VALUES AND ATTITUDES Highlights (0.0 4.1. Concept and Nature of Values 4.2 Terminal and Instrumental Values 43 Determinants of Values 44 — Importance of Values in Organisational Behaviour 45 Concept and nature of attitude 4.5 Components of Attitudes 4.7 Job retated attitudes and behaviour 48 Measurement of Attitude 49 Cognitive Dissonance 4.10 Job Satisfaction 4.11 Motives are a powerful, from people's ity and, therefore, vat i “They are at the core of personality and, the ta force affecting behaviour Va embedded that they can be inforred though silent, force affecting behaviour, Values are ‘so ct 0 % i b t 4 . jour in an emp the behaviour and their expressed attitudes. What may ‘appear’ to be strange PEA gy infsnes Or sense if managers understand the value underlying that behaviolt aoe they are imPO _ attitudes, perceptions, needs and motives of people at work, That Is W' Organisational behaviour. ar) © scanned with OKEN Scanner44 "CONCEPT AND NATURE OF VALUES \ What are Values ? According to Milton Rokeach. (or end-state of existence) is personal state of existence)”. They contain a judgeme is right, good, or desirable. ‘Values have both content and intensity attributes. The content attribute emphasizes that a mode of conduct or end-state of existence is important, They intensity attribute specifies how important it is, When we rank an individual’s values in terms of their intensity, we obtain the value system of that person, All of us have a hierarchy of values that forms our value system. This system is identified by the relative importance we assign to such values as freedom, self-respect, honesty, obedience, equality, and so on. Values are so embedded that they can be inferred from people’s behaviour and their perception, personality and motivation. They generally influence their behaviour. Values are relatively stable and enduring. This is because of the way in which they are originally learnt. “Values represent basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct ily or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct (or end- ntal element, i.e., they carry an individual's ideas as to what Features of Values A value system is viewed as a relatively permanent perceptual framework which influences the nature of an individual’s behaviour, The values are the attributes possessed by an individual and considered desirable. ‘Values are similar to attitudes but are more permanent and well built in nature. The distinct features of values are as under : () Values provide standards of morality. (ii) Values are relatively permanent and resistant to change. (iii) Values are most central to the core of a person. (iv) Values have two attributes—content and intensity. The content attribute stresses that a particular code of conduct is important. The intensity attribute specifies how important that particular code of conduct is. . (») Values transcend specific objects, situations or persons. (vi) Values are fewer in number than attitudes. TABLE 4.1. Difference between Values and Attitudes (ee Values 1, Values represent judgement of what ‘ attitudes ~ Attitudes represent predispositions to ought to be. This judgement is basic respond. to respond in a given way. i i “ 2 ae 2. Avalue represents single belief that 2. Anattitude represents several beliefs guides actions and judgementacross | focussed on a specific object or objects and situations. situation. re 3, Values are aes from social and « 3, Attitudes are derived from personal ‘ cultural morés. i experiences. | a © scanned with OKEN Scannerlues and Attitudes pes of Values GW.Allport, P.E. Vernon and G 1 Theoretical. Interest in the discove * geal theoretical man values the discovery of truth : nomic. Interest in usefulness and practicality, including the accumulation of wealth. The eer economic man values what is usefitl and is concerned with practical affairs. xity, form and artistic harmony. The ideal aesthetic man values artistic in life, though he himself may not be creative. d human relationships. The ideal social man places great values on val vey have categorised values into six major types as follows : of truth through reasoning and systematic thinking. The v id Aesthetic. Interest in bem |. Interest in peopl Soci J al 4 Sliation and love, He tends to be kind and sympathetic to other individuals. « political. Interest in gaining power and influencing other people. The ideal political man places oreat value on power. Religious. Interest in unity and understanding the cosmos as a whole. The highest value for o the ideal religious man may be called unity. It should be noted that different people give different rankings to the above mentioned values. This is env important for understanding the behaviour of the people. George England has classified values under two groups as follows: 1 Pragmatic Values. These are guided by the desire for whatever is practical and succesful irrespective of what is good or bad. 2 Moralistic Values. Such values are based on ethics and define what is right and just. 42 TERMINAL AND INSTRUMENTAL VALUES Milton Rokeach in his study identified two types of values, namely (i) terminal values, and (ii) instrumental values as shown in Table 4.2 and 4.3. Terminal Values. A terminal value is an ultimate goal or end of a person: It might include comfortable life, family security, sense of accomplishment, self respect, freedom (autonomy), social recognition, etc. Instrumental Values. An instrumental value relates to means for achieving the desired outcome or end. In other words, it is a tool to acquire a terminal value. Both terminal and instrumental values operate in concert to provide individuals with goals to strive for and the acceptable ways (or means) to achieve the goals. The combination of terminal and instrumental values of an individual creates an enduring cluster of values called the ‘value system’. TABLE 4.2. Terminal Values 11. Aworld of peace 1. Comfortable life 2. Sense of accomplishment 12, Aworld of beauty 3. Family security y 13, Equality 4. Mature love 14. Happiness §; Self-respect 415. Inner Harmony 6. Wisdom 16, National Security 7, Exciting life AT es 8. Freedom 18. Salvation 9. Social recognition 10. Truefriendship atest = — i © scanned with OKEN ScannerTABLE 4.3. Instrumental Values 41. Ambitious 11. Independent 2, Broad minded 12. Intellectual 3. Capable 13. Logical 4. Cheerful 44. Loving 5. Clean 18. Obediont 6. Courageous 16. Polite 7, Forgiving 17. Responsible 8. Helpful 18. Self controlled 9. Honest : 40. Imaginative 4.3 DETERMINANTS OF VALUES The following types of factors influence the values of people : 1. Family Factors. The most important factor which influences the value system of an individual is his immediate family. The child rearing practices the parents adopt shape the personality of the human beings. Some values are inculcated in the individual from the childhood and remain in his mind throughout his life. Family is the most influential factor in the individual’s learning of social behaviour, values and norms. 2. Social Factors. Of all the social factors, school plays the most important role in developing the value system of an individual. The child learns the basic discipline from the school. Moreover, the interactions with teachers, classmates and other people in the school make the child inculcate values important to the teaching-learning process. Other social factors which may affect values are religious, economic and political institutions in the society. 3. Cultural Factors. Cultural factors include everything that is learned and passed on from generation to generation. Culture includes certain beliefs and other patterns of behaviour. An individual is a participant in social and organisational culture. Whether a person is co-operative, friendly or hostile depends upon the culture he belongs to. Individual relationships are different in different cultures and within certain groups of society also. Whether, the individual values money making or doing service to the mankind, again depends upon his cultural background. 4. Religious Factors. Individuals, generally, receive strength and comfort from their religion. Religion comprises of a set of values which are passed on from generation to generation. However, _ advancement in technology has reduced people’s faith in traditional religious beliefs and values. 5. Personal Factors. Personal attributes such as intelligence, ability, appearance and educational evel of the person determine the development of his value system. For example, one’s higher level of intelligence may result in faster understanding of values. 6. Life Experiences. A person leams the most from his own personal life experiences. Sometimes, we learn from the experiences of others also. In the long-run, most of the values which influence our behaviour are validated by the satisfaction we have experienced in pursuing them. Individuals work out their values on the basis of what seems most logical to them, Values carry importance in direct proportion to how much faith the individual has in them, He should have those values which can stand the test of © scanned with OKEN ScannerValues and Attitudes 4.4 IMPORTANCE OF VALUES IN ORGANISATIONAL BEHAVIOUR Values are leat ieee foretemele wil have cateaealred Primarily through experiences with people and institutions. Parents, cm eimecne eee A influence on their children’s values. A parent's reaction to everyday Wlues are also taught ra aie = bad, acceptable and unacceptable, and important and unimportant. asia nee orced in schools, religious organisations, and social groups. As we grow a rce of influence contributes to our definition of what is important in life? Values affect the behaviour of individuals in organisations. Every manager should have a proper ( Values provide the foundation of understanding the attitudes, shape the behaviour of individuals, ? (i) A system of shared values of the org culture. perceptions and motives which anisational members help in developing the organisational (iii) Organisational values which are ethical and in the interest of the society enhance the image of the organisation, 4.4.1 Values and Corporate Culture Corporate culture is the term used to describe a system of shared values (what is important) and beliefs (how things work) that create behavioural norms (the way we do things) to guide the activities of organisational members. It is believed that strong corporate culture facilitates higher performance. Thomas J. Peters and Robert H. Waterman, Jr., authors of In Search of Excellence state, for example, “Every excellent company, we studied, is clear on what it stands for, and takes the process of value shaping seriously”. Asa system of shared values, the corporate culture reflects a climate within which people value the same things and apply these values to benefit the corporation as a whole. One example is the dominant value of customer service. This value shall help to keep everyone from top management down to persons on the factory floor pulling in the same direction, Corporate values may be put in the form of slogans such as “The Family Feeling” by an Airline or “Quality at a good price” by a pharmaceutical giant. The strength of such slogans in communicating values lies in the basic promise that values can influence behaviour. 4.4.2. Values of Managers in Indian Organisations Every organisation has certain core values which represent the deeply ingrained principles that guide its action and practices ; they serve as its cultural cornerstone. According to Collins and Porras, “Core values are inherent and sacrosanct and so cannot be compromised either for convenience or for short-term economic gain.” ' fee identi mance and exc Waterman identified several values related to performat excel bles cated that excellent firms possess a distinct and identifiable set of F i i ity and service, being the best, innovation, isati at include beliefs about superior quality and service, be : ; Cee ete ‘ndividuals, the importance of detail in execution, the importance of informality n tation and goal accomplishment. marketplace. Their findings indi the importance of people as i i to enhance communication, and the importance of profit orient © scanned with OKEN Scannerite an object or symbol of that object in ae —Katz and Scotland response. This respons be either positive or negative. It is a learned reaction—one that results from an individual's past observations, direct experiences, or exposure to others’ attitudes,” ee —Samuel C. Certo “An attitude is a mental and neutral state of readiness, organised through experience, exerting _ a directive or dynamic influence upon the individual's response to all objects and situations with which it is related,” ~ a % —G.W. Allport Attitude is a complex cognitive process just like the Personality of an individual. The difference between the two is that personality is usually thought of as the whole person, up the personality of a person. Attitude is a very important variable in hu constitutes an important psychological attribute of individuals which shape whereas attitude may make man behaviour, because it their behaviour. Characteristics of Attitudes The features of attitudes are as follows : (i Attitudes refer to feelings and beliefs of individuals or groups of individuals. © scanned with OKEN Scannervalues and Attitudes i) The feelings a: ie! i (i) ey oa he rales are directed towards other people, objects or ideas. When a person oe y Job”. It shows that he has a positive attitude towards his job cn Atitudes cons - ; (ii) as tes consist speyehologiaa phenomenon which cannot be directly observed. However, an attitude can be observed indireetly by observing its consequences. For example, if a person is very regular in his job, we may infer that he likes his job very much (wv) Attitudes often result in and affect the behaviour or actions of the people. Attitudes can often lead to intended behaviour if there are no external interventions. () Attitudes are evaluative statements, cither favourable or unfavourable. When a person says he likes or dislikes something or somebody, an attitude is being expressed. (wi) Attitudes are gradually acquired over a period of time. The process of learning attitude starts right from childhood and continues throughout the life of a person. In the beginning, the family members may have a great impact on the attitude of a child. (ii) Anattitude may be unconsciously held, Most of our attitudes may be about those objects which we are not clearly aware of, Prejudice furnishes a good example. 4.5.1 Components of Attitudes Attitudes are internal and may be largely kept to oneself, or they may be made known to others through overt behaviours. Generally, attitudes have three primary components as shown in Fig. 4.1. COGNITIVE ¢ AFFECTIVE OR OR BEHAVIOURAL INFORMATIONAL EMOTIONAL COMPONENT COMPONENT COMPONENT ATTITUDE OBJECT FIG. 4.1. Components of an attitude. ‘The informational component consists of beliefs, values, ional or Cognitive Component. n s tea Gilat laforaaiion 6 : object. It makes no difference whether or not this ideas and other information a person has about the t make information is empirically correct. For ‘example, a person secking @ job may learn from some sources that in a particular company, the promotion chances are very favourable. In reality, it may or may zat : correct. Yet the information that the person is using is the key to his attitude about the company and the job. ‘The informational component sets the stage for the more iti i i i t. The emotional component involves the person's critical part of an attitude, its affective component : ‘ h ¥ feeling ee affect-positive, neutral or negative-about an object. ‘This component can Met elated by this statement. “I like this job because, the future prospects in this company are very good”. 2. Emotional or Affective Component. © scanned with OKEN Scanneronent consists of the tendency of a person to The behavioural compat ng concerned individual in the above case te. |. Behavioural Componen' «act, For exampl beh er aeilat ‘manner towards an bie 2 apes : ra ide to take up the job because of good fut : at pe dinoetly oboe Roe ants of attitudes, only the behavioural component can be ved, Out of the three eompone! ent) and his feelings (the emotional son's beliefs (the informational compon h Sooo ponents can only be inferred. But still understanding these One cannot see anotht Jerstand the behavioural component of attitudes. ponent). These two comp com} ‘ sential to und ‘two component 45.2 Functions of Attitudes Katz has suggested that attitudes and motive motives, attitudes can serve four main functions. These are as under : () Knowledge Function. One of the major functions of attitude is to provide a basis for interpretation and classification of new information. Attitudes provide a knowledge base and framework within es are interlinked and, depending on an individual’s which new information can be placed. (ii) Expressive Function. Attitudes are a means of expression of values. They enable individuals to indicate to others the values that they hold and thus to express their self-concept and adopt or internalize the values of a group. A manager who believes strongly in work others will tend to voice attitudes toward specific individuals or work practices as a means of reflecting this value. For example, a manager who wants a subordinate to work harder might put it thus way. “You’ve got to work harder. That has been the tradition of Our company since it was founded.” (iif) Adjustment Function, Attitudes help people adjust to their work-environment. When employees are well treated they are likely to develop a positive attitude towards the management and the ae ae to eee a negative attitude towards management and mena The Ee its P enol lyees adjust to their environment-and serve as a ataaeuctcr te aiieae iple, it re emp! loyees, who are. well treated, are asked about mn, they are likely to say good things. On the other hand, if the employees are not treated properly, the reverse may be true. : @) Fee Defensive Function. People often form and maintain certain attitudes to protect their own rove onan ed may dare rec memento ores 'y develop prejudices against them. This attitude helps the 4.6 SOURCES OF ATTITUDES How are Attitudes Formed ? Atti ? Attitudes are acquit from several sources as discussed below : ee ( Direct Personal Experience. Atti the attitude, For instance, after: t inherited. A person can acquire attitudes © scanned with OKEN ScannerNOIDA is fined for rash driving and overloading his truck or has an accident on a poorly marked curve, the driver is likely to develop a negative attitude towards NOIDA. (ji) Association. Attitudes towards ane object may develop from associating that object with another object about which attitudes have been previously formed. The truck driver may develop negative attitudes towards drivers of cars beating NOIDA number plates, associating them with his experiences in that city. He could become hostile towards them, and tend to behave aggressively towards them by passing, cutting them off, and tailgating. DIRECT PERSONAL, EXPERIENCE MASS MEDIA ASSOCIATION ECONOMIC |NSTITUTIONS| FAMILY AND STATUS AND PEER GROUPS OCCUPATIONS: FIG. 4.2. Sources of Attitudes. (iii) Social Learning or Modelling. We often observe how other persons behave. We may interpret the behaviour of a person in terms of the attitudes and beliefs his action implies. Children are quite vigilant in noting how their parents react to different people. By observing, they learn whom their parents respect, whom they regard as friends and whom they dislike. In fact, children begin modelling their attitudes after parents, teachers and relatives. In organisations also, employees acquire attitudes from seniors and peer group. ~ (jv) Institutional Factors. Religious institutions, social organisations educational institutions, etc. also help is shaping the attitudes of people. () Mass media. Attitudes are generally less stable as compared to values. Advertising message, for example, attempts to alter the attitude of the people toward a certain product or service. Similarly social messages on TV and in newspapers can have mass appeal among the people. That is why, publicity campaign against use of drugs-and tobacco products and for use of iodised salt are carried out in the electronic media repeatedly. (vi) Economic Status and Occupations—Our economic and occupational positions also contribute to attitude formation. They determine, in part, our attitudes towards unions and management and our belief that certain laws are “good” or “ba.” Socio-economic background influences both present and future attitudes of people. © scanned with OKEN ScannerSNM 4.10° ‘Attitudes, Values and Beliefs osos to be true. It may be about anything. A subordinate may est. But, in fact, the superior may or may not be honest. The ards the superior reveals whether he likes or does not like him. The positive attitude, and the consequent tng, may rather asi the subordinates done bad qualities in the superior and co ate cas arian reveal his ideas about what is good or bad, ct is ight or rong, . is desi ble and undesirable? They reflect a moral tone. ‘Workers n nest hale eat i is a statement of value. The honest workers are good is an evaluative Ta reese ‘the ‘attitude of the person towards the honest workers. It can be Sak betists are one of the determinants of one’s attitudes. A person holds an honest eer or ta be good because of his value that workers should be honest towards their work. Beliefs reveals what one supp believe his superior to be hon attitude of the subordinate tows 4.7 JOB RELATED ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOUR The focus of OB is on job-related attitudes of employees. Such attitudes tap positive or negative evaluations that employees hold about certain aspects of their work environment. The behavioural scientists have concentrated on three job related attitudes : job satisfaction, job involvement, and organisational commitment as shown in Fig. 4.3. Attitudes Organisational Commitment Job Satisfaction Job Involvement [ ‘Organisational Behaviour FIG. 4.3. Job-related Attitudes. ( Job Satisfaction—Job satisfaction refers to one’s feeling towards one’s job. An individual having satisfaction is said to possess positive attitude towards the job. Conversely, a dissatisfied person will have negative attitudes towards his or her job. When people speak of employee attitudes, they invariably refer to job satisfaction. A person who is satisfied with his job will generally be Punctual, absenteeism will be minimum, performance will be high, his attitude towards his co-workers and boss will also be very positive. In case of a dissatisfied person, he will generally be late for office, on small pretexts he will absent himself from the job, performance level will be poor and his behaviour in the organisation will not be very good. When people speak of employee attitudes, they invariably relate it with job satisfaction, (i) Job Involvement—Job involvement refers psychologically with his or her job and self-worth, Employees who have a high le job and really care about the kind of wor satisfaction will lead to lower employee to the degree with which an individual identifies perceives his or her performance level important t0 vel of job involvement very strongly identify with the rk they do. High degree of involvement just like jo turnover and absenteeism. © scanned with OKEN ScannerValues and Altitudes ——— (ii) Coercion last job attitude refers to organisational commitment. It is se cavolvement ache ne acation with his organisation and feeling proud of being is employee. eee a one’s attachment to a job whereas organisational commitment implies -emplo ification with a particular organisation and its goals. Turnover and absentecism are low when employees have organisational commitment. Research studies have demonstrated negative relationships between organisational commitment and both absentecism and turnover. In fact, studies demonstrate that an individual's level of organisational commitment is a better indicator of tumover than the far more frequently used job satisfaction predictor. Organisational commitment is probably a better predictor because it is a more global and enduring response to the organisation as a whole than is job satisfaction, An employee may be temporarily dissatisfied with his particular job, and not with the organisation, But if he is dissatisfied with the organisation, he is more likely to find job elsewhere. 47.1 Changing of Employees’ Attitudes A manager attempting to change the attitude of his subordinates, can focus his attention on the components of an attitude and the situation surrounding the attitude. To be more specific, attitudes can be changed by changing anyone or more of the following factors : 1. Providing New Information and Ideas. When the reason for the undesirable attitude is insufficient or misleading information, attempts to change such attitudes can be made by supplying sufficient amount of desired information to the person. For example, people can be seen possessing negative attitude towards the staff at the railway reservation counters. They believe that the staff avoids the work. Therefore, whenever there is some delay in getting reservation, people express their anguish towards the staff, Such a negative attitude can be changed by drawing the attention of public towards the conditions in which the staff works. Sometimes, the staff is to deal with illiterate passengers which consumes a lot of their time. 2. Use of Group Pressure. Group pressure sometimes causes us to change our opinions. By controlling important rewards and punishments, a group may exert a powerful influence in a particular direction, The more we deviate from the group’s shared attitudes and beliefs, the greater the pressure the group will tend to exert to bring us into line. The more we want to belong to a group, the more pressure the group can put on us to get us conform to group norms. If our desire to belong is weak, we react to strong pressure by rejecting and leaving the group. 3. Influence of Friends. Change of attitude can come about through persuasion of friends or peers. Credibility of others, specially peers, is important to effect change. Peers with high creditability shall exercise significant influence on change of attitude. The same is not true with peers who have low credibility. 4. Organisational Changes. To change an undesirable attitude, some situational variables which are causing such an attitude could be modified. For example, if inadequate pay is the cause of the negative attitude, then pay increase may be planned. A few more examples of situational variables which may affect attitude towards job are ‘communication among people at work, nature of the job, management Practices, style of supervision and work groups. : : 5. Use of Coercive Tactics or Fear. It is a commonly used way of changing attitudes in many families and organisations. Research has also revealed that fear’ can cause some people (who lack confidence, who have large families, who don’t have other sources of income, etc.) to change their attitude, This tactic works more when the employee is working on daily wage basis than when the job of an employee is secured. © scanned with OKEN Scannersh studies have revealed the following facts about change of attitudes ; Several research 1a vidual is more likely to change @ privately held attitude than the one he has stated Publig, Oyaninan is + culturally deprived environment who holds a number of hostile a tit ‘ ns is given opportunity for education and development, (i) An individual from may change when he (iii) A person from a privileg negative towards some g ed background, who has always held a democratic attitude, may bq, roup because of some unfortunate experience. HOW TO DEVELOP POSITIVE ATTITUDES? i s. High achievers can derive satisfaction from the job i¢ e penne sey betoke them. But such targets must be based on reality keeping in view the strengths and weaknesses cf the individual as well as the situation under which the work is performed. Hy A ae : 5 Building Positive Self-Esteem. Developing positive self-esteem is helpful in inculcating positive attitudes. Givers generally have a higher self-esteem than takers. Therefore, the practice of helping others rather than merely serving self-interest can build Positive self-esteem. People who consider themselves capable, successful and worthy individuals have positive attitudes. = = Bue : ‘i Role Clarity. Amanager can develo positive attitudes among the employees by clearly defining each employee's role. expected of him? ue 0 Performance Feedback. Another method for developing positive attitudes is to provide timely feedback to the employées abou per ie 0 Participation, Whenever possibl be provided to the employees 0. Rewards System. When re\ pate in decision-making should individual or group performance, 4.8 MEASUREMENT OF ATTITUDES The attitudes of people tend to be relatively stable but can always be modified at least to some extent. Certain difference in employees’ attitudes is inevitable and that is responsible for difference in their behaviour within the organisation, There are certain ways by which it is possible for a supervisor to Bet some inkling of attitudes of individuals such as interpreting the chance remarks of individuals or behaviour of individuals in the work groups, etc. A sensitive supervisor can always get a feeling with Fespect 10 the general reaction of his work-group even though he cannot Pinpoint such reactions specifically. The other way to find attitude change is the analysis of certain factors such as turnover rate, absenteeism and production level. Various methods have been developed for doing this, some of these consisting of questionnaires which are filled up by the employees. There are two general types of Hestionnaires in common usage, one is “attitude scale” and other “opinion survey”. Thurstone Attitude Scale To develop an attitude scale, : 1 the first step is to write out which expresses a viewpoint of som ‘ a large number of statements, each of e king towards the company, Each of these statements is typed on 4 © scanned with OKEN Scannerceparate slip of paper and the judge is aske sm). ranging Paee rete guage is asked to place each statement in one of s ° 7 Sap. ranging from statements of several piles (usually 7, 9 rpexpress the most favourable judged to express the Npress the least favourable viewpoints to statements judged ‘ ewpoints (7, 9 zi 1p eaes fn between there evan +9 oF 11). Statements judged to express varying degrees of es are placed in the piles that are judged best to characterise air relative degrees of favoural a Baa uf giitements to the ee experts are used in the construction of the scale. The several piles is a part of the process of cons * ss of constructing the scale, The purpose of allocation i eter i i" a rae . La 7 bn the scale values of various statement. If all judges tend mE ourable attitude towards the c - he a then we can conclude that the statement expresses e towards the company. If the statement is placed b qo the Seiad ore eric placed by the judges in piles towards the snfveuable end oF ies, then we may conclude that an unfavourable attitude is expressed by that palate ve can determine the average location of the statement by the judge. The use of different s1 i if 7 ‘nt statements in scales measuring the same attitude helps in checking results by test in order to be c a repeat test in order to be sure of conclusion reached and to measure the effectiveness of systematic company effort to improve employee morale, : Likert’s Scale Likerts method does not require the use of judges in sealing the statements. A number of statements describing attitudes are prepared and each statement has five degrees of approval as shown below: Strongly Agree Undecided Disagree Strongly agree (Neutral) disagree 5 4 3 2 1 Each respondent is asked to check one of the five degrees on the scale for every statement, The points show the degree for favourableness or unfavourableness with the given statement. Likeert’s scale is considered better than Thurstone’s scale because for every aspect only one statement is required which shows both positive and negative degrees. Likert’s scale is easier, faster and more reliable. Opinion Surveys ‘Attitude scales help to measure the attitudes of individuals by summerising data for all employees within a group; such scales can ‘be used to quantify ‘morale of employee groups. Attitude scales can be tseful in indicating the relative level of morale of employees group, they do not enable the management to identify specific factors that may be sources of employees” unrest or dissatisfaction. The information can be obtained by the use of questionnaire that provides for giving opinions about specific maters such as working conditions, company policies, facilities, etc. The usual practice in opinion questionnaire is that oof obtaining a single response to each question in either ‘yes’ or ‘no’. In particular, the ‘employees may be asked to check each item in one of the three boxes; satisfied, neutral or dissatisfied and iso check each item as being of great importanc’: tris possible to develop questionnaire that can serve both the purposes of obtaining ope od and measuring their attitudes. ‘The data collected by the questionnaires can be compiled, tabulate: analysed to know about the attitude of Workers towards supervision and the ‘company. Interviews oe Still another method of obtaining information about personnel reactions is the use cine The workers should interviewed by the representatives of some outside organisation such as a consultancy © scanned with OKEN Scannerch 2 person attempts to convert his attitodes, beliefs and expectations into instance, if a worker predicts that something is going to happen, be will try hard to ensure larly, if 2 teacher expects beter results of his stadents in the forthcoming examinations, work bard in thet direction to ensure beter results. One may bold self-fulfilling prophecy in both positive and negative ways. The term is used more in the content of negative prophecy. For instance, if a trade union leader predicts labour trouble in the facuory, be will act accordingly, Le., resorting to propaganda against the management, instigating of workers, 2nd $0 on. In many cases it hes been found that people try to validate their perceptions of reality (or expected peclormance) when those perceptions are faulty. For instance, if a manager expects good results from his people, they axe not likely to let him down. Thus, expectations become reality. This is called self-fulfilling prophecy or pygmalion effect., ic., people’s expectations determine their behaviour. One may hold self-fulfilling prophecy in both positive and negative ways. The tem is used more in the context of negative prophecy. For instance, if a trade union leader predicts labour rouble in the fecory, ke will act accordingly, i., resorting to propaganda against the management, instigating of workers, and $0 on. 440 JOB SATISFACTION “Job satisfaction is the amount of overall positive effect or feelings that individuals have towards their jobs”. hecording to Dubrin, “Job satisfaction is the amount of pleasure or contentment associated wwth 2 job. If you like your job intensely, you will experience high job satisfaction. If you dislike your job intensely, you will experience job dissatisfaction”. Job satisfaction is an individual's emotional reaction to the job itself. It is his attitude towards his job. Determinants of Job Satisfaction The following factors contribute to job satisfaction : (i Nature of Job. Job satisfaction is related to the aptitude of the employee. If the employee is given at work for which he has no aptitude, the job will provide no attraction to him. Hence the question of contribution, creativity or motivation does not arise. It is for the management to design jobs in such a manner that each worker gets the job of his own choice. © scanned with OKEN ScannerEssentials of Organisational Behavig,, 6 Ea a centred supervisory style enhances job satisfaction a, (i) Nature of Supervision vn rates carctully, displays friendship, respect and warmth, ef. the Teader 1ooks er nn id, production-oriented leader may cause low job satisfaction ry eae aint the turnover and absentecism adversely. OF course, it all depend, ervision, The employee towards them the employees on the situation. aon aie visions, Job satisfaction is related to working conditions also. The work will by ) Working Con ons are congenial to the task a worker proposes to accomplish, ore attractive if wor condi rons aking conditions involve such facilities as adequate light, comfortable temperature d may Git ‘oundings, ete. (a) Equitable Rewards. Employees want a wage pay system which is simple, fair, and in line wit their expectations, When pay fair, based on job demands, individual skill level, ang community pay satisfaction is likely to result. What needs emphasis is that itis not the absolute amount paid that matters, rather it is one’s perception of fairness. (©) Opportunities of Promotion, Promotional opportunities affect job satisfaction considerably. The desire for promotion is generally strong among higher level employees as it involves change in job content, pay, responsibility, autonomy, status and the like. It is no surprise that the employee takes promotion as the ultimate achievement in his career and when it is realised, he feels extremely attractive st satisfied. (vi) Work-group. It is the work-group that fulfils the need for social interaction of the members. If the worker has good relations with the fellow employees and the supervisor, he will feel satisfied. If the work-group enjoys a higher status, his job satisfaction will increase further. 4.11 MOTIVES Motive is something that has power to cause motion or initiate action. It induces a person to produce some action. It is a source of energy for a person to do some activity. It provides an activating thrust towards achieving a goal. For example, the needs for food and water are translated into hunger and thrust drives or motives. Similarly, the need for friends becomes a motive for affiliation, Often different motives cause different kinds of behaviour. But sometimes, different motives may result in the same behaviour. For example, a person’s behaviour (action) to buy a car may be caused by different motives like comfort, status, power, etc. McClelland and his associates have identified three types of motives discussed below : 1, Power Motives The ability to induce or influence behaviour is power. Power motive has been formally recognised and studied for a relatively long-time. The leading advocate of the power motive was Alfred Adler. To explain the power need, the need to manipulate others or the drive for superiority over others, Adler developed the concepts of inferiority complex and compensation, Accordingly, the individual's life style is characterised by striving to compensate for the feelings of inferiority which are combined with the innate drive for power. McClelland found that people with a high power need have a great concern for exercising influence and control. Such individuals are generally seeking positions of leadership; they involve in conversion; they are forceful, outspoken, hard needed, and demanding. 2. Affiliation Motive Since people are social animals, most individuals like to interact and be with others in situations where they feel they belong and are accepted. Sometimes affiliation is equated with social motives © scanned with OKEN Scannervalues and Attitudes — 47 = Bea Pee a motive is not so broad. Affiliation plays a very complex but vital role in human beled study of affiliation is complicated by the fact that some behavioural scientists believe that it is an unlearned motive. However, the fact is partly true. McClelland has suggested that people with high need for affiliation usually derive pleasure from being loved and tend to avoid the pain of being rejected. They are concemed with maintaining pleasant social relationships, enjoying a sense of intimacy ind understanding and enjoy consoling and helping others in trouble. 3. Achievement Motive Over the years, behavioural scientists have observed that some people have an intense desire to achieve. McClelland’ research has led him to believe that the need for achievement is a distinet human motive that can be distinguished from other needs. It can also be isolated and assessed in any group McClelland has identified the following basic characteristics of high achievers; ( Moderate risks. Taking moderate risks is probably the simple most descriptive characteristic of the person possessing high achievement need. This is against the commonsense that a high achiever would take high risks. (ii) Immediate feedback. Person with high need for achievement desires activities which provide immediate and precise feedback information how he is progressing toward a goal. (iii) Accomplishment. Person with high need for achievement finds accomplishing a task intrinsically satisfying in and of itself, or he does not expect or necessarily want the accompanying material rewards. Though he likes to earn money a lot but not for the usual reason of wanting money for its own sake or for the material benefits that it can buy. (jv) Preoccupation with the tasks. Once a high achiever selects a goal, he tends to be totally preoccupied with the task until itis successfully completed. He will not feel satisifed unless he has put his maximum effort in completing the task, This type of dedicated commitment often reflects on his outward personality, which frequently has a negative effect on those who come in contact with him. Review Questions 4. Explain the meanings of ‘attitudes’ and ‘values’. What are the sources of values? 2. Discuss the concept and types of values. 3, What is meant by values? Explain the sources of values. 4. What are terminal and instrumental values ? Briefly explain the determinants of values 5. What do you mean by attitudes? Explain the components of altitudes. 6. Explain the features of attitudes. What are the sources of attitudes? 7. How are attitudes formed? How can attitudes be measured? 8. Briefly discuss the role of attitudes in job satisfaction and job involvement. 9. What do you understand by attitude? What are its components? How is an attitude formed? four? What is the role of a manager in changing the 40. Do attitudes affect an individual's beh: attitudes of workers? 41. “Job-related attitudes are signifi statement. ' | | 42. Explain the concept of cognitive dissonance. What factors determine an individual's desire to reduce dissonance? ‘cant for understanding organisational behaviour". Explain this © scanned with OKEN Scanner