Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?

Focus Points
 What were the long-term consequences of the peace treaties of 1919-23?
 What were the consequences of the failures of the League in the 1930s?
 How far was Hitler’s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in 1939?
 Was the policy of appeasement justified?
 How important was the Nazi-Soviet Pact?
 Why did Britain and France declare war on Germany in September 1939?

Specified content
The collapse of international order in the 1930s: the increasing militarism of Germany,
Italy and Japan; Hitler’s foreign policy to 1939: the Saar, remilitarisation of the
Rhineland, Anschluss with Austria, appeasement, crises over Czechoslovakia and Poland,
the outbreak of war.

1. The Collapse of International Order in the 1930s

2. The Increasing Militarism of Germany, Italy and Japan
3. Hitler’s Foreign Policy to 1939
4. The Policy of Appeasement
5. How did the War Become a World War?

Main points:
Tension between countries rose dramatically in the 1930s. Hitler was rearming Germany
and openly defying the Treaty of Versailles. Dictatorships in other countries became
more and more powerful and the democracies seemed either unwilling or unable to stop
them. Finally, in 1939 war once again broke out in Europe.

To consider:
 Whether Britain’s policy of appeasing Hitler could be justified
 How weaknesses in the First World War peace treaties had long-term
consequences for international relations
 The consequences of the failure of the League of Nations in the 1930s
 How important the Nazi-Soviet Pact was in causing the war.

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1. The Collapse of International Order in the 1930s

Why did Disarmament fail in the 1930s?

Not implementing disarmament in the 1930s was one of the League’s major failures.
They had already been unsuccessful in the 1920s but the conditions then were not so
critical. The opposite was true for the 1930s and the League was under great pressure to
do something about disarmament. The Germans had always resented the fact that they
had been forced to disarm after the war while other countries did not. Many countries
were actually spending more on their armaments than before WWI.

The members of the League realised how vital this was when the crisis of Manchuria
arose. In February 1932 the long-promised Disarmament Conference finally began. By
July 1932 it had produced the following resolutions:
 to prohibit bombing of civilian populations
 limit the size of artillery, limit the tonnage of tanks and
 to prohibit chemical warfare.

However, although there was agreement on these resolutions, disagreements arose as to

how these limits would be achieved. For example all agreed on the prohibition of
bombing civilian populations but all attempts to abolish planes capable of bombing were
defeated. Even the proposal to ban the manufacture of chemical weapons was defeated.

Germany posed an even bigger problem. Germany had been a member of the League of
Nations for six years and most people accepted the fact that Germany should now be
treated more equally. Therefore if Germany was to be treated equally then either
everyone else had to disarm to the level that Germany had been forced to, or allow the
Germans to rearm to a level closer to that of the other powers. After the lack of success
of disarmament in the 1920s it was clear that the first option would not succeed. At the
same time, however, many were still reluctant to allow Germany to increase her armed
forces.

In July 1932 Germany proposed that the other members should disarm to its level. When
it became clear that the other countries were not willing Germany walked out of the
Conference and did not return until an agreement was reached to treat Germany equally.
Then on the 30th January 1933 Hitler became Chancellor and he began to rearm Germany
secretly. In May 1933 he promised not to rearm Germany as long as the other nations
would destroy their arms. In June 1933 Britain proposed an ambitious plan for
disarmament but Germany walked out of the Conference in October 1933. Not long after
Hitler pulled Germany out of the League of Nations as well. By this time all the powers
knew that Hitler was secretly rearming Germany already and began to rebuild their forces
as well. In spite of this the Disarmament Conference continued for another year until it
was finally ended in 1934.

The Conference failed for a number of reasons. Some say it was doomed from the start
as no one was really serious about disarmament however, other factors were at play.
Britain and France were divided in this issue of disarmament. By 1933 many in Britain

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felt that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair but France still did not think so and were
dismayed when Britain signed a pact with Germany about the size of their navies. To
add insult to injury Britain had not even consulted with the other members of the League
even though this content of the pact was in violation of the Treaty of Versailles. It
showed more clearly that each country was looking after itself and not giving much
consideration to the League.

Timeline of events relating to Germany and the Disarmament Conference

July 1932
Germany tabled proposals for all countries to disarm down to its level. When the
Conference failed to agree the principle of ‘equality’, the Germans walked out.

September 1932
The British sent the Germans a note that went some way to agreeing equality, but the
superior tone of the note angered the Germans still further.

December 1932
An agreement was finally reached to treat the Germans equally.

January 1933
Germany announced it was coming back.

February 1933
Hitler became Chancellor of Germany at the end of January 1933. He immediately
started to rearm Germany. He did this in secret.

May 1933
Hitler promised not to rearm Germany if ‘in five years all other nations destroyed their
arms’.

June 1933
Britain produced an ambitious disarmament plan.

October 1933
Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference, and soon after took Germany out of
the League of Nations.

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2. The Increasing Militarism of Germany, Italy and Japan

Germany

Rearmament
One of the first things Hitler did when he came to power in 1933 was to increase the
armed forces of Germany. By July 1933 tanks were being produced and by 1934
Germany was making aircraft and warships. Increasing the armed forces would solve a
number of issues. In order to increase the number of armed forces he had to draft
thousands of unemployed workers into the army. This reduced unemployment which
was a major problem facing Germany at the time. At the same time he was making
Germany strong again, a promise he had made to his supporters. Indeed rearmament was
a very popular move in Germany and it boosted Nazi support.

Although Hitler knew that the German people would support rearmament he was well
aware that other countries would be alarmed especially since he was going against the
terms of the Treaty of Versailles by increasing the number of soldiers. He therefore first
began rearmament secretly. Hitler then made a great public display of his desire not to
rearm Germany but felt that he did not have a choice as other countries had refused to
disarm. He then followed Japan’s example and withdrew Germany from the League of
Nations in 1933.

In 1935 Hitler openly staged a massive military rally celebrating the German armed
forces. In 1935 he violated the Treaty of Versailles again when he reintroduced
conscription to the army. Germany was not the only country to use rearmament as a way
to fight unemployment. The collapse of the League of Nations Disarmament
Conference in 1934 had shown that other nations were not prepared to disarm.

Hitler knew that Britain had some sympathy with Germany over the issue of
Disarmament. Britain believed that the limits put on Germany’s armed forces by the
Treaty of Versailles were too tight. Should Germany need to defend itself from attack its
armed forces would be too small. Britain also thought that a strong Germany would be a
good buffer zone against Communism. Britain had already helped to dismantle the
Treaty by signing a naval agreement with Hitler in 1935. The Anglo-German Naval
Agreement allowed Germany to increase its navy to up to 35 per cent of the size of the
British navy. The French were angry with Britain about this, but there was little they
could do.

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Communism
The Spanish Civil War
In 1936 a civil war in Spain broke out between the Communists, who were supporters of
the Republican government, and right-wing rebels under General Franco. Hitler saw this
as a great opportunity to fight against Communism and at the same time to try out his
new armed forces. In 1937 German aircraft made devastating bombing raids on civilian
populations in a number of Spanish cities. The destruction of Guernica was terrible
(Picasso). Meanwhile the League of Nations did nothing but looked on helplessly and
people were horrified at the suffering that modern weapons could cause.

The Anti-Comintern Pact

The Italian leader Mussolini was also heavily involved in the Spanish Civil War.
Mussolini and Hitler realised that they had much in common with each other as well as
with the military dictatorship in Japan. In 1936 Germany and Japan signed an Anti-
Comintern Pact and they were joined by Mussolini in 1937. Anti-Comintern means
‘Anti-Communist International’ and the aim of the pact was to limit Communist
influence around the world. This was of course particularly aimed at the USSR. The
new alliance was called the Axis alliance.

Questions for the failure of disarmament and militarism of Germany

1. When did the Disarmament Conference finally begin?

2. List the three main resolutions agreed upon by July 1932.
3. Why were these resolutions unsuccessful?
4. What major difficulty did Germany pose with respect to disarmament?
5. ‘The Disarmament Conference was finally ended in 1934, but could have
easily ended a year earlier.’ Do you agree with this statement? Explain your
answer.
6. Increasing the armed forces of Germany had two advantages for Hitler. What
were they?
7. Why did Hitler initially start rearming in secret?
8. What was the Anglo-German Naval Agreement and when was it signed?
9. Give two reasons why Hitler got involved in the Spanish Civil War?
10. What was the Anti-Comintern Pact?

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Italy
Benito Mussolini was the son of a socialist blacksmith and schoolmistress and had a
comfortable life but like Hitler he liked to exaggerate the poverty of his youth. He was
an unruly child and a bully. As a young man he became a revolutionary socialist and
spent most of his time in Switzerland avoiding the Swiss police and hard work. In 1912
he became the editor of the socialist daily ‘Avanti’ although he was later expelled. He
then set up his own paper ‘The Italian People’ and called for Italy’s entry into the First
World War against Austria. He was given money by big businesses and Allied
governments who were anxious to get Italy into the war. Although he was conscripted
into the war he was relieved from the army after getting injured during a training
exercise.

The end of the war made Mussolini more determined to make a name for himself. He
hated Italy’s democratic government and his mood became more and more violent. The
terms of the treaties with Germany and Austria in 1919 left many in Italy angry and
frustrated. This was because they had been promised much more land by Britain and
France. As a result of the treaties Italy was given the South Tyrol, Istria and Trieste but
Wilson refused to also hand over Dalmatia and several Aegean islands since no
Italians lived there. Mussolini was quick to realise that he could use this strong sense of
nationalism to his advantage and gain power.

Not all Italians were angry with Italy not getting all that was promised prior to entering
the war. Many however, were concerned about the economic situation particularly since
there was extreme poverty in the south of Italy. Many of the people there were landless
peasants who scratched a living from the infertile soil there. In the end many peasants
began to seize land for themselves. The North was more industrial but there was a great
deal of anger. Prices were rising and so was unemployment. This led to an increase of
socialist strikes.

Italy’s parliament was based on proportional representation and this led to coalition
governments. However, the coalition often quarrelled and this led to an unstable
government. Between 1919 and 1922 there were five coalition governments. Mussolini
saw his chance and turned his back on socialist ideas. Instead he promised the bosses of
large industrial companies and landowners that he would provide disciplined law and
order and set up his own Fascist Party. This consisted of many former angry soldiers
and they formed ‘combat squads’ which used violence in order to suppress the workers’
movement. In order to show their gratitude wealthy industrialists and landowners gave
Mussolini huge sums of money.

They were not the only ones who were impressed by Mussolini’s actions. In 1921 Prime
Minister Giolitti asked Mussolini to join the government’s election group. This put
Mussolini’s Fascist Party in good light and he gained a number of seats. In order to gain
more support he also stopped making anti-Catholic speeches and gave up his anti-
monarchist views. Indeed the king Victor Emmanuel III and the Pope Pius XI were more
sympathetic to Mussolini’s party.

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In 1922 Mussolini’s Party grew and many of his followers were known as ‘Blackshirts’
and they used violence to push Fascists ideas. When in August the Communists tried to
call in a strike the Fascists used force to make sure that everything continued as usual.
This was a success for Mussolini and gave him the confidence to demand that he be made
Prime Minister. His Blackshirts in Florence were ready to march to Rome if necessary.
The King gave in to Mussolini’s demands as he was afraid that a civil war might follow.

Mussolini was made Prime Minister and was in control. He made moving speeches of a
return to the old glories of the Roman Empire. He claimed he wanted to restore Italy to
its former glory and to make the Mediterranean an Italian lake. He wanted Fascism to be
seen as the continuation of ancient Rome. In spite of this Mussolini moved cautiously
and did not turn Italy into a dictatorship straight away. This was until the 31
December 1924 when his Blackshirts insisted that he acted decisively and set up a
dictatorship or else they would remove him from power.

One of the reasons for Mussolini’s success was that he was often very vague when it
came to the principles of Fascism. In fact as he gained more success he adopted those
policies that suited him. These included:
 Extreme nationalism (he wanted to restore Italy to the former glory of Ancient
Rome and to prove Italy’s superiority to ‘inferior’ races and establish an empire in
Africa).
 Dictatorship (Mussolini believed that democracy only weakened states and that
only a firm ruler in total control could provide the necessary leadership. That
man was of course himself – the ‘Duce’).
 Economic self-sufficiency (the country had to develop its own resources if it was
to be self-sufficient. He also believed that all major businesses had to be directed
through the government in the interests of the nation).
 Military strength and war (Mussolini had declared that ‘War is to the male what
childbearing is to the female’. He believed that success in war was the only true
test of a nation’s greatness. He therefore devoted much of Italy’s resources to
strengthening Italy’s armed forces).

As dictator Mussolini brought an end to freedom of press and political parties. Among
the methods he used to remove free press was the burning down of offices and the
destruction of presses. He also set up a secret police known as the OVRA and their main
function was to harass political parties. Their methods included murder as well as
imprisonment. Although Mussolini used brutal force against his enemies, his rule was
nowhere as cruel as that of Hitler’s Germany, particularly as they were no concentration
camps set up in Italy.

There were some advances such as public works schemes like motorway building and the
draining of the Pontine Marshes which helped to create work and help to modernise Italy.
A serious attempt was made to excavate and display Italy’s Ancient Roman heritage and
this helped to boost tourism. By 1930 the production of iron and steel had doubled.
However, in spite of these improvements Italy was still a poor country especially since
much of the country’s resources had been squandered causing a greater strain on the

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country’s economy. Indeed Mussolini was guilty of pushing his country in a war
knowing full well that Italy could not match the industrial might of her enemies and
knowing that her armed forces were weak, badly equipped and badly led.

Mussolini’s foreign policy lacked inconsistency. Prior to 1936 he was strongly anti-
German and had even opposed Hitler in 1934 when it seemed that Hitler might launch an
attack on Austria. However, after the crisis of Abyssinia, when Britain and France had
angered Mussolini by not supporting him in his conquest even though they had not
actually obstructed his actions, he saw Hitler as an ally. Whereas the League of Nations,
backed by Britain and France had applied sanctions (which were inadequate as they did
not include oil) Germany was the only country that offered to trade normally with Italy.
From then onwards there was a strong alliance between Italy and Germany with Hitler
being the dominant one. The alliance was not popular in Italy however and many still
viewed Germany as their enemy.

Questions

1. What kind of personality did Mussolini have as a child?

2. Why were many in Italy angry with the treaties?
3. Why was there extreme poverty in the south of Italy?
4. How did proportional representation make Italy’s position more difficult?
5. Why were the wealthy so willing to back Mussolini?
6. Why did the general strike of 1922 benefit the Fascists?
7. How did Mussolini deal with Italy’s free press from 1925?
8. What caused a strain on Italy’s economy?
9. When did Mussolini begin to view Hitler as an ally and why?
10. List some similarities between Mussolini and Hitler.

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Japan
Rivalry between Japan and the USA had begun since the 1920s. While the European
powers fought during WWI Japan was able to take over much of the trading activities i n
the Far East. Japan was becoming very prosperous and becoming a stronger nation. The
USA also wanted to dominate the trade in the Pacific and began to be concerned about
Japan’s prosperity. The USA began to pressure Japan into a series of treaties that would
limit Japan’s influence over China. Japan also had to reduce the size of its navy.

Tariffs had also been placed on Japanese goods in both the USA and European countries.
The Japanese reacted by focusing on building its own empire in the mainland of Asia.
This move was led by powerful businessmen and military leaders, such as General Tojo.
When the World Depression began to hit Japan these empire builders took their chance
and invaded Manchuria in 1931 and six years later they also launched a full-scale war on
China.

American President Roosevelt had become concerned when Japan and Germany signed
the Anti-Comintern Pact in 1936. When Italy joined in 1937 this brought the three
aggressive regimes together. That same year Japan launched a full-scale invasion against
China. Public opinion in the US still supported isolationism but Roosevelt began to fear
that war might be inevitable and began to prepare the people for the possibility.

Japan’s invasion of China was a success and with Europe involved in war, Japan began to
eye European colonies in the Far East. President Roosevelt correctly guessed that Japan
had designs on these territories and therefore restricted the supply of important materials
to Japan from 1940. Roosevelt was concerned about American interests in China and in
the Pacific particularly in the Philippines.

Japan wanted to be self-sufficient and that is why Japan wanted to carve out an empire in
the Far East so that it would have sufficient vital materials such as rice, oil, coal and
rubber. However, in doing so it would threaten not only the USA but another powerful
nation the USSR. The threat of the USSR was solved when Germany attacked the USSR
in June 1941. Soon afterwards Japan took control of French Indo-China. Roosevelt froze
Japanese assets and cut supplies of iron which only made the Japanese leaders more
convinced that they needed an empire.

Tension grew and as Germany fought the USSR, Japan began to plan an offensive against
the USA. Unable to challenge the USA outright, Japan devised a plan to knock out USA
Pacific fleet in one swift move. This would allow Japan to create its new empire with all
its resources and by the time the USA would have recovered it would be too late. On the
morning of 7 December 1941, some 300 planes took off from Japanese aircraft carriers to
launch their attack on the US Pacific fleet at Pearl Harbour. The next day, the US
Congress declared war on Japan.

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3. Hitler’s Foreign Policy up to 1939

Hitler’s Plans
Hitler was never secretive about his plans for Germany. He had already laid out his plans
what he would do if the Nazis ever achieved power as early as 1924 when he wrote Mein
Kampf. His three main aims were to abolish the Treaty of Versailles, expand German
territory and defeat Communism. In his book he clearly stated that he believed that the
German people were a superior race and that they should all be in the same country. For
this reason he heavily criticised the Treaty of Versailles for leaving German people in
Czechoslovakia and Poland.

He also stated that once all Germans were united, they would need more land or ‘living
space’ (Lebensraum) and so this land would be taken from the east, from Poland and
Russia. These lands were inhabited by Slavs who as far as he was concerned were an
inferior race, not to mention the fact that the USSR was communist. Hitler was also a
very strong anti-Communist and one of his main objectives was to defeat Communism or
Bolshevism. He believed that they were responsible for Germany’s defeat in WWI and
he also believed that the Bolsheviks wanted to take over Germany.

The only way Germany was to achieve these aims would be through war. In order for
Germany to be ready for this, Germany would have to ignore the Treaty of Versailles and
begin rearmament. Hitler hated the Treaty of Versailles. Like many Germans Hitler
believed that the Treaty was unjust and referred to the German leaders who signed it as
the ‘November Criminals’. The Treaty constantly reminded the Germans that they had
lost the war and it also reminded them of the humiliation by the Allies. As a result of the
Treaty they had also lost important territory.

It made no difference that by the time Hitler came to power, some of the terms of the
treaty had already been changed. It was not enough. Hitler wanted to regain the territory
lost and he wanted to unite Germany with Austria. He also wanted to carve out an
Eastern Empire for Germany.

When events leading to WWII are viewed in this way it appears as if Hitler planned it all
step by step. Until the 1960s many historians held this view. Then British historian AJP
Taylor came up with a new interpretation. Although Hitler knew what he wanted to
achieve he believed that Hitler did not have it all planned out but rather that he gambled
and took the next logical step to see what he could get away with. He was bold and held
his nerve and as other countries gave into him and allowed him to get away with each
gamble, he became bolder and risked more. According to Taylor, it was Britain, the
Allies and the League of Nations who were to blame for letting Hitler get away with it
when they did not stand up to him. Both interpretations are possible.

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Timeline shows how between 1933 and 1939, Hitler turned his plans into actions.

1933 Took Germany out of the League of Nations. Hitler was indignant that
none of the other countries were disarming while Germany had been
forced to do so in 1919.
Began rearming Germany – this not only was meant to solve the
unemployment problem it would also make Germany strong again.
1934 Tried to take over Austria. Hitler ordered Austrian Nazis to assassinate
Austrian Chancellor Dollfuss and then began to prepare to take over
Austria. Mussolini intervened and sent Italian troops up to the border to
stop Hitler. At this point in time the German forces were not yet strong
enough for such a confrontation and Hitler backed down.
1935 The Plebiscite in the Saar, in accordance with the Treaty of Versailles,
voted in favour to join Germany. This was a minor victory for Hitler.
Germany openly rearms and a massive rearmament rally is held.
Anglo-German naval agreement allows Germany to build a fleet up to 35
per cent of the size of the British navy.
Hitler reintroduced conscription in Germany.
1936 While all eyes were on Abyssinia Hitler sent German troops into the
Rhineland. This region had been declared demilitarised by the Treaty of
Versailles. Hitler and his generals were nervous. If France had sent
troops Hitler would have backed down as German forces were not yet
strong enough to challenge France. France, however, was in the middle of
an election campaign and unsure of British support and so did not act.
This meant that Hitler got away with this gamble.
Mussolini was fed up with the attitude of Britain and France over his
invasion of Abyssinia. The fact that Hitler had not interfered in any way
put him in favourable light. Hitler and Mussolini signed the Rome-Berlin
Axis agreement.
Hitler also made an anti-Communist alliance with Japan.
1937 Italy joined Germany and Japan and signed the anti-Comintern Pact.
In the Spanish Civil War Hitler chose to support the anti-Communist
leader, General Franco, and tried out Germany’s new weapons. The
Luftwaffe was sent to make bomb raids and Guernica was destroyed.
1938 Took over Austria. This is referred to as the Anschluss.
Took over the Sudetenland area of Czechoslovakia where three million
Germans lived.
1939 Invaded the rest of Czechoslovakia
Invaded Poland
WAR

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The Saar plebiscite

The Saar region of Germany (a rich coal-mining area) had been run by the League of
Nations since 1919. In 1935 the League held the promised plebiscite for the people so
that they could vote whether the region should return to German rule or not. The result
was an overwhelming success for Hitler. Over 90 per cent of the population voted in
favour of the region returning to German rule. This was entirely legal and within the
terms of the Treaty and a great moral boost for Hitler. This not only meant that some
German people were re-united it also meant that Germany regained territory.

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland

In March 1936, Hitler took his first really big risk when he moved troops into the
Rhineland area of Germany. This went against the Treaty of Versailles which had
stipulated that the area was to be demilitarised. This term had been again accepted by
Germany in the Locarno Treaties of 1925. Hitler was taking a huge gamble for if he had
been forced to withdraw he would have lost a great deal of German support especially
from the army itself. This was because Hitler’s generals were against the move as they
thought the French would resist and also because the German army was too weak.

Hitler, however, had timed it well. France and the USSR had just signed a treaty to
protect each other against an attack from Germany. Hitler used this agreement to claim
that Germany was under threat and that he should be allowed to place his troops along his
frontier. Hitler was confident that Britain would not intervene as many in Britain
believed that he had a right to station his troops in the Rhineland and would not risk war
over ‘Hitler marching into his own backyard’. The gamble was mainly whether France
would intervene or not.

Hitler was well aware that although the German armed forces had become stronger, they
still did not match the strength of the French forces. The German forces still lacked the
essential equipment and air support. Therefore the German commanders had strict orders
that should France act against them they would have to retreat. Hitler’s gamble paid off
and luckily for Hitler, the French did not call his bluff and did nothing to intervene. In
fact everything went smoothly and the majority of the people welcomed the troops.

When all this was happening the League of Nations was preoccupied with the Abyssinian
crisis. The league did criticise Hitler’s action but had no power to do anything else. The
French, who were the most directly threatened by the move were divided on what course
of action to take as none of the French leaders were prepared to take responsibility for
plunging France into another war. Naturally France was unaware of just how weak
Hitler’s forces were otherwise they would probably have acted. In the end they refused
to act unless they had the support of Britain.

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The Goose-Step is a political cartoon drawn by E. H. Shepard in 1936

The Goose-Step

"Goosey Goosey Gander.

Whither dost thou wander?"
"Only through the Rheinland—
Pray excuse my Blunder

The cartoon shows an armed goose marching down a road. There is a swastika on its
chest, and it is stepping on a torn Locarno Pact. The Goose holds an olive branch in its
beak with a label reading Pax Germanica attached to it. There are many Nazi flags
sticking out of the buildings it is walking past. Below the drawing of the goose there is a
short poem, which reminds one of the nursery rhyme Goosey, Goosey Gander.

The goose-step was the march of the German army. The goose has an olive branch
which is the symbol for peace, in its mouth. However it is clear that its intentions are not
peaceful but is clearly intending on war from all the weapons it is holding. The children's
rhyme about goosey gander wandering is intended to show that the Rhineland is far from
Hitler's last conquest. It proved to be a correct view.

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Anschluss with Austria, 1938

Encouraged by his successes of 1936 and 1937, Hitler then turned his attention to his
homeland, Austria. The Austrian people were mainly Germans and were linked
culturally. Hitler had made it clear in Mein Kampf that he believed that the two states
belonged together as one German nation. He was not alone in this as many Austrians
supported the idea of union with Germany. The economy in Austria was weak and Hitler
was convinced that he could bring them together as one ‘greater Germany’. His previous
attempt in 1934 had been stopped by Mussolini but now in 1938, after the Abyssinian
crisis, Mussolini was his ally and did nothing to stand in Hitler’s way.

There was a strong Nazi Party in Austria and the Austrian Chancellor Schuschnigg had
appointed Nazis into his government. Hitler encouraged them to stir up trouble for the
government. They did this by bombing public buildings, staging demonstrations for
union with Germany and causing riots. Hitler then told Schuschnigg that only Anschluss
(political union) could sort out these problems. Hitler began to pressurise Schuschnigg to
agree to Anschluss. Schuschnigg turned to France and Britain for help but when they
refused to help him he opted for a plebiscite (a referendum) to see what the Austrian
people wanted.

Hitler was concerned that he might lose and did not want this plebiscite to take place.
For this reason he sent in his troops in March 1938 under the pretence of ensuring a
trouble-free referendum. His real intention was to intimidate the people to vote in his
favour. Under the watchful eye of the Nazi troops, 99.75 per cent of the people voted for
Anschluss.

Anschluss was completed without any confrontation with France and Britain.
Chamberlain, the British Prime Minister, felt that it was wrong that the Treaty of
Versailles had separated Austria and Germany and that they had a right to be united.
Britain’s Lord Halifax had even suggested to Hitler before the Anschluss that Britain
would not resist Germany uniting with Austria.

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Questions for Hitler’s Plans

1. Refer to the cartoon the ‘Goose-step’.

a. What was the goose-step?
b. In which area of Germany is the “goose” walking?
c. Why is the “goose” carrying weapons?
d. Which event is depicted by the cartoon?
e. What is the significance of the “goose” standing on a piece of paper with
the words “Locarno” written on it?
f. Which other treaty was also violated by this action? Explain your answer.
g. Look at the equipment carried by the goose. What does this tell you about
how the cartoonist saw the new Germany?
h. ‘Pax Germanica’ is Latin and means ‘Peace, German style’. Explain.

2. Why was the occupation of the Rhineland a gigantic bluff?

3. How did the remilitarisation of the Rhineland reveal the division between
Britain and France?

4. Why was Hitler’s Anschluss with Austria achieved so easily?

5. What factors allowed Hitler to get away with rearming Germany?

15
Crisis over Czechoslovakia - The Sudetenland, 1938

After the Austrian Anschluss, the leader of Czechoslovakia, Edward Benes, was horrified
as he realised that his country would be next. Benes sought the support of Britain and
France and that they would honour their agreement and defend Czechoslovakia should
Hitler invade. The French were reluctant but were bound by the Locarno Treaty and
therefore agreed whilst the British felt bound to support France. Meanwhile Chamberlain
asked Hitler whether he had designs on Czechoslovakia.

‘I give you my word of honour that Czechoslovakia has nothing to fear from the
Reich.’
Hitler speaking to Chamberlain, 1938

Chamberlain was reassured by Hitler’s promise but Hitler did have designs for
Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia had been created by the Treaty of Versailles and it was
occupied by many Germans who had previously been subjects of the Austrian-Hungarian
Empire in the Sudetenland region. Henlein, the leader of the Nazis in the Sudetenland,
stirred up trouble among the Germans there and demanded to be part of Germany. The
German Nazis in the Sudetenland complained that they were being badly treated.

In May 1938, Hitler made his intentions for Czechoslovakia clear even if it meant going
to war. Evidence suggests that the German forces were still not strong enough to
challenge the other powers to war. This has led to a difference of opinion among
historians as to whether Hitler was buffing or meant it. Whether Hitler was bluffing or
not the news put the rest of Europe on full war alert.

Taking control of Czechoslovakia would be more difficult than that of Austria. Britain,
France and the USSR had all promised to support Czechoslovakia which also had a
modern army. Also the Czechoslovak leader, Benes, was prepared to put up a fight. He
was aware that if they lost the Sudetenland with its defences, railways and industries,
they would be defenceless.

All throughout summer the tension rose in Europe. Many envisaged that if a war broke
out there would be a repeat of the Spanish Civil War where the bombing of civilians had
occurred. In Britain air-raid shelters were built and magazines carried advertisements for
air-raid protection and gas masks.

In September the problem reached critical point. In an attempt to try to reach an

agreement Chamberlain met up with Hitler on 15 September to discuss the situation.
Chamberlain believed that the meeting went well and even thought that Hitler was
reasonable as he demanded only part of the Sudetenland and only if the plebiscite voted
in favour of joining Germany. Chamberlain was convinced that if Hitler got what he
wanted he would be satisfied.

However, he was wrong. At a second meeting Hitler increased his demands, ‘regretting’
that the previously arranged terms were not enough and that now he wanted the whole of

16
Sudetenland. To justify his demands he claimed that the Germans in the Sudetenland
were being mistreated and was determined to ‘rescue’ them by the 1 October.
Chamberlain told Hitler that he was being unreasonable. The British navy was mobilised
and war seemed imminent.

War was averted by the Munich Agreement. On the 29 September the leaders of Britain,
France, Germany and Italy met to discuss the fate of the Sudetenland. It was agreed that
Hitler was to get the Sudetenland as had been agreed at Bad Godesberg. The claims on
Czech territory by Hungary and Poland were to be met and it was agreed that
Czechoslovakia’s new frontiers would be guaranteed by the four powers – Britain,
France, Germany and Italy. All this was decided without consulting the Czechs. They
also did not consult the USSR. The following morning Chamberlain and Hitler published
a joint declaration.

We regard the Agreement signed last night … as symbolic of the desire of our two
peoples never to go to war with one another again. We are resolved that we shall use
consultation to deal with any other questions that may concern our two countries, and
we are determined to continue our efforts to assure the peace of Europe.
The joint declaration of Chamberlain and Hitler, 30 September 1938

Chamberlain claimed that it would bring ‘peace for our time’. Back home Chamberlain
was even welcomed by the British public as a hero for diverting the war. Meanwhile
Winston Churchill who was out of favour with the government warned them that this was
a total defeat and that in time Czechoslovakia would be overrun by the Nazi Regime.

Hitler had gambled that Britain would not risk war and he was right. He spoke of the
Munich Agreement as ‘an undreamt-of triumph, so great that you can scarcely imagine
it’. Hitler was jubilant after all he got the whole of Sudetenland without even firing a
shot. On 1 October German troops marched into the Sudetenland. To make matters
worse Poland and Hungary took the opportunity to help themselves to Czech territories
where Poles and Hungarians were living.

The Czechs were furious that they had not even been consulted. Losing the Sudetenland
meant that they lost important defences against Germany. The Czechs had been betrayed
and Benes resigned.

Many were relieved that the war seemed to be averted. At the same time, however, many
people in Britain were openly questioning the whole policy of Appeasement. Opinion
polls in September 1938 indicated that many British did not believe that the policy of
Appeasement would stop Hitler and that war had only been delayed. Indeed while the
Munich Agreement was being signed Hitler had approved a massive increase in arms
spending in preparation for war.

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Crisis over Poland

Both Hitler and Chamberlain had misunderstood each other. Chamberlain had thought
that Hitler could be trusted. He had never dealt with anyone who was prepared to lie,
bully and break his word the way Hitler had done. When Hitler had invaded
Czechoslovakia, Chamberlain was finally convinced that Hitler could not be trusted and
that Poland would be his next target. He therefore made an alliance with Poland and
promised to support Poland if German forces invaded there. France had already made
such an agreement. Hitler also had misunderstood Chamberlain as he thought that
Chamberlain would do anything to avoid a war and that this would let him get away with
everything. Hitler was wrong.

On 15 March 1939 while Czechoslovakia was still in chaos, German troops marched in
and took over the rest of the country. The Czechs offered no resistance and neither
Britain nor France intervened. However, it was clear to all that Hitler could not be
trusted. Even Chamberlain felt that Hitler had gone too far as the Czechs were not
separated from their homeland by the Treaty of Versailles and this was an invasion.
There were concerns that Hitler would next focus on Poland. Britain and France declared
that the policy of Appeasement had ended and that if Hitler attempted to take Poland they
would declare war on Germany.

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4. Policy of Appeasement

Why did Britain and France follow a policy of Appeasement in the 1930s?

By the mid-1930s British and French leaders had adopted a policy of Appeasement
towards Hitler (and also Mussolini). This meant that they followed a policy of giving
these dictators, especially Hitler, what they wanted. This policy is known as
Appeasement. Many felt that the Treaty of Versailles was too harsh and that some of the
demands that the dictators made were fair. The British and French leaders hoped that
once Hitler and Mussolini got most of what they wanted they would be satisfied and start
to behave reasonable – they would be appeased.

Neville Chamberlain is the man most associated with this policy although he did not
actually become Prime Minister until 1937. Many other British people including
politicians were also in favour of this policy for a variety of reasons.

 Hitler was standing up to Communism. Although Britain and her allies were
concerned about Hitler, they were also very concerned about the spread of
Communism and particularly about the world peace posed by Stalin, the new
leader of the USSR. Many saw Hitler as the buffer to the threat of spreading
Communism.
 The USA would not support them if Britain stood up to Hitler. American
leaders were determined that they would not be dragged into another war and had
made this very clear. Therefore Britain and France were reluctant to face
Germany without the guarantee of American support.
 The attitude of the British Empire. It was uncertain whether the rest of the
British Empire (example Canada) would participate in the war.
 Many felt that the Treaty of Versailles was unfair. For this reason many thought
that once these wrongs were put right then Germany would become a peaceful
nation again.
 Many did not want to repeat the horrors of WWI. Many, especially both British
and French leaders still remembered the horrors of the Great War and wished to
avoid another war at almost any cost.
 Britain was not ready for war. The British government did not believe that the
armed forces were ready for a war against Hitler especially since many cuts had
been made over the years as a result of the Depression. Also British military
planners had believed German propaganda on rearmament and thought that
Germany was more prepared for war than Germany actually was.
 Solving the economic problems was a major priority. The Depression had had a
huge impact of the economy of both France and Britain. They both had huge
debts and high unemployment rates.

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What was wrong with Appeasement?

Many in Britain may have felt that Appeasement was the only way but there were
obvious risks to this policy and some of these were pointed out at the time, others became
more apparent in hindsight.
 It encouraged Hitler to be aggressive. With hindsight it is evident that as Hitler
got away with each gamble this encouraged him to take a bigger risk.
 It put too much trust in Hitler’s promises. With hindsight it is clear that Hitler
often went back on his promises. Appeasement was based on the mistaken idea
that Hitler was trustworthy and would keep his promises.
 It allowed Germany to grow too strong. With hindsight it is clear that Germany
was recovering lost ground and that it was also becoming much more powerful
than Britain and France.
 It scared the USSR. With hindsight it is clear that this policy alarmed the USSR.
Hitler made no secret of his plans to expand eastwards. Appeasement sent the
message to Stalin and the USSR that Britain and France would not stand in
Hitler’s way.

The end of Appeasement

On 15 March 1939 as Czechoslovakia was still in chaos, German troops marched in and
took over the rest of the country. The Czechs offered no resistance and neither Britain
nor France intervened. However, it was clear to all that Hitler could not be trusted. Even
Chamberlain felt that Hitler had gone too far as the Czechs were not separated from their
homeland by the Treaty of Versailles and this was an invasion. There were concerns that
Hitler would next focus on Poland. Britain and France declared that the policy of
Appeasement had ended and that if Hitler attempted to take Poland they would declare
war on Germany. Britain and France signed a formal alliance with Poland on 25 August
1939.

After years of gaining what he wanted from the policy of Appeasement Hitler did not
take them seriously. Indeed he intended to regain German land in Poland which was now
referred to as the Polish Corridor. He did not believe that Britain or France would act but
he was concerned about the USSR. He was aware that Stalin was concerned about him
and his intolerance for Communism. Stalin had not been impressed by the European
powers or the League of Nations especially after the invasion of Abyssinia and the failure
of Disarmament. Stalin was aware that some welcomed a stronger Germany as a force to
stop Communism. Although USSR and France had signed a treaty in 1935 whereby
France would help the USSR should Germany attack, Stalin was not sure whether he
could rely on France.

The Munich Agreement in 1938 only helped to increase Stalin’s fears especially since he
had not even been consulted. He concluded that France and Britain were powerless to
stop Hitler or they were happy for Hitler to take over the USSR. Nevertheless Stalin tried
again to talk with Britain and France to form an alliance against Hitler. The three
countries met in March 1939 but Chamberlain was reluctant to commit Britain. To make
things worse from Stalin’s point of view, Britain and France did guarantee that they

20
would intervene if Poland was invaded. Although Chamberlain meant this guarantee as a
warning to Hitler, Stalin saw it as support for one of his potential enemies.

Negotiations between the three countries continued throughout summer, however,

meanwhile Stalin was also having talks with the Nazi foreign minister Ribbentrop. They
discussed the Nazi-Soviet Pact and on 24 August 1939 Stalin decided to sign the
agreement. In public they agreed not to attack one another but privately they also had
decided to divide Poland between them.

Stalin signed the Nazi-Soviet Pact for three main reasons:

 Stalin was convinced that Britain and France were not strong or reliable allies
against Germany.
 Stalin also wanted to take control of Poland and he also had sights on the Baltic
regions since these had once formed part of Russia when the Tsar was in power.
 Although he did not believe Hitler, Stalin hoped that he would have enough time
to build up his forces to be strong enough against an attack he knew would
come.

Hitler was pleased with this Pact because it cleared the way for him to attack Poland
without having to worry about what action the USSR would take. This pact left Britain
and France alone to fight against Germany and Hitler was surprised that they signed a
formal alliance to protect Poland’s independence. Hitler still ignored the warnings and
invaded Poland. On 1 September 1939 German troops attacked Poland from the west and
on the 17 September the Soviet Union attacked Poland from the east. Poland soon fell.
To Hitler’s surprise and dismay on 2 September Britain and France declared war against
Germany. It was too soon and against the wrong opponents. He had taken one gamble
too many.

Was the Appeasement the right policy?

Chamberlain was very much in favour of this policy even though is was a controversial
policy at the time. It still is today. There are two main views:
 It was the wrong policy because it encouraged Hitler. Chamberlain’s critics say
that it simply encouraged Hitler to continue in his aims to expand and gain more
territory for Germany. Many believed that if Britain and France had stood up to
Hitler from the start he would have backed down. Peace would have been
secured.
 It was the right policy because Britain was not ready for war. Chamberlain’s
defenders say that it was the only real policy that he had at the time. If he was
to stand up to Hitler then he had to be prepared to put Britain into a war. All the
available evidence he had suggested to him that Britain was not ready. Public
opinion was against war. Important countries in the empire were also against
war and so was the USA. Most importantly the British forces were not ready
and had fallen behind the Germans over the last few years as a result of the
Depression.

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Questions for Appeasement
Source A

1. Who drew the cartoon and when was it drawn?

2. Describe what you see in the cartoon.
3. What does the cartoonist think Appeasement will lead to?
Source B

4. Who drew the cartoon and when?

5. Describe what you see in the cartoon.
6. What does the cartoonist think about the Anschluss?
Other Questions
7. What was the idea behind Appeasement?
8. Make notes under the following headings to summarise why Britain followed a
policy of Appeasement.
a. Military reasons
b. Economic reasons
c. Fear
d. Public opinion
e. Other

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Activity for Outbreak of War

Study the sources below and answer the following questions.

Source A

1. Who is the figure in the doorway?

2. The second seated figure on the right is
Daladier, the French Prime Minister. Name
the other three seated figures.
3. What agreement are the four seated figures
discussing?
4. What is the figure in the doorway implying
when he asks why there is no chair for him?
How does he react?

From Evening Standard, Friday, September 30, 1938

Source B Source C

1. Who are the two figures in the cartoons?

2. What elements in Source B indicate that they are allied?
3. What elements in Source C indicate that they are allied?
4. What in Source B indicates that the alliance is not likely to last?
5. What in Source C indicates that the alliance is not likely to last?
6. What does the dead figure between the two figures in Source B represent?
7. What is the point the cartoonists are trying to make about the Nazi-Soviet
Pact?
8. Do you agree with their view of the Pact? Explain your answer.

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Study the cartoon below and answer the following questions.

The above is a Soviet cartoon from 1939. The signpost reads: ‘Western Europe’ on the
left arm and ‘USSR’ on the right.
The above is a Soviet cartoon from 1939. The policemen are Britain (Chamberlain, right)
and France (Daladier, left). The people in the car are German Nazis (Hitler, Goering and
Goebbels). The signpost reads: ‘Western Europe’ on the left arm and ‘USSR’ on the
right.
Note: - Chamberlain was Prime Minister of the UK from 1937 – 1940 (10 May).
Died 9 November 1940
Churchill replaced Chamberlain
24 August 1939 – Nazi-Soviet Pact signed.

1. Identify the two countries represented by the policemen.

2. Which country is represented by the car? Name three of the occupants.
3. In which direction are the policemen pointing to the car? What is their
purpose, according to the cartoonist, in doing this?
4. Given that the policeman with the moustache is Chamberlain, explain why the
year of the cartoon’s publication cannot have been
a. before 1937
b. after 24 August 1939
5. In general what view of the Western powers’ attitude to Russia is the cartoon
trying to get across?
6. Is there, in your opinion, any justification for the Soviet view about the
attitude of the countries represented by the policemen?
7. Use this cartoon and your knowledge to explain the Soviet agreement to the
Nazi-Soviet Pact of August 1939.

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5. How did the War Become a World War?

In the early years of WWII Germany had quickly defeated Poland and there was no
fighting in Western Europe. Then in May 1940 Hitler finally invaded France. He swept
through the Netherlands and Belgium and conquered most of France in two months. It
was called the ‘lightning war’ or Blitzkrieg.

Meanwhile on the other side of the world a separate conflict occurred. On Sunday 7
December 1941, while a band was rehearsing on the deck of a warship in the US naval
base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii a wave of Japanese fighter planes came dropping bombs
and torpedoes. By the afternoon Pearl Harbour lay in ruins and the US fleet was a mass
of twisted metal. Japan planned to continue its strategy to dominate the Pacific.

In spite of following the Policy of Isolationism by 1941 there was already a definite shift
in the opinions of the American politicians and military leaders. The fall of France in
1940 and the effectiveness of the German army as it swept through western Europe had
jolted the Americans and they began to take a more active interest in Europe. Roosevelt
also got to know that there had been top level meetings between the leaders of Germany,
Italy and Japan and that an agreement had been signed on 27 September 1940. This was
an agreement that each of these three regimes would assist each other in any way possible
when one of them is at war with a power that at present was not involved in the European
war or the Chinese-Japanese conflict. Although not specifically mentioned it was evident
that the country targeted was the USA.

Although the USA was supposedly neutral it was clear that Roosevelt supported Britain.
He introduced the ‘Lend-Lease’ scheme to help Britain and this enabled him to supply
Britain with vital supplies for free. The USA also harassed German submarines in the
North Atlantic in order to ‘protect American shipping’. The USA was doing all it could
for Britain except fight. This changed when Japan attacked the US Pacific fleet at Pearl
Harbour on 7 December 1941. The next day the US Congress declared war on Japan and
three days later on 11 December, Hitler declared war on the USA.

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