order artificial dissipation term to smooth the computational
oscillations and reduce computational time.
Lee et al. (2002) investigated the effect of slip flow at high tem-
peratures on steady-state LCC and stiffness and damping coefficients
[99]. The influence of slip flow on LCC and dynamic coefficients are
reported to be prominent at the lower bearing number.
Carpino and Talmage (2003) analyzed the static performance by
directly coupling the fluid flow and structural foil deflection within a
single finite element formulation [100]. They showed that the film
thickness undulation in the exit region of gas film is due to the de-
tachment of the top foil. Later on, they presented a modified model
[101]. A similar fluid-structure coupling analysis is also reported in a
simpler form using the finite difference approach by Peng and Khonsari
[102]. They compared the performance of foil and rigid bearing and
reported that an FB has a better stability characteristic than its rigid
counterpart. A more complete analysis requires consideration of the
friction within the foil structure and at the interfaces with the bounding
surfaces. Progress towards this objective is reviewed next.
3.1.4. Modeling of bump foils and friction therein
The structural flexibility of the foil assembly primarily depends on
the configuration of the bump foil. The geometric parameters of the
bump foil control its flexibility, which, in turn, controls the bearing's
dynamic characteristics. Apart from the hysteretic-type damping due to
foil structural deflection, the friction at different interfaces of the foils
— e.g., the interface between the bump foil's bottom surface and the
sleeve surface and the interface between the bump foil's upper surface
with the top foil surface — play an important role in controlling the
Coulomb damping in the form of energy dissipation. Further, accurate
simulation of bump foil deflection with load is an important task in
dynamic analysis of the FB.
Salehi et al. (2003) characterized the frictional damping resulting
from micro-slip motion between the bump foils and the mating surfaces
[103–105]. They developed a semi-empirical model for the dynamic
analysis of frictional damping of the individual bump and their effects
on the adjacent bumps. Frictional behavior of the foil structure was
examined experimentally under dynamic loads in the form of hysteresis
loops, and the results were shown to agree well with the theoretical
model. Further, it was observed that the damping and dynamic coeffi-
cient of friction primarily depend on the vibration frequency, amplitude
of motion, and the static load. Rubio and San Andres (2007) also ex-
perimentally observed the dependency of frictional damping with the
frequency, amplitude, and the load [105].
Instead of evaluating the equivalent damping of a bump foil based
on the Coulomb friction found in previous models, Swanson (2006)
introduced a simplified model by adopting a single bump with a single
interface and the load-dependent friction element explicitly [106]. This
model of the static and dynamic response of foils more closely anchors
the experimental data and predicts the existence of an optimum level of
friction/displacement coupling in a bump foil system for a given bump
configuration. Even a damping model for a bump strips with multiple
bumps simplified to a single bump with a single friction interface clo-
sely resembles the experimental data. Nevertheless, according to Lez
et al. (2006) the interaction between the individual bump must be
taken into account otherwise the foil flexibility will be overestimated
[107]. Accordingly, Lez et al. developed an analytical structural model
by considering the FB structure as a multi-degree of freedom system
[108]. Thus, their model takes into account the bump interaction in
determining the response of the structure. They also developed a
comprehensive structural model using the FE method by employing the
large displacement theory with provision for the foil interaction
313
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
between the foil and sleeve as well as in between the foils interfaces
[108].
Later on, Lez et al. (2009) simulated the non-linear behavior of the
corrugated foil by developing a structural dynamic model where the
entire foil structure was considered as multiple degrees of freedom
system [109]. Using this model, they predicted the optimum value of
friction coefficient for maximum stability of the bearing. A non-linear
jump phenomenon was observed in the shaft trajectories for both the
rigid and FB but it is found that an FB has the capability to support
higher unbalance mass.
Lee et al. (2009) predicted the dynamic performances of FB using
the non-linear transient analysis method considering Coulomb damping
[110]. The modeling of the Coulomb damping as an equivalent viscous
damping presents some challenges. Due to the strong non-linearity in
the structural damping, it is difficult to predict the exact value of
equivalent viscous damping coefficient for given design parameters. By
this viscous damping approach, the stick-slip motion of bumps cannot
be incorporated and bump foil deflection cannot be accurately pre-
dicted. Instead of modeling the Coulomb damping as an equivalent
viscous damping, they simulated the motion of bump foil using the fi-
nite element approach with incorporating a stick-slip type motion in the
bump foil. Using this method, the dissipative characteristics and hys-
teresis behavior of individual bump foil due to the unbalance excitation
was assessed. From this unbalance response analysis, they showed that
the FB is very effective in controlling the vibration amplitude at re-
sonance. They also found multiple static equilibrium positions for one
static load due to this Coulomb friction [111].
Larsen et al. (2014) modeled the Coulomb damping based on the
equivalent non-linear springs instead of friction force located in the
contact points between the bump foils and the mating surfaces [112].
The direction of motion of the spring is along the longitudinal dis-
placement of the bump foils and eliminates the problem of determining
the correct sign of friction force since the reaction force direction of
spring is always opposite to its motion. They captured the global, quasi-
static and dynamic behavior of bump foil strip and the local behavior of
the individual sliding contact points by developing a mathematical
structural model based on finite element method and the principle of
virtual work.
Lee et al. (2008) analyzed the dynamic characteristics of the FB by
incorporating the top foil bending effect and the effect of interaction
within the bump foils as well as between the top foil and bump foil
[113]. San Andres and Kim (2009) compared the performance of three
models: i. A simple model considering uniform bump strip and top foil
having no bending and membrane stiffness; ii. 1D FE top foil model by
considering it as a beam-like structure; and iii. 2D FE model with top
foil as a flat shell [114]. They observed that the circumferential profile
of minimum film thickness derived by 1D FE model closely agrees with
the experimental data. The 2D FE model predicted the film thickness
variation across the bearing width and local sagging of top foil. Sub-
sequently, based on this work, they developed a user-friendly analysis
tool called XLGFBTH wherein the Microsoft Excel Graphical User In-
terface and the output results from this tool was shown to match well
with experimental results, particularly the bending critical speeds
[115].
3.1.5. Non-linear rotor dynamic analysis
Due to the non-linear behavior of structural foil assembly, as dis-
cussed in Section 3.1.4, the FB as well as its supporting rotor exhibit
non-linear characteristics. Research efforts to gain insight into the
nonlinearity are summarized as follows.
Bhore and Darpe (2013) performed nonlinear dynamics analysis of a
rotor supported on FBs using the bifurcation diagrams, Poincare maps,
and Fast Fourier transforms, they presented results for the rotor, and
journal center trajectories [116]. A time-domain orbit simulation was
performed by coupling the equation of rotor motion, unsteady Reynolds
equation and foil deformation for different system parameters such as
P. Samanta, et al.
the rotating speed, unbalance eccentricity and the bearing loss factor.
Their results provide insight into a highly non-linear behavior of the
disc and journal center motion.
Bonello and Pham (2016) captured this non-linear behavior using
the method of self-excited Harmonic Balance (HB). They applied the
Finite Difference (FD) method and an arbitrary order Galerkin
Reduction method which does not use grids and reduces the number of
state variables considerably [117,118]. They reported that HB has the
unique ability to correctly quantify the behavior of structural damping.
Fangcheng and Daejong (2016) found that the non-linearity of the
foils’ structural is responsible for the non-linear motion of the journal
supported by FBs [119]. They proposed a quadratic stiffness model of
the individual bump foil based on the measured non-linear structural
stiffness of the entire FB. The simulation of this quadratic model shows
that the values of dynamic coefficients obtained from this model for
small initial clearance are much bigger than those of the linear stiffness
model that uses the nominal clearance. A similar curve-fitting model for
foil structure of thrust FB using linear, exponential as well as third-
order polynomial was also reported by Lee et al. [120].
Larsen and Santos (2015) studied the effect of unbalance on the
industrial rigid rotor supported by two segmented FBs by both theo-
retical modeling and experimental testing [121]. They found that the
accuracy of the model is mainly dependent on the stiffness and loss
factor calculated based on the number of active load-carrying bumps as
well as its deflection. Further, the sub-synchronous vibration is de-
pendent upon the rotational speed and the unbalance level. Using the
same solution strategy suggested by Bonello and Pham [117,118] and
Larsen and Santos [121], Larsen et al. (2016) compared two funda-
mental methods for predicting the onset of instability based on a non-
linear time domain simulation and a linearised frequency domain
method that uses the perturbation solution of the Reynolds equation
[122]. They found that the more compliant the bump structure or the
heavier the load, the larger becomes the discrepancy between two ap-
proaches. In a subsequent study, Osmanski et al. (2017) developed a
new foil model based on truss representation and incorporated foil mass
and dynamic friction model [123]. The frictional energy dissipation at
the top foil–bump foil and bump-foil–housing interfaces were taken into
consideration using a dynamic friction model. Using this model, the
dynamics of the rotor-bearing system were captured well in terms of
natural frequencies and mode shapes.
3.2. Explorations on thermal characteristics
Even though the air's viscosity is low —several orders of magnitude
below that of liquid lubricants— the high shaft rotational speeds cou-
pled with an air film —on the order of 10−6 m thick— yields a very
large velocity gradient. Consequently, large heat is generated due to the
viscous shear heating. With no external cooling, the heat removal will
be means of conduction to the rotor and side flow leakage. Due to this
heat conduction, the rotor will expand, reducing the clearance. Clearly,
a comprehensive thermal analysis is needed for a full understanding of
this complex fluid-solid interaction. The interested reader in thermal
effects, commonly referred to as thermohydrodynamic (THD) analysis
in bearings can refer to an early review of extensive papers on the
subject of thrust [124] and journal bearings [125]. Specific THD ana-
lyses pertaining to FBs are reviewed as follows.
3.2.1. Thermohydrodynamic analysis
According to THD analysis, the Reynolds equation and energy
equation are simultaneously solved after updating the density and
viscosity of air with temperature in each iteration step until the change
of the solutions in two successive iterations falls below a specified error
tolerance.
Salehi et al. (2001) characterized the thermal behavior of an FB by
solving the compressible Reynolds equation in conjunction with a
simplified energy equation that uses the “Couette Approximation”. In
314
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
this approach, the effect of the pressure gradient on the rate of shear of
the fluid is considered to be negligible compared to the transitional
strain so that one can decouple the energy transport equation from the
Reynolds equation [126,127]. The developed model can predict the
bearing temperatures with 8–19% over-prediction compared to ex-
perimentally measured temperature. In the experiment with an infusion
of cooling air, it was also observed that 75–85% of the heat generated in
the film is transferred through this cooling air.
Lee and Kim (2010) formulated a detailed THD model by con-
sidering the temperature of the air film, top foil, bump foil, bearing
sleeve and the rotor by solving the Reynolds equation, 3D energy
equation, and heat balance equations for rotor-bearing subsystems
[128]. This THD model shows that both the rotor and the bearing sleeve
temperatures have an approximately parabolic shape when plotted as a
function of rotor speeds. The analysis reveals that the contribution in
clearance change due to thermal growth of foil structure is only 1% of
nominal clearance whereas the same effect due to the thermal and
centrifugal growth of rotor is almost 20% of the nominal clearance.
Peng and Khonsari (2006) predicted thermal performances of FB
using THD model by considering the compliance of the bearing surface,
the compressibility, and the viscosity-temperature characteristics of the
lubricant [129]. They solved the 3D energy equation numerically with
appropriate boundary conditions and theoretically predicted tempera-
ture profile matches well with existing experimental data.
San Andres and Kim (2010) developed a two-dimensional THD bulk
flow model including the heat convection and conduction paths into
and out of the bounding surfaces of the shaft and bearing using the
lumped parameter thermal model [130]. They also considered the
structural-thermal coupling that changes the structural properties and
components sizes of the bearing such as the minimum clearances and
shaft diameter. The heat transfer coefficients were derived from the
Reynolds-Colburn analogy between fluid friction and heat transfer for
fully-developed flow. The computational model was validated against
the available test data in Refs. [131–133].
Sim and Kim (2012) presented a THD model which takes into ac-
count 3-D energy transports in air film, the axisymmetric heat con-
duction of the shaft, thermal resistance of bump arc, and 3-D heat
conduction in GFB housing [134]. The model also incorporates an
analytical model for bump thermal contact and inlet flow mixing. The
bump thermal contacts were modeled analytically by calculating the
thermal contact conductance and the contact area. The inlet flow and
thermal energy mixing at the top foil leading edge were numerically
studied. They also proposed a new cooling scheme that supplies a
cooling flow radially into the mixing zone of the inlet flow. The THD
model was benchmarked against published experimental test data.
Lee et al. (2011) developed a 3D transient THD model for the three-
pad radial air-FB to investigate the transient thermal behavior of the
bearing-rotor system [135]. In this model, the time-dependent energy
equation is applied to all the mechanical structures and the gas film.
The results of the analyses were compared with experimental results for
various cooling air pressures, external loads, and speeds. The predic-
tions were found to be in good agreement with those measured ex-
perimentally. In addition, a thermal instability reported in the experi-
mental measurements was said to have been predictable by this 3D THD
model.
Lee and Kim (2011) solved the non-isothermal Reynolds equation
using the pressure boundary conditions at the cooling air plenum
considering the local temperature-dependent viscosity and density for
the air-foil thrust bearing with radially arranged bump foil and form a
3D THD model [136]. The results showed that the thrust disk tem-
perature is a parabolic function of speed. As the speed increases disk's
runner temperature increases. Since the surface speed depends on the
disk's radius, toward the outer diameter the temperature gradient is
relatively large. Thus, as a result of the thermal expansion of the thrust
plate and thrust disk, the bearing clearance is reduced. A design with a
small bearing clearance, without considering the thermal expansion, is
P. Samanta, et al.
susceptible to thermal runaway.
Talmage and Carpino (2011) presented a coupled thermal and
structural flow model for the gas-lubricated FB [137]. The model in-
cludes bending and membrane effects of the top foil along with the
thermal expansion of the journal, sub-foil, and the bearing housing.
Their results demonstrate the significance of the temperature effects
and thermal distortion in the foil structure. Their results also reveal that
the film thickness along the side edge of a bearing is over-predicted if
the thermal strain in the top foil is not taken into account. Talmage and
Carpino also demonstrated that the occurrence of backflow at the
trailing edge and emphasized the need for a three-dimensional thermal
flow model at the trailing edge of the gas film to effectively resolve this
issue of backflow.
3.2.2. Experimental investigations on thermal characteristics including high-
temperature operating conditions
A major concern with heat generation is its appreciable effect on the
clearance under normal operating conditions and in particular when
high temperatures are involved. To gain insight into the effect of speed
and load on temperature, Radil and Zeszotek (2004) performed a series
of temperature measurements with the help of K-type thermocouples at
speeds ranging from 20 to 50 krpm and load varying from 9 to 222 N
[131]. The results showed that the speed plays a more significant role in
the magnitude of temperature. The temperature distribution was found
to be nearly symmetrical about the center. The strongest thermal gra-
dient was found to occur in the axial direction from the middle of the
bearing to its edges and the temperatures were measured in the heavily-
loaded zone only, i.e., between −39 deg and +59 deg with the load
angle of 0 deg.
Dellacorte et al. performed performance and durability tests on an
FB under a wide range (10–50 kPa) of loads and temperature from 25 °C
to 650 °C [138]. To reduce the friction and wear they applied PS304, a
solid lubricant coating on the nickel-based superalloy foils. This solid
lubricant —NiCr-based Cr2O3 coating with silver and barium fluoride-
calcium fluoride additives— showed promising results at high tem-
peratures with the bearing life exceeding 100,000 cycles under high
loads.
A concern with excessive temperature rise is a loss of stiffness. To
quantify, Howard et al. (2001) experimentally investigated the effect of
temperature rise on stiffness and damping of FBs [139,140] and found
that the stiffness decreases with temperature by as much as twofold
when the temperature was increased from 25 °C to 538 °C. Further, as
temperature increased the damping mechanism was found to have
shifted from viscous-type damping to frictional type. Kim et al. also
reported that increasing the shaft temperature from 22 °C to 188 °C,
causes a reduction the static stiffness by 40% and equivalent viscous
damping by 50% [141,142]. The reduction of stiffness of the bearing
may be attributed to net the increment of bearing clearance due to the
larger thermal expansion of bearing shell than the shaft. San Andres
et al. observed that the equivalent viscous damping coefficient is in-
creased by 19%–26% upon raising the shaft temperature using a heater
from 23 °C to 263 °C at the excitation frequencies of 50 Hz and 200 Hz,
respectively [143]. This situation may also arise when the shaft grows
faster than the inner surface of FB. This results in a reduction of the
bearing clearance and, in effect, increasing the preload. A large preload
increases the number of active bumps in contact, bringing a larger area
of sliding contact into play with the associated increase in the frictional
Coulomb damping [143].
DellaCorte developed a new test rig for measurement of perfor-
mance and durability of the
FB at temperatures reaching to 700 °C and speeds reaching
70,000 rpm [144]. The test set up consisted of an impulse turbine-
driven spindle with an over-hung removable test journal of 35 mm
diameter and length along with supporting angular contact ball bear-
ings, furnace scatter shield, and data monitoring support system. The
front section of the drive spindle, as shown in Fig. 13, is made of
315
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
superalloy of relatively low thermal conductivity to reduce heat con-
duction from the test journal to the center part of the spindle. This
arrangement helps in achieving a 600 °C thermal gradient in 50 mm
length between test journal and the oil lubricated section of the spindle.
The test rig is instrumented to measure speed, temperature, load and
torque. Carefully reported experimental results revealed that at ele-
vated temperatures, the LCC tends to decrease due to the reduction of
the foil stiffness but a partial off-setting of this effect occurs due to the
increase of hydrodynamic effect with high kinetic viscosity associated
with the high-temperature gas. Dellacorte also reports a series of dur-
ability tests by running the rig in its automatic start/stop mode. A
protective shut-off system monitors the bearing health and auto-
matically stops the operation to avoid failure. In the following section,
we review a thermally-induced failure mechanism known as thermo-
elastic instability that can require particular attention to avoid system
breakdown.
3.2.3. Thermoelastic instability
Examination of experimental results reveals that apart from soft-
ening stiffness of the foils at high temperatures [139,140], there exists a
strong thermal gradient in the axial direction [131]. As a result, the LCC
suffers and the damping mechanism could be affected under the com-
bination of the thermal effect and load conditions. One major concern is
the localized overheating of the foil's material due to the non-uniform
viscous heating within the air film when the bearing operates at high-
speed and/or high-load conditions. During the operation, the internal
temperatures are dependent upon three factors: the temperature of the
surrounding environment, the heat generated by viscous shearing in the
thin air film, and, to a lesser extent, the compression work due to the
effect of the shaft pumping air from ambient to a higher pressure region
[131]. Even though the air's viscosity is low, the high shaft rotational
speeds coupled with an air film on the order of 10−6 μm thick makes for
a very large velocity gradient that leads to localized viscous shear
heating in the bearing. Since the heat capacity coefficient of a gas (air)
is low compared to a metallic material, it can be expected that any
generated heat will be mostly absorbed by the bounding surfaces, i.e.,
the top foil and shaft surface. Unlike that of the conventional oil-lu-
bricated bearings, the bushing of an FB consists of a very thin layer of a
top foil separated by bump foils from the solid sleeve. The contact
between the top foil and the bump foil is very narrow, and, therefore,
the path for conducting heat away from the aerodynamic film to the
bushing is significantly restricted. In addition, the increasing viscosity
with increasing temperature of the air can lead to thermal instability
[129]. This excessive thermal gradient can significantly warp the top
foil to a point that film formation is disrupted, lowering the available
air-film for load support. As a result, high-speed rubbing contact can
occur leading to an eventual catastrophic failure [145,146]. This phe-
nomenon is called thermoelastic instability (TEI). The onset of ther-
moelastic instability is related to the accumulation of heat at high-stress
zone during the flow of frictional heat in non-uniform stress field. At the
threshold of instability, there will be an unbounded growth of tem-
perature leading to very high local temperatures which may create local
hot spots, material degradation and eventual failure [147].
3.2.3.1. Experimental evidence. While experimental results are scarce,
there are few reports that show how the rapid rise in temperature
causes thermoelastic instability in FBs. Dykas and Howard (2004) found
repeated shaft failure during rigorous testing of an FB at NASA Glenn
Research Center at a high ambient temperature and rotational speeds
with a moderate load [147]. In a failed journal due to TEI, a hole melted
in the journal at the axial center position of the bearing appeared at
60,000 rpm at an applied load of 222 N even though the operating
conditions were much lower than the design load of the bearing. At the
surrounding ambient emperature of 538 °C, judging by the appearance
of the melted zone on the journal, the temperature is xpected to have
reached to roughly 1400 °C, i.e. the melting point temperature of
P. Samanta, et al. Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323

Fig 13. Schematic view of high-temperature, high-speed foil bearing test rig (Reproduced from ref 144 with kind permission of Taylor and Francis, UK).

Inconel 718. The reason of failure may be attributed to the non-uniform sharp increase in the top foil temperature above 100 °C leading to the
shaft growth that created localized viscous heating in the gas film and formation of local hot spots on the top foil. Clearly, assessment of TEI at
eventually leading to a high-speed rub and destruction of the bearing the design stage is necessary in order to guard against FB failure. At-
and journal. tempts at the development of theoretical prediction methodologies are
Ryu and San Andres (2013) performed FB tests at high temperature reviewed next.
without applying cooling air [148]. They mounted a hollow rotor on
two FBs and inserted an electric cartridge heater inside the hollow rotor
3.2.3.2. Theoretical development for prediction of TEI. While significant
to accelerate the seizure condition at comparatively lower speed. When
progress has been made in the investigation of thermoelastic instability
operating at 37,000 rpm and applying heat at 200 °C for 60 min each,
(TEI) in brakes, clutch and bearing with an incompressible fluid,
no incident occurred. At 600 °C, after 10 min of operation, the rotor
analysis of TEI in sliding air bearings is scarce, in part, due to the
stopped suddenly and the bearing at the hottest side of rotor tem-
associated analytical complexity. In 2011, Lee et al. developed a
perature reached 250 °C. This is indicative of FB seizure wherein even
transient 3D THD model for radial three-pad FB [135]. Their model is
the amplitude or frequency content of rotor motion could not detect a
capable of predicting the variation of temperature with time under
prior signal of occurrence of a failure.
different operating conditions like cooling air pressure, external loads
Zywica et al. (2017) performed a series of experiments on a FB
and speeds. Moreover, it was reported that the model can also predict
[149] where it was planned to increase the rotor speed up to
the thermally unstable operating conditions. Experimental results
15,000 rpm within 55 s and then maintain the same speed until
showed that there is an initial break-in operation under 97.7 N at
reaching the thermal equilibrium. However, in-situ measurement of the
35000 rpm without cooling and then the temperature sharply
bearing and shaft temperature revealed that instead of stabilizing, the
increased to 113 °C. While no thermal instability was predicted at
bearing temperature continued to increase even after 300 s of opera-
97.7 N, a sharp increase in temperature at 106.6 N was noted.
tion. The lower portion of top foil temperature reached 130 °C and the
Recently, Samanta and Khonsari (2018) reported a closed-form,
shaft temperature increased up to 200 °C. After stopping the rotor,
analytical solution for prediction of the critical speed at which an FB
permanent hot spots marks were visible at several portions of the top
can become thermoelastically unstable [151]. The analysis of thermo-
foil. The authors attributed the failure to the overloading of the rotor.
elastic instability (TEI) was carried out using the perturbation tech-
Dykas (2006) also reported thermoelastic distortion on runner and
nique. They first determined the amplitude of the perturbed heat wave
foil surfaces during experiments on foil thrust bearings that did not
and developed an expression for surface deformation due to thermal
possess adequate thermal management [150]. The distortion altered
expansion. Then, the elastic deformation due to the resulting pressure
film thickness distribution and hence the gas film pressure. Conse-
from the perturbed film profile was calculated. Finally, they compared
quently, some portions of the film became exposed to higher load while
the input amplitude of the thermal wave with the summation of total
some parts had thinner film and experienced higher viscous dissipation.
surface deformation due to thermal and pressure. A closed-form ex-
As a result, clearly visible hot spots were formed on the inner portion of
pression of pressure for the compressible flow was obtained by solving
top foil.
the Reynolds equation using the short bearing approximation and a
Operating without a cooling jacket, Lee et al. (2011) also observed
first-order perturbation method with the application of Stokes’ the-
thermal instability during experiments with an FB operating under
orem. The developed model was benchmarked against published ex-
97.7 N at 35,000 rpm speed [135]. This instability manifested itself as a
perimental results. It could accurately predict the critical speeds, within

316
P. Samanta, et al.
less than 2% variation, compared with published experimental values
for TEI. The model also reveals that those critical speeds values for TEI
greatly depends on the bearing operating parameters such as the load,
speed, minimum clearance, physical dimensions of bearing, the foils,
and the viscosity of air at operating temperature. To alleviate TEI
failure, one must implement a proper thermal management into the
bearing system. The next section describes various thermal manage-
ment techniques adopted by different researchers.
3.2.4. Thermal management
As the discussion of the previous section reveals, a FB is not totally
impervious to high-temperature operations without a proper thermal
management system. Depending on the speed, FBs tend to generate heat
due to viscous shear and accumulation of this heat can cause localized
hotspots, resulting in excessive thermal gradient and possible bearing
seizure. Several researchers have developed different means to avoid
the thermal related issues. The interested reader is referred to a review
article on thermally-induced seizure in a journal and rolling element
bearings [152]. Research relevant to FBs is reviewed as follows.
Heshmat et al. (2005) demonstrated the use of a compliant FB in a
turbojet engine with the maximum rotor speed of 60,000 rpm and
bearing temperature of 650 °C [153]. They determined the minimum
airflow required for a particular speed. When the rotor was accelerated
to 60,000 rpm, the supply airflow rate of 566 L/min was deemed ne-
cessary. Below the cooling air flow rate of 140 L/min, the bearing
temperature became destabilized such that the temperature continued
to increase without leveling off. The authors also developed a detailed
thermal mapping to assess the FB axial thermal gradients in an ex-
perimental test rig with its engine rotor supported by a rolling element
bearing (REB) at the turbine end and an FB at the compressor end. They
reported that a lower flow rate results in high bulk temperature in the
FB with lower thermal gradient without compromising the engine
compressor performance.
Larue et al. (2006) developed an FB support housing and cooling
system for an efficient thermal management in an FB system in turbo-
chargers (TC) for diesel or gasoline engines [154]. The TC rotor was
supported by two journals as well as a double acting thrust FBs. Bear-
ings were mounted in the center housing consisted of cooling air supply
passage into the center housing bore. The cooling air extracted from the
engine intake duct downstream of the compressor was supplied to the
center housing. The cooling air was supplied into the thrust bearing,
from where it flowed into the journal bearings and returned to the
compressor inlet. FB with double bump strip layer renders more ef-
fective cooling air flow path than the bearing with single layer bump
type FB.
Lubell and Weissert (2006) developed a rotor-bearing system for an
oil-free gas turbine with improved thermal management [155]. They
positioned a single FB (FB), named as first bearing, in a high-tem-
perature area between the turbine and compressor and another bearing,
called the second bearing, positioned far away from this area opposite
to the rotor turbine. This layout minimizes the cooling requirement for
the second FB. A reduced rotor span between the compressor and the
rotor increases the gas flow from the compressor into first FB, thereby
significantly decreasing the bearing operating temperature.
Radil et al. (2007) demonstrated three different methods of thermal
management for a turbomachinery system [156]. The first method in-
volved a direct method where the air impinges directly onto the inner
surface of a hollow test journal during operation. In the second method,
an indirect approach, the air was made to flow axially through the
hollow shaft in order to increase the forced convection coefficient and
thereby remove heat from the bearing. In the third method, the axial
cooling technique, the heat was removed by forcing air axially through
the bearing's support structure. The bearing temperature and its axial
thermal gradient were measured using three type K thermocouples.
Among these three methods, the axial cooling method was found to be
the most effective means of cooling internal temperature of bearing and
317
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
its axial gradient. Nevertheless, it is dependent upon the directionality
and the magnitude of the cooling air flow.
Ryu and San Andres (2012) studied the effect of cooling flow on the
operation of a hot rotor-gas FB system [157,158]. The hollow rotor was
mounted on two test bearings. The bearings were heated using a car-
tridge heater loosely fitted inside the hollow rotor. The maximum
temperature recorded at the outer surface of the rotor was 120 °C and
maximum operating speed of the shaft was 30,000 rpm. The pressurized
cooling air was supplied to the bearings axially at different flow rates.
The temperature rise of the bearing was observed at different speeds
and flow rate of cooling air. Most of the bearing heat was taken away by
cooling air through convection. To a much lesser degree, the heat was
removed via conduction to the bearing sleeve. The temperature rise per
unit cooling flow rate was found to exponentially decrease with the
cooling flow rate, and after the increment of flow rate reached to a
certain level, the cooling capability of cooling air became negligible.
There was no significant change in the amplitude and frequency con-
tent of the rotor dynamic response with the rotor temperature and
cooling flow increment.
To avoid thermal runaway, Radil and DellaCorte proposed a three-
dimensional performance map that parametrically and experimentally
characterizes FB power loss as a function of system-level parameters
like operating speed and load [159]. The 3D performance for the test
bearing map, as shown in Fig. 14, is constructed with the power loss
data collected at different radial loads. The speed, power loss and load
form three axis of the 3D map – x, y, and z respectively. Using this
performance map, one can estimate a measurable margin of safety for a
probable application. From this plot, the authors suggest selecting an
operating point in the low-load region to avoid thermal runaway.
3.3. Prediction of load-carrying capacity (LCC)
The LCC of higher value and the method of estimation of load
analytically and its evolution for increasing capacity has always been of
interest in FB studies. A brief review of the main points follows.
3.3.1. Evolution of LCC
Since the air viscosity is low, an FB cannot generate a large LCC
unless it operates in high speeds or at a low clearance. Both of these
parameters have a significant influence on the frictional heat genera-
tion due to the viscous shearing effect.
Therefore, researchers have attempted to explore different design
aspects of compliant surfaces to achieve high LCC. Fig. 15 shows sig-
nificant progress made toward this objective, particularly after 1990
[153]. The most noteworthy accomplishment is the pioneering work of
Heshmat (1994) [160] who was able to achieve a landmark speed of
132,000 rpm and a major breakthrough in load capacity of 673.5 kPa.
Instead of the conventional single-layered bump foil structure, he uti-
lized a multi-stage bump foil to vary the support stiffness in the radial
as well as circumferential directions. These staggered bumps config-
uration provides not only an enhanced stability at higher speeds but
also higher stiffness with an increment of load. Kim and San Andres
[161] introduced a simple model for the multi-stage bump foil FB. Their
predictions revealed that not only does the double-stage bump layer
decrease the structural deflection and prevent permanent deformation
under excessive loads, but also it improves the bearing stiffness and
damping coefficients.
Heshmat et al. (1982) reported an investigation of FBs for high load
capacity and high-speed whirl stability [162]. They designed two se-
parate journal bearing configurations. The first was a three-pad bearing
designed for higher stability and the second one is made off single pad
with copper-coated rubbing surface to improve internal damping and
thus enhance whirl stability characteristics. Further, to improve LCC,
the bump foils were split circumferentially along the axial length of the
bearing to provide improved alignment and axial compliance for the
bearing. The bumps were staggered along the axial length to prevent
P. Samanta, et al.
Fig 14. 3D performance map for the 35 mm diameter FB generated from three load curves [159] (Reproduced from ref 158 with kind permission of Taylor and
Francis, UK).
excessive deflection of the top foil. The maximum load of 533.8 N was
achieved at speed of 68,000 rpm.
In addition, Heshmat went on to design several patented FB con-
figurations for higher LCC [163–165]. The foil assembly was designed
with multiple bump foils as well as top foils. Utilizing very thin sheets,
the design offers top foil flexibility in all directions to manage mis-
alignment and to provide optimal conformity to the bearing surface.
The second sheet was placed underneath the top sheet to prevent sag-
ging between the ridges of the corrugated foil. The second sheet was
perforated with slots to prevent excessive deflection of the top sheet
and for removal of heat. The corrugated foils were anchored to the
sleeve at points intermediated their end to have greater axial stiffness
profile and hence, effective bearing span. To provide controlled rippling
effect during operation, the ends of foil elements were offset cir-
cumferentially from ends of foil elements in adjacent rows.
Iordanoff (1998) showed that a conventional gas thrust bearing with
a high compressibility number will have the highest LCC if configured
as a composite bearing profile where the leading portion has a constant
Fig 15. Advancement in FB load carrying capacity [153].
318
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
slope followed by a surface parallel to the runner [166]. He predicted
that to achieve a high LCC, the composite profile should have a low
radius ratio, i.e. wide sector, wide angle sector and the optimum value
of transition angle and entrance film thickness. Heshmat et al. (1983)
and Heshmat (1991) performed an optimization analysis of similar
composite profile for foil thrust bearing [167,168] for improved LCC.
The analysis shows that, for a bearing with the common OD to ID ratio
of 2, the optimized geometry has an angular extent of a sector of 45°,
the fractional extent of the ramp of 0.5 and ramp value should be
greater than 10. Based on this analysis results, Heshmat developed a
patented thrust bearing [169].
Kim et al. experimentally evaluated firstly the effect of ramp value
on the LCC of a thrust FB [170]. The authors also predicted the limiting
LCC at the infinitely high speed and the optimum value of the ramp
height for maximum LCC. Their predictions were validated by com-
paring with test measurements.
Li et al. (2017) found that the load capacity of bump foil gas
aerodynamic bearing can be enhanced by changing the environmental
P. Samanta, et al.
pressure [171]. By increasing the environmental pressure from 0.1 to
0.5 MPa, the LCC of the bearing can be enhanced by 19.97%, 28.89%
and 44.28% at the speeds of 60, 100 and 200 krpm, respectively. At the
rotational speed of 100 krpm, the eccentricity ratio of 0.6 and the same
working load, the slenderness ratio can be reduced by at least 20% by
increasing the environmental pressure of gas bearing. The authors
suggested replacing the fan brake of turbo expander by a booster to
supply compressed air directly to the gas bearing to enhance its LCC.
Radil et al. (2002) reported experimental findings on the effect of
radial clearance on the performance of FB [172]. They found that there
is a direct impact of radial clearance on LCC and proposed an optimum
radial clearance for the maximum load-carrying coefficient. Relative to
this optimum LCC, they also found two separate operating regimes
below and above the optimum clearance. If the bearing operates below
the optimum clearance, then the bearing becomes highly preloaded and
prone to thermal runaway. On the other hand, if the bearing operates
with a radial clearance twice the optimum value, there will be a 20%
reduction of LCC but it will not experience thermal distortion.
3.3.2. Methods for estimating LCC
The LCC of a self-acting FB operating on hydrodynamic principle is
strongly dependent on the operating clearance. Under the static oper-
ating condition, an FB has zero clearance or interference fit. When the
rotor starts running, hydrodynamic pressure is automatically generated
(i.e., self-acting) which tends to deflect the compliant surface and
clearance forms between the rotor surface and the compliant surface.
Therefore, the determination of the actual clearance requires proper
experiments that are typically very expensive [39]. This poses a pro-
blem for the analyst at the design stage as one must assume a clearance
value that may be inaccurate and yield to erroneous predictions. To
overcome this difficulty, the following approaches have been at-
tempted. DellaCorte and Valco (2000) developed an empirical or “Rule
of Thumb” estimation of the journal bearing LCC based on experimental
data and fundamental first principles [173]. To develop an expression
for LCC, the authors treated the moving rotor surface simply as a vis-
cous pump and allow it to generate pressure or LCC based on its surface
speed and diameter. Based upon this model, they proposed the fol-
lowing empirical formula for LCC of a foil journal bearing running in a
given working fluid.
W = Φ (L × D) (D × Ω)
whereW = Maximum steady-state load, N; Φ = Bearing load capacity
coefficient, N/(mm3 × krpm)L = Bearing axial length, mm; D = Shaft
diameter; Ω = Shaft speed, krpm.
Peng and Khonsari (2004) derived an expression for the limiting
LCC, i.e. the theoretically the highest expected value, based on the
limiting solution of compressible Reynolds equation [174]. Like con-
ventional gas bearing, the pressure value of FB tends to reach a plateau
as one increases the operating speed to extremely high values. By using
the proper boundary condition, they derived the following expression
for dimensionless pressure:
−(1 + εf cos θ − α ) + (1 + εf cos θ − α )2 + 4α (1 + εf )
p¯ =
2α
where εf = FB eccentricity ratio; α = compliance of bump foil. By in-
tegrating this pressure value over the bearing surface area, one can
easily predict the limiting value of LCC.
Similar to DellaCorte and Valco (2000), Dykas et al. (2008) pro-
vided a mathematical expression for the initial estimation of thrust load
expression as
Wt = Dt (πωDm)(Dm N )
where Wt is the thrust load in N, Dt represents the load capacity coef-
ficient in N/(mm3 × krmp), Dm denotes the average inner and outer top
foil diameters in mm, and N is the shaft speed in thousand rpm [175].
This formula shows that the thrust load is proportional to the runner
319
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
surface velocity at the mid radial position and the swept area of the
bearing between the inner and outer radii of the foils. The LCC is also
dependent on other factors —e.g., the surface roughness of the top foil,
the stiffness of foils, and the geometric profile of the thrust bearing etc.
Reference [173] formulated the load in terms of a wide range of LCC
coefficient data. However, this expression for LCC may be helpful in
comparing the relative performance of various bearings, keeping other
factors like surface roughness, and coating constant.
Similar to Peng and Khonsari (2004), Samanta and Khonsari (2017)
also provided a closed-form solution for limiting LCC based on limiting
solution of Reynolds equation for foil thrust bearing [176]. The limiting
load value is compared with the numerical solutions. The approximate
solution for limiting load value is also obtained based on the average
film thickness of constant slope portion of the composite profile for
thrust pad. The expression for limiting load based on the approximate
solution is given by the following expression:
⎡ ⎧ −(1 + g¯1 − α ) + (1 + g¯1 − α )2 + 4αh¯1 ⎫
Wta = ⎢ − 1 × A¯1
⎢⎩⎨ 2α ⎬
⎣ ⎭
⎧ −(1 − α ) + (1 − α ) + 4α h¯1
2
⎫ ⎤
+ − 1 × A¯2 ⎥ npa R22
⎨ 2α ⎬ ⎥
⎩ ⎭ ⎦
where g¯1 = h¯1/2 − 1; A¯1 = β /2 × (1 − R22) × b and Ā2 =
2
β /2 × (1 − R2 ) × (1 − b) ; h̄1 = Film thickness ratio between at leading
edge and trailing edge; β = Angular extension of pad in rad; R2 = Outer
radius of pad, m; b = Fraction of extension of slope of the pad;
α = Compliance of foil.
4. Explorations on methods of foil installation
In conventional foil installation method, one end of the foils is
normally welded to the bearing sleeve and other end remains free.
Iordanoff deduced an analytical formula for stiffness calculation of
single bump compliance and reported a substantial difference of stiff-
ness values between welded-joint end and free end [177]. Moreover,
when fixing the bump foil to the bearing sleeve by welding, both the foil
and sleeve deform due to heat from welding and consequently strain
crops up in the foils. If these welds are not properly heat-treated, then
fatigue cracks may initiate at those locations of welds. Further, a finite
element analysis of bump foil forming process shows that mean stress
values generated in the bump foil during the forming process are very
sensitive to the shape of the die [178]. The results from the analysis
revealed that by eliminating all the sharp bends, the mean stress in the
foil can be reduced by 17.4% and spring back by 69%. Many inventors
have tried different alternatives, a brief review of which follows.
DellaCorte et al. (2007) used two methods of foil attachments [179].
In the first method, they form a “C” shaped roll along one edge of the
foils using the split roll pin as a tool. After heat treatment, the C-shaped
roll is inserted into the grooves machined into the bearing sleeve. In the
second method, the top and bump foils are spot welded into a machined
Inconnel X-750 sleeve.
Lee (2009) invented a radial FB where the inner and outer bump
foils are spot welded to the bump sheet and then assembled to the
bearing housing [180]. The top foil is welded to a key and the key is
inserted in the groove in the inner surface of the bearing housing pre-
venting the rotational movement of the top foil. The top foil is made
thicker to eliminate high-temperature distortion and to maintain its
shape.
Capstone Turbine Corp. patented anti-rotation retainers for multi-
pad radial FBs [181]. The equally-spaced, T-shaped retainers divide the
interior bearing bore in the circumferential direction and aid the in-
stallation of plurality of foil structures, top and elastic foils, into the
bushing.
Flora et al. (2013) designed a keyless/grooveless FB with fold over
P. Samanta, et al.
tab where top foil and bump foil have tabs at one end projected axially
[182]. The tabbed end of both the foils is inserted in the radial slot of
the bearing housing in such a manner that the free end of the foils can
expand circumferentially in the opposite direction. The tabs are bent
90° and they are fixed to the outer end surfaces of the bearing housings
by welding or some bonding method. With restrained axial movement,
the foils are maintained in the gap between the shaft and the inner
surface of the bearing housing. The same patent also describes a pro-
cedure for forming the top foil and bump foil from a single sheet having
at least one tab projected axially. The top foil and the bump foil are
rolled inside the bearing housing in such a manner that the free ends
can extend circumferentially in the opposite direction. The tabs are
attached to the outer end surface of the bearing housing.
Omori and Tanaka (2015) invented a radial FB in which the bump
foil is divided into a plurality in the circumferential direction [183].
One end of each back foil pieces has protruded parts in the radial di-
rection which engages in the notch of the bearing shell and the other
end is kept free. One end of the top foil is inserted in the axial groove of
the bearing shell and the same is tightly secured to the bearing shell by
pressing it to one interior wall surface of the groove by screws.
Omori (2015) designed a radial FB where the top foil has an uneven
edge with projection and depression at both ends such that projection of
one end overlaps with the depression of the other end [184]. The
projected portion of the top foil is pulled out through the depressed
portion. The projected portions are engaged in the grooves of the
bearing housing in such a manner the axial movement of the foil is
restrained. Moreover, the bottom and side surface projected portion
touches groove of the bearing housing due to the load on the top foil by
the rotating shaft and thus circumferential movement of the top foil is
also restrained. The bump foil is fixed to the inner surface of the bearing
housing by a spot weld. The two ends of the top foil are thinner than the
intermediate region in order to avoid the force due to local preload.
5. Explorations on coatings on foils
Since FBs commonly operate in the hydrodynamic regime, bearing
experiences high friction and wear at very low speeds encountered
during the start-up and shut-down conditions when sufficient hydro-
dynamic film is not available. Given that FBs are often required to
operate over an extremely wide temperature range —from cryogenic to
over 650 °C— a sustainable means of controlling friction at the inter-
faces becomes crucially important.
The purpose of coating is manifold. It protects the interface of shaft
and foil surface by acting as a sacrificial medium. Thus, during the
running-in process the coated surface becomes smoother and helps to
reduce the shaft's initial static friction. As a result, the bearing tends to
operate at a lower clearance with increased LCC. Typically, coating is
also applied to the bump and top foil as well as the bump and sleeve
surface. In this case, however, the purpose of the coating is to increase
the Coulomb damping by enhancing the interfacial friction between the
top foil and bump foil and the bump foil and sleeve surface. Many
noteworthy investigations― particularly those conducted at NASA
Glenn Research Center― have reported that the use of solid lubricants
enables the foil baring to withstand a large temperature range.
Dellacorte (2003) reported the performance of high-temperature
coating, PS304, under different substrate material and processing at-
mosphere [185]. PS304 ―a patented coating material developed by
NASA Glenn Research Center― is made by plasma spray deposition of a
powder blend comprised of 60 wt % NiCr, 20 wt % Cr2O3, and 10 wt %
each of BaF2/CaF2 eutectic and silver. Each component plays a different
functional role within the composite. Dellacorte evaluated the perfor-
mance of the PS304 by plasma spray deposited on nine different sub-
strate metals and made subsequent heat treatment at 650 °C in air or
argon atmosphere. The pull-off adhesion test was performed on the
coated surface. The heat treatment in the air atmosphere shows a
strengthening effect. Test results on different substrate reveal that the
320
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
substrate materials play a minor role in imparting cohesive strength of
PS304 with the substrate.
Heshmat et al. (2005) reported the tribological performances of
different high-temperature coatings under the trade name of Korolon™
[186]. They reported testing several series of Korolon™ ― Korolon™
700 and 800 coatings are polymer based and Korolon™ 1350 series (A
and B) are Nickel-chrome based high-temperature coating. All solid
lubricants are deposited on the substrate via a spray gun and subse-
quently cured and/or heat-treated. They performed a tribological test
on Inconel substrate coated with different Korolon™ in a tribometer
capable of performing high-temperature, high-speed tests. Each test was
conducted for 500 start-stop cycles up to maximum pad temperature of
810 °C under 13.8 kPa normal loading. The minimum coefficient of
friction (less than 0.1) is observed in most of the tests. The coated foil
journal bearing was successfully implemented in a 240 lb thrust tur-
bojet engine operating at 54,000 rpm.
Radil and DellaCorte (2002) investigated the effect of journal
roughness and foil coating on the performance of foil air bearings
[187]. They coated the foils with two coating materials– soft polymer
(polyimide) and hard ceramic (alumina) and run independently against
as-ground and run-in journal coated with NASA PS304 at speed of
30,000 rpm and at 25 °C. From test results, it is observed that the
bearing LCC is increased by 120% when Polyimide coated foil is run
against an as-ground journal surface and 85% against a run-in journal
surface. The LCC is enhanced by 40% for alumina-coated foils against
the as-ground journal. It is also observed that when the bearing oper-
ates in mixed or boundary lubrication, the coating on foils provides
solid lubrication.
DellaCorte et al. (2004) performed several load tests using a dif-
ferent combination of solid lubricant to both shaft and foil surface
[188]. They used a different combination of coating materials like
polyimide, aluminum bronze (AleCu), alumina (Al2O3) and Mo-
lybdenum Disulphide (MoS2) to foil surfaces and shaft surface along
with PS304. The results indicated that combining several solid lu-
bricants gives better results than any individual materials. Overlaying
MoS2 on PS304 coated shaft running against AleCu coated foils ex-
hibited good LCC. From experiments, it is also observed that providing
lubrication to bearing via a shaft coating is better than depending on
foil coatings. They found that to achieve a good LCC in an FB, there
must be good geometrical design, smooth surface finish, and sufficient
solid lubrication and wear resistant coatings.
6. Conclusions
This paper summarizes the development path of FBs over the last 50
years. The related and challenges during the development process are
discussed including the analysis of static and dynamic characterization,
thermal characterization and precision manufacturing process. Several
designs of foil air bearings presently in use and their relative merits and
demerits are illustrated. Analytical and numerical methods used in the
analysis, their limitations, and their relationships with experimental
results are discussed. Based on the above discussion, the following
conclusions may be drawn:
➢ The LCC and dynamic properties of FB are governed by stiffness and
damping properties of the combined effects of air film and foils. The
stiffness of air film remains much higher than the stiffness of foils
during the operation. Since both of these stiffnesses are in series, the
equivalent stiffness of combining system is mainly governed by the
foils. Therefore, to improve the performance of the bearing, the
majority of research efforts are focused on developing means im-
prove the stiffness and damping properties by tailoring the structure
of foils.
➢ The LCC of the FB is also dependent on the clearance of the bearing.
In the static condition, there is no physical separation between
journal surface and foil surface. During operation, the journal is
P. Samanta, et al.
lifted-off from the bearing surface due to hydrodynamic pressure
and physical separation is formed in a self-acting fashion. For ana-
lysis purposes, the designer has to assume a clearance based on
previous experiences. Initial evaluation of clearance prior to ana-
lysis by suitable experimental means may help to predict the actual
value and, hence, reduce the differences between performance re-
sults obtained from experiments and theoretical analyses.
➢ Solid lubricants play a vital role to mitigate foil wear, to reduce
friction, and also help to maintain lower clearance by providing
smooth interfaces. A solid lubricant also acts as a sacrificial, non-
structural material that helps to develop conforming surfaces
through the wear-in process. In conventional practice, soft solid
lubricants are applied to the foil surface and hard wear-resistant
coatings are employed on shaft surfaces.
➢ Conventionally, spot welding process is used to fix one end of the
foils to the sleeve. This welding process leads to a variety of pro-
blems such as cold cracking, residual stress, distortion and fatigue
damage. Both the foil and the sleeve tend to deform due to the heat
from welding and consequently strain crops up in the foils. Without
proper heat treatment, fatigue cracks are likely to initiate at the
welds.
➢ One of the major failure modes for FB is due to thermal instability or
seizure. Research is needed to develop on suitable predictive tools to
address the problem and assist the engineer at the design stage. For
seizure-proof FB bearing design, a detailed non-linear thermo-elas-
tohydrodynamic analysis that properly accounts for hydrodynamic,
thermal and structural deformation aspects of the bearing is needed.
➢ From the existing analyses, it is observed that TEI is depended upon
various operational and geometrical parameters. Among them, the
minimum thickness of lubricant plays a major role in controlling the
occurrence of TEI. So far, in the majority of the TEI analyses, the
surfaces of the conductor and insulator have been assumed to be
smooth surfaces. These should be extended to include surface
roughness effects. This is particularly important for analyzing the
behavior of an FB during the running-in phase where surface aspe-
rities interact and become gradually polished until the steady-state
process prevails. The generation of particulate matter thus gener-
ated and the contamination from the outside can also affect the
bearing performance and reliability. Further research is thus needed
to develop a detailed model on TEI with consideration of surface
roughness and contamination effects.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank CSIR, New Delhi, India for spon-
soring the fund of the Raman Research Fellowship under which the
proposed works were carried out.
References
[1] Agrawal GL. Foil air/gas bearing technology—an overview. 1997. ASME Paper No.
1997-GT-347.
[2] McAuliffe C, Dziorny PJ. Bearing cooling arrangement for air cycle machine. 1992.
US 5113670 A.
[3] Hou Y, Zhu ZH, Chen CZ. Comparative test on two kinds of new compliant foil
bearing for small cryogenic turbo-expander. Cryogenics 2004;44:69–72.
[4] Xiong LY, Wu G, Hou Y, Liu L-Q, Ling M-F, Chen C-Z. Development of aerodynamic
foil journal bearings for a high speed cryogenic turboexpander. Cryogenics
1997;37:221–30.
[5] Heshmat H, Walton JF. Oil-free turbocharger demonstration paves way to gas
turbine engine applications. 2000. ASME Paper No. 2000-GT-620.
[6] Walton JF, Heshmat H, Tomaszewki MJ. Testing of a small turbocharger/turbojet
sized simulator rotor supported on foil bearings. J Eng Gas Turbines Power
2004;130:035001–7.
[7] La Rue GD, Kang SG, Wick W. Turbocharger with hydrodynamic foil bearings.
2006. US Patent Number7108488 B2.
[8] Ryu K. Oil-free turbocharger bearing assembly having conical shaft supported on
compliant gas bearings. 2016. US Patent Number9394941 B2.
[9] Howard SA. Rotordynamics and design methods of an oil-free turbocharger. STLE
Tribol. Trans. 1999;42(1):174–9.
321
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
[10] Heshmat H, Walton JF, Tomaszewski MJ. Demonstration of a turbojet engine using
an air foil bearing. ASME Turbo Expo 2005: Power for land, sea and air. Nevada,
USA: Reno-Tahoe; 2005. p. GT2005–68404.
[11] Klusman SA. Turbine engine powered system with hybrid bearing. 2013. US Patent
Number8531071B2.
[12] Klusman SA. Gas turbine engine, machine and self-aligning foil bearing system.
2017. US Patent Number9657594B2.
[13] Klusman SA. Gas Turbine engine and foil bearing system. 2017. US9689277.
[14] Heshmat H, Walton JF, Tomaszewski MJ. Turbojet engine demonstration with a
high temperature air foil bearing. World tribology congress-III. 2005. Washington,
D. C. USA. WTC2005-63951.
[15] Bruckner RJ. An assessment of gas foil bearing scalability and the potential ben-
efits to civilian turbofan engines. Proceedings of ASME Turbo Expo: Power for
Land, Sea and Air. 2010. Glasgow, UK. GT2010-22118.
[16] DellaCorte C, Bruckner RJ. Oil-free rotor support technologies for an optimized
helicopter propulsion system. 2007. NASA/TM—2007-214845.
[17] Agarwal GL, Buckley CW, Shakil A. Foil gas bearing supported high temperature
centrifugal blower and method for cooling thereof. 2012. US Patent
Number8215928B2.
[18] Wilson W. Centrifugal turbine blower with gas foil bearings. 2009. US Patent
Number7535150B1.
[19] Heshmat H. Foil journal bearing applicable to high speed machining center. 2015.
US Patent Number9151322B2.
[20] Heshmat H, Tomaszewski MJ. Foil journal bearing applicable to high speed ma-
chining center. 2012. US Patent Number20120281937A1.
[21] Walton JF, Tomaszewski MJ, Heshmat H. The role of high performance foil
bearings in advanced, oil-free, high-speed motor driven compressors. Proceedings
of fuel cell science, engineering and technology. 2003. Rochester, New York, USA.
FUELCELL2003-1747.
[22] Walton JF, Hunsberger A, Heshmat H. Design and analysis of a high power density,
low temperature waste heat recovery system using an oil-free turboalternator.
Proceedings of the ASME International Mechanical Engineering Congress &
Exposition IMECE2010. 2010. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. IMECE2010-
40609.
[23] Walton JF, Heshmat H. On the development of an oil-free, high-speed and high-
temperature turboalternator. Proceedings of ASME turbo expo: power for land, sea
and air. 2010. Glasgow, UK.GT2010-22852.
[24] Hongli Z, Yu H, Liang C. Experimental study on a small Brayton air refrigerator
under -120oC. Appl Therm Eng 2009;29:1702–6.
[25] Howard SA, Bruckner RJ, Radil KC. Gas foil bearing technology advancements
forclosed Brayton cycle turbines. 2007. NASA/TM—2007-214470.
[26] Howard SA, DellaCorte C. Gas foil bearings for space propulsion nuclear electric
power generation. 2006. NASA TM-2006-214115.
[27] Lee Y-B, Kwak Y-S, Chung JT, Sim K. Microturbocharger with air foil bearings for a
100-w class micro power system and improvement of rotordynamic performance.
STLE Tribol. Trans. 2011;54:939–48.
[28] Lubell DR, Wade JL, Chauhan NS, Nourse JG. Identification and correction of rotor
instability in an oil-free gas turbine. 2008. ASME Paper No. GT2008-50305.
[29] DellasCorte C, Pinkus O. Tribological limitations in gas turbine engines: a work-
shop to identify the challenges and set future directions 2000. Report No. NASA/
TM-2000-210059/REV1.
[30] Heshmat H. High load capacity compliant foil hydrodynamic journal bearing. US
Patent Number 5,902,049. 1999.
[31] DellaCorte C. Technical development path for foil gas bearings. STLE/ASME in-
ternational joint tribology conference. 2008. Miami, Florida, USA. IJTC2008-
71024.
[32] Blok H, Van Rossum JJ. The foil bearing– a new departure in hydrodynamic lu-
brication. Lubr Eng 1953;9:316–20.
[33] Gross WA. Gas film lubrication. New York: John Wiley and Sons; 1962. p. 138.
[34] Barnett MA, Silver A. Application of air bearings to high speed turbomachinery.
1970. SAE Paper 700720.
[35] DellasCorte C. Oil-Free shaft support system rotordynamics: past, present and fu-
ture challenges and opportunities. Mech Syst Signal Process 2012;29:67–76.
[36] Faria MTC, San Andres L. On the numerical modeling of high-speed hydrodynamic
gas bearings. ASME Trans. J. Tribol. 2000;122:124–30.
[37] Wa1owit JA, Murray SF, McCabe JT, Arwas EB, Moyer T. Gas lubricated foil
bearing technology development for propulsion and power systems. Air Force Aero
Propulsion Laboratory; 1973. AD774024.
[38] Zorzi ES. Gas lubricated foil bearing development for advanced turbomachines.
1977. AFAPL-TR-76-114-Vol. II.
[39] Ruscitto D, Cormick JM, Gray S. Hydrodynamic air lubricated compliant surface
bearing for an automotive gas turbine engine I - journal bearing performance.
1978. NASA CR-135368.
[40] Oh KP, Rohde SM. A Theoretical investigation of the multileaf journal bearing. J
Appl Mech 1976;43(2):237–42.
[41] Arakere NK, Nelson HD. An analysis of gas-lubricatedfoil-journal bearings. Tribol
Trans 1992;35(1):1–10.
[42] Heshmat H, Walowit JA, Pinkus O. Analysis of gas-lubricated foil journal bearings.
J. Lubr. Technol. 1983;105:647–55.
[43] Heshmat H, Walowit JA, Pinkus O. Analysis of gas lubricated compliant thrust
bearings. J. Lubr. Technol. 1983;105:638–46.
[44] Ertas BH. Compliant hybrid journal bearings using integral wire mesh dampers. J.
Engg. Gas Turbines Power. 2009;131. 022503-022503-11.
[45] Heshmat H. Composite material compliant bearing element. 1981. US Patent
Number 4,277,113.
[46] Heshmat H, Shapiro W, Gray S. Development of foil journal bearings for high load
P. Samanta, et al.
capacity and high speed whirl stability. J. Lubr. Technol. 1982;104:149–56.
[47] Ku C-PR, Heshmat H. Compliant foil bearing structural stiffness analysis part I:
theoretical model-including strip and variable bump foil geometry. ASME J.Tribol.
1992;114(2):394–400.
[48] Ku C-PR, Heshmat H. Compliant foil bearing structural stiffness analysis part II:
experimental investigation. ASME J.Tribol. 1993;115:364–9.
[49] Ku C-PR, Heshmat H. Structural stiffness and coulomb damping in compliant foil
journal bearings: theoretical considerations. STLE Trans 1994;37(3):527–33.
[50] Ku C-PR, Heshmat H. Structural stiffness and coulomb damping in compliant foil
journal bearings: parametric studies. STLE Trans 1994;37(3):455–62.
[51] Heshmat H, Ku C-PR. Structural damping of self-acting compliant foil journal
bearings. ASME Trans.J. Tribol. 1994;116:76–82.
[52] Ku C-PR. Dynamic structural properties of compliant foil thrust bearings com-
parison between experimental and theoretical results. ASME J. Tribol.
1994;116:70–5.
[53] Ku C-PR, Heshmat H. Effects of static load on dynamic structural properties in a
flexible supported foil journal bearing. ASME J. Tribol. 1994;116:257–62.
[54] Peng J-P, Carpino M. Calculation of stiffness and damping coefficients for elasti-
cally supported gas foil bearings. ASME Trans. J. Tribol. 1993;115:20–7.
[55] Peng J-P, Carpino M. Coulomb friction damping effects in elastically supported gas
foil bearings. ASME Trans. J. Tribol. 1994;37(1):91–8.
[56] Peng J-P, Carpino M. Finite element approach to the prediction of foil bearing
rotor dynamic coefficients. ASME J. Tribol. 1997;119:85–90.
[57] Carpino M, Peng J-P, Medvetz L. Misalignment in a complete shell gas foil journal
bearing. STLE Tribol. Trans. 1994;37(4):829–35.
[58] Carpino M, Medvetz L, Peng J-P. Effects of membrane stresses in the prediction of
foil bearing performance. STLE Tribol. Trans. 1994;37(1):43–50.
[59] Howard SA. Preliminary development of characterization methods for compliant
air bearing. Tribol Trans 1999;42(4):789–94.
[60] Grau G, Iordanoff I, Said BB, Berthier Y. An original definition of the profile of
compliant foil journal gas bearings: static and dynamic analysis. Tribol Trans
2004;47(2):248–56.
[61] Rubio D, San Andres L. Bump-type foil bearing structural stiffness: experiments
and predictions. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2006;128:653–60.
[62] Salehi M, Heshmat H, Walton JF. Advancements in the structural stiffness and
damping of a large compliant foil journal bearing: an experimental study. J Eng
Gas Turbines Power 2007;129:154–61.
[63] Kim D. Parametric studies on static and dynamic performance of air foil bearings
with different top foil geometries and bump stiffness distributions. ASME J. Tribol.
2007;129:354–64.
[64] Kim TH, San Andres L. Heavily loaded gas foil bearings: a model anchored to test
data. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2008;130:12504–11.
[65] San Andres L, Chirathadam TA. Metal mesh foil bearing and a bump-type foil
bearing: comparison of performance for two similar size gas bearings. ASME J.
Eng. Gas Turbines Power. 2012;134:102501.
[66] San Andres LS, Chirathadam TA. Performance characteristics of metal mesh foil
bearings: predictions versus measurements. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2013;135.
122503-122503-8.
[67] San Andres L, Chirathadam TA, Kim TH. Measurement of structural stiffness and
damping coefficients in a metal mesh foil bearing. ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines
Power 2010;132(3):032503.
[68] San Andres L, Chirathadam TA. Metal mesh foil bearing: effect of motion ampli-
tude, rotor speed, static load, and excitation frequency on force coefficients. ASME
J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power. 2011;133(12):122503.
[69] Feng K, Zhao X, Zhang Z, Zhang T. Numerical and compact model of metal mesh
foil bearings. Tribol Trans 2016;59(3):480–90.
[70] Yu H, Shuangtao C, Rugang C, Qiaoyu Z, Hongli Z. Numerical study on foil journal
bearings with protuberant foil structure. Tribol. Intl. 2011;44:1061–70.
[71] Lee YB, Kim TH, Kim CH, Lee NS, Choi DH. Dynamic characteristics of a flexible
rotor system supported by a viscoelastic foil bearing (VEFB). Tribol Int
2004;37:679–87.
[72] Lee YB, Kim TH, Kim CH, Lee NS, Choi DH. Unbalance response of a super-critical
rotor supported by foil bearings—comparison with test results. Tribol Trans
2004;47:54–60.
[73] Vleugels P, Waumans T, Peirs J, Al-Bender F, Reynaerts D. High-speed bearings for
micro gas turbines: stability analysis of foil bearings. J Micromech Microeng
2006;16:S282–9.
[74] Kim TH, San Andre´s L. Effects of a mechanical preload on the dynamic force
response of gas foil bearings: measurements and model predictions. STLE Tribol.
Trans. 2009;52:569–80.
[75] San Andre´s L, Rubio D, Kim TH. Rotordynamic performance of a rotor supported
on bump type foil gas bearings: experiments and predictions. ASME J. Eng. Gas
Turbines Power. 2007;129:850–7.
[76] Kim TH, Lee J, Kim CH, Lee YB. Rotordynamic performance of an oil-free turbo-
charger supported on gas foil bearings: effects of an assembly radial clearance.
2010. ASME Paper No. GT2010-23243.
[77] Sim K, Lee Y, Kim TH, Lee J. Rotordynamic performance of shimmed gas foil
bearings for oil-free turbochargers. ASME J. Tribol. 2012;134. 031102-031102-11.
[78] Schiffmann J, Spakovszky ZS. Foil bearing design guidelines for improved stabi-
lity. ASME J Tribol 2013;135. 011103-011103-11.
[79] Feng K, Liu W, Yu R, Zhang Z. Analysis and experimental study on a novel gas foil
bearing with nested compression springs. Tribol. Intl. 2017;107:65–76.
[80] Song J-H, Kim D. Foil gas bearing with compression springs: analyses and ex-
periments. Trans. ASME 2007;129:628–39.
[81] Feng K, Liu Y, Zhao X, Liu W. Experimental evaluation of the structure char-
acterization of a novel hybrid bump-metal mesh foil bearing. ASME. J. Tribol.
322
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
2015;138(2):021702–9.
[82] Feng K, Zhao X, Huo C, Zhang Z. Analysis of novel hybrid bump-metal mesh foil
bearings. Tribol. Intl. 2016;103:529–39.
[83] Lee Y-B, Kim CH, Kim TH. Effects of mesh density on static load performance of
metal mesh gas foil bearings. ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power
2012;134:102502–8.
[84] Cable TA, San Andrés L. On the design, manufacture, and premature failure of a
metal mesh foil thrust bearing—how concepts that work on paper, actually do not.
J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2018;140(12):121007–13.
[85] Sim K, Lee Y-B, Kim TH. Rotordynamic analysis of an oil-free turbocharger sup-
ported on lobed gas foil bearings—predictions versus test data. STLE Tribol. Trans.
2014;57(6):1086–95.
[86] Bosley RW. Compliant foil hydrodynamic fluid film radial bearing. 1995.
US5427455.
[87] Lubell D, DellaCorte C, Stanford M. Test evolution and oil-free engine experience
of a high temperature foil air bearing coating. 2006. p. 1245–9. Paper No. GT2006-
90572.
[88] Kim TH, San Andres L, Nourse J, Wade JL, Lubell DR. Modeling of a gas foil
bearing for microturbine applications: predictions versus experimental stiffness
and damping force coefficients. Kyoto, Japan: World Tribology Congress; 2009.
[89] Swanson EE, O'Meara PS. The wing foil: a novel compliant radial foil bearing
design. Eng. Gas Turbines Power 2018;140(8):082701–8.
[90] Swanson EE, O'Meara PS. Wing foil bearings and methods of manufacturing same.
2018. U S Jpn Outlook 9,976,594.
[91] Pham MN, Ahn H-J. Experimental optimization of a hybrid foil-magnetic bearing
to support a flexible rotor. Mech. Syst. Sig. Process 2014;46:361–72.
[92] Heshmat H, Chen HM, Walton JF. On the performance of hybrid foil-magnetic
bearings. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2000;122:73–82.
[93] Polyakov R, Bondarenko M, Savin L. Hybrid bearing with actively adjustable radial
gap of gas foil bearing. Procidia Eng 2015;106:132–40.
[94] Jeong S, Lee YB. Vibration control of high-speed rotor supported by hybrid foil-
magnetic bearing with sudden imbalance. J Vib Control 2015:1–13.
[95] Tian Z, Wei Z, Sun Y. Nonlinear adaptive control for hybrid foil-magnetic bearing.
Takamatsu, Japan: Proc. IEEE; 2017.
[96] Braun MJ, Choy FK, Dzodzo M, Hsu J. Two-dimensional dynamic simulation of a
continuous foil bearing. Tribol. Intl. 1996;29(1):61–8.
[97] San Andres L. Turbulent flow foil bearings for cryogenic applications. ASME J.
Tribol. 1995;117:185–95.
[98] Qin K, Gollan RJ, Jahn IH. Application of a wall function to simulate turbulent
flows in foil bearings at high rotational speeds. Tribol. Intl. 2017;115:546–56.
[99] Lee NS, Choi DH, Lee YB, Kim TH, Kim CH. The influence of the slip flow on
steady-state load capacity, stiffness and damping coefficients of elastically sup-
ported gas foil bearing. STLE Tribol. Trans. 2002;45(4):478–84.
[100] Carpino M, Talmage G. A fully coupled finite element formulation for elastically
supported foil journal bearings. Tribol Trans 2003;46(4):560–5.
[101] Carpino M, Talmage G. Prediction of rotor dynamic coefficients in gas lubricated
foil journal bearings with corrugated sub-foils. Tribol Trans 2006;49(3):400–9.
[102] Peng Z–C, Khonsari MM. Hydrodynamic analysis of compliant foil bearings with
compressible air flow. ASME J. Tribol. 2004;126:542–6.
[103] Salehi M, Heshmat H. Frictional dampers dynamic characterization-theory and
experiments. Tribol 2002;40:515–26.
[104] Salehi M, Heshmat H, Walton JF. On the frictional damping characterization of
compliant bump foils. ASME J. Tribol. 2003;125:804–13.
[105] Rubio D, San Andres L. Structural stiffness, dry friction coefficient, and equivalent
viscous damping in a bump-type foil gas bearing. J Eng Gas Turbines Power
2007;129:494–502.
[106] Sawnson EE. Bump foil damping using a simplified model. ASME J. Tribol.
2006;128:542–50.
[107] Le Lez S, Arghir M, Frene J. A new bump-type foil bearing structure analytical
model. ASME J. Eng. Gas Turbines Power. 2007;129(4):1047–57.
[108] Le Lez S, Arghir M, Frene J. Static and dynamic characterization of a bump-type
foil bearing structure. ASME J. Tribol. 2007;129:75–83.
[109] Lez SL, Arghir M, Frêne J. Nonlinear numerical prediction of gas foil bearing
stability and unbalanced response. J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2009;131. 012503-
012503-12.
[110] Lee DH, Kim YC, Kim KW. The Dynamic performance analysis of foil journal
bearings considering coulomb friction: rotating unbalance response. Tribol Trans
2009;52:146–56.
[111] Lee DH, Kim YC, Kim KW. The effect of Coulomb friction on the static performance
of foil journal bearings. Tribol. Intl. 2010;43:1065–72.
[112] Larsen JS, Varela AC, Santos IF. Numerical and experimental investigation of
bump foil mechanical behavior. Tribol. Intl. 2014;74:46–56.
[113] Lee Y-B, Park D-J, Kim C-H, Kim S-J. Operating characteristics of the bump foil
journal bearings with top foil bending phenomenon and correlation among bump
foils. Tribol. Intl. 2008;41:221–33.
[114] San Andres L, Kim T,H. Analysis of gas foil bearings integrating FE top foil models.
Tribol. Intl. 2009;42:111–20.
[115] Howard, S.A. and San Andres, L. A new analysis tool assessment for rotordynamic
modeling of gas foil bearings. NASA/TM—2010-216354/GT2010–22508.
[116] Bhore SP, Darpe AK. Nonlinear dynamics of flexible rotor supported on the gas foil
journal bearings. J Sound Vib 2013;332:5135–50.
[117] Bonello P, Pham HM. The efficient computation of the nonlinear dynamic response
of a foil–air bearing rotor system. J Sound Vib 2014;333:3459–78.
[118] Bonello P, Pham HM. Nonlinear dynamic analysis of high speed oil-free turbo-
machinery with focus on stability and self-excited vibration. J Tribol 2014;136.
041705-041705-10.
P. Samanta, et al.
[119] Fangcheng X, Daejong K. Dynamic performance of foil bearings with a quadratic
stiffness model. Neurocomputing 2016;216:666–71.
[120] Lee YB, Kim TY, Kim CH, et al. Thrust bump air foil bearings with variable axial
load: theoretical predictions and experiments. Tribol Trans 2011;54:902–10.
[121] Larsen JS, Santos IF. On the nonlinear steady-state response of rigid rotors sup-
ported by air foil bearings— theory and experiments. J Sound Vib
2015;346:284–97.
[122] Larsen JS, Santos IF, Osmanski SV. Stability of rigid rotors supported by air foil
bearings: comparison of two fundamental approaches. J Sound Vib
2016;381:179–91.
[123] Osmanski SV, Larsen JS, Santos IF. A fully coupled airfoil bearing model con-
sidering friction – theory & experiment. J Sound Vib 2017;400:660–79.
[124] Khonsari MM. A review of thermal effects in hydrodynamic bearings part I: slider
and thrust bearings. ASLE transactions 1987;30(1):19–25.
[125] Khonsari MM. A review of thermal effects in hydrodynamic bearings. Part II.
journal Bearings ASLE transactions 1987;30(1):26–33.
[126] Salehi M, Heshmat H. On the fluid flow and thermal analysis of a compliant
surface Foil bearing and seal. Tribol Trans 2000;43(2):318–24.
[127] Salehi M, Swanson E, Heshmat H. Thermal features of compliant foil bear-
ings–theory and experiments. Trans. ASME 2001;123:566–71.
[128] Lee D, Kim D. Thermohydrodynamic analyses of bump air foil bearings with de-
tailed thermal model of foil structures and rotor. ASME J. Tribol. 2010;132.
021704-021704-12.
[129] Peng ZC, Khonsari MM. A thermo-hydrodynamic analysis of foil journal bearings.
ASME J Tribol 2006;128:534–41.
[130] San Andre´s L, Kim TH. Thermohydrodynamic analysis of bump type gas foil
bearings: a model anchored to test data. ASME J Tribol 2010;132:011701.
[131] Radil K, Zeszotek M. An experimental investigation into the temperature profile of
a compliant foil air bearing. Tribol Trans 2004;47:470–9.
[132] San Andres L, Ryu K, Kim TH. Thermal management and rotordynamic perfor-
mance of a hot rotor-gas foil bearings system. Part 1: measurements. ASME J Eng
Gas Turbines Power 2010;133:062501.
[133] San Andre´s L, Ryu K, Kim TH. Thermal management and rotordynamic perfor-
mance of a hot rotor-gas foil bearings system. Part 2: predictions versus test data.
ASME J Eng Gas Turbines Power 2010;133:062502.
[134] Sim K, Kim TH. Thermohydrodynamic analysis of bump-type gas foil bearings
using bump thermal contact and inlet flow mixing models. Tribol. Intl.
2012;48:137–48.
[135] Lee D, Kim D, Sadashiva RP. Transient thermal behavior of preloaded three-pad
foil bearings: modeling and experiments. J Tribol 2011;133:021703.
[136] Lee D, Kim D. Three-dimensional thermohydrodynamic analyses of Rayleigh step
air foil thrust bearing with radially arranged bump foils. Tribol Trans
2011;54(3):432–48.
[137] Talmage G, Carpino M. Thermal structural effects in a gas-lubricated foil journal
bearing. Tribol Trans 2011;54:701–13.
[138] Dellacorte C, Lukaszewicz V, Valco MJ, Radil KC, Heshmat H. Performance and
durability of high temperature foil air bearings for oil-free turbomachinery. Tribol
Trans 2000;43(4):774–80.
[139] Howard S, Dellacorte C, Valco MJ, Prahl JM, Heshmat H. Dynamic stiffness and
damping characteristics of a high-temperature air foil journal bearing. Tribol
Trans 2008;44(4):657–63.
[140] Howard S, Dellacorte C, Valco MJ, Prahl JM, Heshmat H. Steady-state stiffness of
foil air journal bearings at elevated temperatures. Tribol Trans
2001;44(3):489–93.
[141] Kim TH, Breedlove AW, San Andres L. Characterization of foil bearing structure for
increasing shaft temperatures: Part I-Static load performance. Proceeding of ASME
turbo expo 2008:GT2008–50567.
[142] Kim TH, Breedlove AW, San Andres LS. Characterization of a foil bearing structure
at increasing temperatures: static load and dynamic force performance. J Tribol
2009;131:041703.
[143] San Andres LS, Ryu K, Kim TH. Identification of structural stiffness and energy
dissipation parameters in a second generation foil bearing: effect of shaft tem-
perature. J. Engg. Gas Turbines Power. 2011;133:032501.
[144] Dellacorte C. A new foil air bearing test rig for use to 700°C and 70,000 rpm. Tribil.
Trans. 1998;41(3):335–40.
[145] Jang JY, Khonsari MM. A generalized thermoelastic instability analysis. Proc. R.
Soc. Lond. A 2003;459:309–29.
[146] Ruscitto D, McCormick J, Gray S. Hydrodynamic air lubricated compliant surface
bearing for an automotive gas turbine engine - I - journal bearing performance.
1978. NASA CR–135368.
[147] Dykas B, Howard SA. Journal design considerations for turbomachine shafts
supported on foil air bearings. STLE Tribol. Trans. 2004;47(4):508–16.
[148] Ryu K, San Andres L. On the failure of a gas foil bearing: high temperature op-
eration without cooling flow. J. Eng. Gas Turbine Power. 2013;135:112506.
[149] Zywica G, Baginski P, Kicinski J. Selected operational problems of high speed
rotors supported by gas foil bearings. Tech Mech 2017;37(2–5):339–46.
[150] Dykas BD. Factors influencing the performance of foil gas thrust bearings for oil-
free turbomachinary applications Ph.D. Thesis Case Western Reserve University;
2006.
323
Tribology International 135 (2019) 305–323
[151] Samanta P, Khonsari MM. On the thermoelastic instability of foil bearings. Tribol.
Intl. 2018;121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.triboint.2018.01.014.
[152] Takabi J, Khonsari MM. On the thermally-induced seizure in bearings: a review.
Tribol. Intl. 2016;91:118–30.
[153] Heshmat H, Walton JF, Tomaszewski MJ. Demonstration of a turbojet engine
using an air foil bearing. 2005. ASME Paper No. GT2005-68404.
[154] La Rue GD, Kang SG, Wick W. Turbocharger with hydrodynamic foil bearings.
2006. U. S. Patent No. 7,108,488 B2.
[155] Lubell D, Weissert D. Rotor and bearing system for a turbomachine. 2006. U. S.
Patent No. 7,112,036 B2.
[156] Radil K, Dellacorte C, Zeszotek M. Thermal management techniques for oil-free
turbomachinery system. Tribol Trans 2007;50:319–27.
[157] Ryu K, San Andres L. Effect of cooling flow on the operation of a hot rotor-gas foil
bearing system. J Engg. Gas Turbines Power. 2012;134:102511.
[158] Ryu K. Effect of cooling flow on the operation of a hot rotor-gas foil bearing system
Ph.D Dissertation Texas A&M University; 2011.
[159] Radil KC, DellaCorte C. A three-dimensional foil bearing performance map applied
to oil-free turbomachinery. Tribol Trans 2010;53:771–8.
[160] Heshmat H. Advancements in the performance of aerodynamic foil journal bear-
ings: high speed and load capability. ASME J. Tribol. 1994;116:287–94.
[161] Kim TH, San Andrés L. Analysis of advanced gas foil bearings with piecewise linear
elastic supports. Tribol. Interl. 2007;40(8):1239–45.
[162] Heshmat H, Shapiro W, Gray S. Development of foil journal bearings for high load
capacity and high speed whirl stability. J Lub. Tech. 1982;104:149–56.
[163] Heshmat H. High load capacity compliant foil hydrodynamic journal bearing.
1999. US Patent No-5902049.
[164] Heshmat H. High load capacity compliant foil hydrodynamic journal bearing.
1999. US Patent No-5988885.
[165] Heshmat H. High load capacity compliant foil hydrodynamic journal bearing.
2000. US Patent No-6158893.
[166] Iordanoff I. Maximum load capacity profiles for gas thrust bearings working under
high compressibility number conditions. ASME J. Tribol. 1998;120:571–6.
[167] Heshmat H, Walowit JA, Pinkus O. Analysis of gas lubricated compliant thrust
bearings. ASME J. Lub. Technol. 1983;105:638–46.
[168] Heshmat H. Analysis of compliant foil bearings with spatially variable stiffness.
AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE 270 joint propulsion conference. 1991. p. 1–11.
[169] Sacramento CA, Heshmat H. High load capacity compliant foil hydrodynamic
thrust bearing. 1998. US Patent No-5833369.
[170] Kim TH, Park M, Lee TW. Design optimization of gas foil thrust bearings for
maximum load capacity. J Tribol 2017;139(3):031705.
[171] Li Y, Lei G, Sun Y, Wang L. Effect of environmental pressure enhanced by a booster
on the load capacity of the aerodynamic gas bearing of a turbo expander. Tribo.
Intl. 2017;105:77–84.
[172] Radil K, Howard S, Dykas B. The role of radial clearance on the performance of foil
air bearings. 2002. NASA/TM-2002-211705.
[173] Dellacorte C, Valco MJ. Load capacity estimation of foil air journal bearings for
oil-free turbomachinery applications. Tribol Trans 2000;43(4):795–801.
[174] Peng Z-C, Khonsari MM. On the limiting load-carrying capacity of foil bearings.
ASME J. Tribol. 2004;126:817–8.
[175] Dykas B, Bruckner R, DellaCorte C, Edmonds B, Prahl J Design. Fabrication, and
performance of foil gas thrust bearings for microturbomachinery applications.
Turbo expo 2008 gas turbine technical congress and exposition. 2008. Germany.
[176] Samanta P, Khonsari MM. The limiting load-carrying capacity of foil thrust
bearings. Proc IMechE Part J 2017;0:1–7.
[177] Iordanoff I. Analysis of an aerodynamic compliant foil thrust bearing: method for a
rapid design. J Tribol 1999;121(4):816–22.
[178] Shalash K, Schiffmann J. On the manufacturing of compliant foil bearings. J
Manuf. Processes 2017;25:357–68.
[179] DellaCorte, C., Radil, K.C., Bruckner, R.J. and Howard, S.A. Design, fabrication
and performance of open source generation I and II compliant hydrodynamic gas
foil bearing. NASA/TM-2007-214691.
[180] Lee HS. Radial foil bearing. U S Jpn Outlook 7,494,282. 2009.
[181] Dennis H. Weissert, Compliant foil fluid film radial bearing. 1999. US5915841A.
[182] Flora BS, Clark SL, Seikowski JR, Ruchenewitz SM. Keyless/grooveless foil bearing
with fold over tab. 8,414,191 B2. 2013.
[183] Omori N, Tanaka T. Radial foil bearing. 2015. US 8944688B2.
[184] Omori N. Radial foil bearing. 2015. U S Jpn Outlook 9011008.
[185] DellaCorte C. The effects of substrate material and thermal processing atmosphere
on the strength of PS304: a high temperature solid lubricant coating. Tribol Trans
2003;46(3):361–8.
[186] Heshmat H, Hryniewicz P, WaltonII JF, Willis JP, Jahanmir S, DellaCorte C. Low-
friction wear-resistant coatings for high-temeparture foil bearings. Tribol. Intl.
2005;38:1059–75.
[187] Radil KC, DellaCorte C. The effect of journal roughness and foil coatings on the
performance of heavily loaded foil journal bearings. Tribol Trans
2002;45(2):199–204.
[188] DellaCorte C, Zaldana AR, Radil KV. A systems approach to the solid lubrication of
foil bearings for oil-free turbomachinery. J Tribol. ASME. 2004;126:200–7.