ILLVSTRE CIVITATIS ET POPVLI EXEMPLYM: PLATO'S TIMAEVS AND THE TRANSMISSION FROM CALCIDIUS 10 THE END OF THE TWELFTH CENTURY OF A TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY Paul Edward Dution EDIEVAL thinkers Were wont to conceive of society as composed of three orders of men. In this they were the recipients, as Georges Dumézil has established, ofa tradition of social speculation stretching back to the beginnings fof Indo-European culture itself Despite the considerable interest which -medievalists have shown in the various evocations of the theme? one particular formulation has been neglected: readers of Plato's Timacus. as translated and commented on by Calcidius, encountered specific tripartite division of society.? Yves Congar freely admitted that it was difficult to say if the Platonic " Among the many works of Georges Dumizl which adres this subject, see Ladle triarti des Indo-Europcens Wlletion Latoms 31, Briss, 1958) ané Mothe et epope Tidclote des iris ones dans les popes des peuplsIndo-europeen, 3 vos. Paris, 196 m ® See epeilly Georaes Deby. Les trois ordre ou Vimaginare a fodaliome Parl, 1978; Daniel Dubison, rane aa thors meaieale des "ois ores”, Revue de sire des ‘religions 1881 (1975) 3563; logue Le Gll"Note sur soc tripatiedloge monarhigue tt renowveas éeanomigue dans eriinté dit au wu sil in L Europe aux ce fois T Mantevffeland A. Gieyztor Warsaw [96 pp. 63-72 and rprntad in Jacques Le Gol Pour un auire Moyen Age Temps, travel ot culture on ocidnt 18 ests Pais. 1977), pp 80 50, and Le Gof, Le trois fontonsindoeuropsennes, historian et "Europe [eodle. Anale. ESC. 411979) 1187-115; Oto Gerhard Ossle-Defenktioale Drstelune der "Geslschall™ bet Adalbero von Laon: Devtungschemaa der szilen Wirkicheit im fruberen Miler Frahmiteltertiche Studien 1210978) 1-54 and Cade Cres and vans. Alben de ‘Laon Pome au roi Robert (Les asiqus de stire de France au Moyen Age 32, Paris, 1979), pp. cxeexa "Pwo exceptions stould te mensoned: Gaines Post Studs n Medieval Legal Thought ‘Publ: Law and the Siete, 1100-1722 (Princeton, 1964), pp 50508 drew atendon to te Smporance of the Timaru for concepts of justice in general and man Stuve, De Entwick hung de organologschen ‘Stasaufessung in Melaler (Moncgraphen 2ur Geschichte de Mitetrs 16; Stgar, 1978), has insted upon the importance of the Timaeus for the evelopment of organic theorks of state, parculay as a kackground for John of Salisbury’ poli ought Mensa Stes 45 (982) 79119, © Ponti! Ines of Neder tes80 »., DuFTON. scheme ofthe three orders had played any role in the development of the theme in the Middle Ages.* Another scholar went so far as to dismiss the Timaeus as & source for social tripartition, at least for the early Middle Ages, because he believed that Calcidius’ translation had obscured an already obscure reference to the three orders in Plato's dialogue.’ ‘The purpose ofthis article isto draw together, for the first time, a significant ‘number of references to this Platonic scheme of society from both edited and unedited sources, The image in question is so specific in character ~ three functional groups of men inhabiting a city-state which can be likened to the pattern of both the cosmos and the human body’ that itis possible to trace its transmission through a series of stages. The first of these (examined below in part I) was Calcidius’ reception and explication of Plato’s idea ofthe city-state as sketched in the prologue to the Timacus. Then, after centuries of comparative neglect, the renewed reading of the Timaeus in the tweltth century brought about a recovery of the image. In the frst half ofthe century the glossators of the text (to be considered in part TI) established @ more or less standard gloss on the passage in question. This popularization of the image ofthe city-state fed in ‘tum, around the middle of the twelfth century, to a fairly widespread ‘circulation of the idea among learned men generally linked with Chartres (the subject of part IID. Beyond merely collecting and presenting the transmission of these overiookec references to the three orders, I want to suggest to the reader that the appearance, popularity, and ultimate eclipse ofthe ilustre ciuitatis et Populi exemplum in the twelfth century arose quite naturally out of contact with specific text. We need not. in other words, reduce every medieval mention of | the three orders o issues of prevailing social and political realities. Men might ‘more simply have encountered a text which they did not know before, In ‘employing the Platonic image of the city-state, these thinkers were making primary reference to the Timacus. Its this tradition of interest in the political ‘material of the Timaeus which we need to add to our knowledge of the history of the three orders. In book 3 of the Republic (4124-4178) Plato divided the classes of his ideal city into three functional groups: wise rulers governing the city, soldiers or “ “Les nis et Fsaésiologie det ornes chet es thésigiens des et sles in Flt nella ‘socetas christina’ dt ecole (eels el Centro Sti Medioevl 5 Milan. 1968). p. 80{83-117, Tn Lex ros ordres Duby for instance, makes no mention of te influence of ether the imac or Caley’ commentary. Moreover be could ind mo fenctonal image ‘of society between the end ofthe eleventh century abd the mide of the twelth p23) Jean Batany "Des “ois fonctions au "ris eats" Annales: BSC. 18 (1965) 936 933- 38) elering to Tneus 23A TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY at auxiliaries guarding it, and the rest (artisans, laborers, and farmers) providing for it. Later he identified reason, courage, and appetite as three principles ‘operating in the soul of man (436a) which correspond to the classes making up the city (580D-5818).* Although the Republic was widely known by reputation, only bits and pieces of the actual work filtered through to the medieval Latin ‘world.’ Macrobius briefly spoke of the respective Republic of Plato and Cicero atthe start of his Commentary on the Dream of Scipio." Apuleius, in his résumé (of Plato and his teachings. reported upon both the Timacus and the Republic” But the most important source for knowledge of the social material of the Republic available to medieval thinkers was the Timaeus itself. This Plato dialogue was translated into Latin by both Cicero and Calcidius; the latter's translation, though terminating midway through the work at $3c. is stil the more complete version. Perhaps because it was also accompanied by a ‘commentary, Calcidius' rendering was the more popular and influential of the two." * Se Francs M. Cornford. ‘Psychology and Socal Structure in the Republe of Plo’ The Gasset Quarterly 6 (1912) 296-65: Dumen. Mythe et éppee 1493-96: and Bernard Sergent. “Les tos fonctions des Indo Europens das la Gree ancinne: ban criique’ males: ESC 34 1979) 1173-76 (1155-86) On the fortune of Pats works In the Middle Ages, soe Raymond Kibansky. The Contin of the Platonic Tradion during the Middle Ages: Ouilines of a Corpus Pltoicumt Modi devi London, 1999, rp. 1950: rt. with new preface and supplement. 1981). The supplement to the now edn, pp 6667. conais, should bo noted, part edition of ‘oureeath-century commentary on the Timaews found in Vatican ws Chil EV 152. Ts wt thud been diacovered and edie by Edouard leaunea, loses su le Tree ot commentaire du Time dans deux manuses i Vatican’ Revue des eudesougusiniees 8 (1962) 370-13 65- 473) and repented in Jeaunes, ‘Lectio pllosophorum’: Recherches sur Ecole de Chartres, (Amsterdam, 1979), pp, 200-203 [195-2031 Cammentorl im Somnlun Scions 1.1, ed 3. Wiis (Leipig. 1963). pp. 13. * Apuleivs thes upon material of relevance 1 the tripartite division of Society in De Plaoneeteus dogmate 113 and 2.28, ed. Paul Thomas, Ape! Platnis Madaurenis Opera ‘aude supers, Vol De phloaopha ort (Stutgan, 1970) pp 97. 127-29. On this work, see ‘Gio Moresshint, Studs De dogo Ploons dt Apules Sud eter, stoi Mosfia 23: Ps, 1966. Oa te eatin ofthe iia materia ofthe prologue ofthe Tiracu to the Republi, soe Anders Ole, Lidée de macrcoamos et de icrcosnos das fein’ de Patan cude de ‘nstloie compare (Opps 1951) p. 34-35, or Gers transition runt fons Timacus To to AT, wit the eet apparently lot Sc the ‘tition of Remo Giomin in M- Tull Cceronis septa quae manserant omnia, va. a6: De ‘inarone, De fata, Timaous( Leia, 1973), and also A.C. Crk. The Descent of Manuscripts {Oxtord. 1918, rt. 1969) pp. 337-0. On the nature of his vansation of Plato. see Roland Popcelet Ceér, iaductel de Plato expression de a pesce complere en fain clasioue ‘aris, 1957 and Remo Gionin. Ricerche su esto del Tie ieerotano (Stole sage: Rome 967. On the ws of Caled translation ofthe Toaeus sao Margaret Gibson, ‘The Stuy of the Timacus in the Eleventh nd Twelfth Centuries Porsamien 25 (1969) 183-85 (83-94): he tstensve lit fms contanirg Calis’ translation aserbled by JH. Waseink. el. Tinaens82 ». &. DUTTON At the outset of the Timaeus (17c) Socrates informs us that on the previous day he and his companions, four in number, had described hat would be the best form of society and the sort of men who would compose it” The work ‘thus begins with a recapitulation of the previous day’s discussion of the theme Of the Republic. First off, Socrates reminds his listeners, they had separated farmers and craftsmen from the young men who were to be soldiers."” Each _member-group of the city was said to be blessed in some way by nature, but those who were to fight for the well-being of all had imposed upon them the luty of protecting the city against external or internal and domestic enemies (17e-184), These soldiers were to act gently towards their own people, relatives, and friends, bur fiercely towards foreign intruders and armed gatherings. The dialogue then outlines the double education of these highborn young men through exerci in the gymnasium and music for their souls (184). They were not, Socrates notes, to possess gold or silver, but were to be satisfied with a form of tribute While they lived a common life in a garrison (18a). Next Plato proceeded to the issues of women, procreation, and the education of children (18-194), While recounting the myth of Atlantis, Critias, another interlocutor, escribes how Solon once met ani Egyptian priest who invited him to compare the ancient laws of Athens with those of his own time. He observed a similar Separation of classes into priests, laborers (shepherds, hunters, and farmers) and soldiers (24y-n)." But for medieval students of the Timaeus the important passage about social tripartition occurred at I7c and this was, in large part. due {o Calcidius striking commentary on it 2 Caleido ranslans commemtrioque hsructas, 2nd edton (Pato Latinas 4; London, 1978), Pp cvtexiai and Eckart Mensching, “Zar Cakicius-Uberiaferung, Vgiiae crisinae 19 (0965) 42:56. For acomparison of the traslating sve of Cero and Caled se the parallel ‘ext supplied by Gomini Ricerche su esta, pp. 47-128 and Roland Poncelt, Deux aspects Ou style pilosophiqe latin: Cikron et Chai, teducteurs do Padre 245C Revue des eudes Tatines 28 (1950) 16567 "Foran English ramiation, see Francis M, Crnfor, Plato's Cosmology: The Tacs of Plo Traslated wth a Rung Commentary (London, 1937), p, 9. See aso te procs of Pos Studies. 506. " ‘According to:he version of Calis, ed. Wastin. 8. 45.-Nonne inter init eultores ‘grorum ceterarurmue artim profissores a destinatabeisis neg loventteseceuimin? ‘This work had earter been ete by J. Webel as Timacusinferree Chalo eum euadem ‘commennrio (Leip. 1876. "Ed. Wasink.p. 16, IL 29. Modern commentators have noted that this report of the Egyptian social sysom is eso tobe found in Herodotus, Historia 2164-8 end accra Bas 18-20, Se also theterpretation ofthis passage in the fagmentary commentary of lamblichus, ‘ed. John M. Dillon under the Ue Jamo! Chaledens in Pleo’s dialogs coomentoriorun fragment, fag 16(hiosophia antigua 23 Leiden, 1973 pp. 120-22, which doesnot emo have inflenced Cac,A TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 3 “Without an interpretation of the scheme suggested sketchily in the opening pages of the Timaeus, medieval readers would have been left somewhat in the dark about its fuller significance. But Caleidius, who seems to have lived and. ‘worked in the early part of the fourth century,"* knew the entire Timaeus, including sections 704-p where the human body is compared in military terms to the workings of the city-state, and the Republic, which he frequently cites. ‘Modern readers of the dialogue who have overlooked Calcidius’ commentary have often failed to see the full medieval influence of the Timaeus. In the accessus to his commentary, Calcidius emphasizes the centrality of Socrates’ summary of the Repubife to the purpose of the Timaeus. For just as Socrates hhad introduced a likeness of the civil state (effigies ciuilis rei publicae), 50 ‘Timacus of Locti wished to understand the operations of this sensible cosmos as iffin a universal city-state (veluté quadam communi urbe ac re publica)" This Was the illusire eiuitaise¢ popull exemplum to which Calcidius turned in his ‘commentary. ‘When commenting on the structure of the human body (Timacus 440-458), Calcidius followed the lead of Plato in employing terms derived from a city: slate to describe the pars and functions of the body.” The head, for instance, is said to be located in a lofty and prominent place, the citadel of the whole body (ar totius corporis) anc the home of reason.* Tn the head, which is fashioned smooth and round like the World, the senses are located. These as if the messengers of reason and sign-bearers interrupt the deliberations of the mind. and eall it forth to recors.” In chapter 232 of is commentary Calcidius draws a © For recent consensus on Caius’ dates, see John M. Dillon, The Midile Plots: Study of Plots, 80 fC.» 4D. 200 (London, 1977 pp, 401-08, and Joba M. Rist. "Bai's "Neopltonism Is Background and Nature’ in Bast of Casareu: Christian, Humanist, Ascetic A Sisteon-Hundeedth Anniversary Symposia |e. Poul Jonathan Fedvick Toronto, 1981). pp 15138 [137-290 On Calis work and thought, see Watsink. Timacus 2 Calido Irons. 9. Revi and Sidon zur Tinoorkommentar des Callus ol. Die ere Mafe tds Kommentar nit sah der Kopi! ber de Welseee)(Pilesophi atiqua 12 Leiden. 1964), Wiaistaus Swltals, Des Chaldius Kommentar su Plato's Tinacus: ene hsrisch Lritsche Unersuching (Beige nor Geschichte der Pilosopie ds Mitelalters 3.6: Munster. 1902) J.C. Mt van Winder, Calidus on Mater, Hix Doctrine and Soures. A Chapter the Hesors of Platoon (Pitaopia sotigea 9: Lise, 1989, rp 1963 Jan Franciszek Stlowstl ‘Stuis on Chali: Anttroplogy Influence, an Importance (General Oui? in omme ef ton destin dares lee pemeurs au Moyen Age. Acres premier Congres inernatonal de Dhloophie mediate, Lowsinefreles 28 aod sepemBre, 1958 (Louvain. 1960). pp. 13 bled den Boot Cotcldtas on Fae His Doctine and Sources (Pilosophia antigua 18: Leiden, 70) ant Calis on Denons (Commentarias, ch. 127-136) Phiesophia antigua 33: Leen, 7D. Access 6, ed. Wastin, pp. 58-60. 1 See eaecily Timaeus 708-71 Comm 213, ef. Wasting, p.228 and Comm. 231, p. 24, Comm. 231, of. Wasink,p 245,178.84 Pe. DUTTON ‘comparison between the cosmos and the human body since, of course, the parts ‘of man follow the arrangement ofthe cosmic body. The summit ofthe cosmos is crowded with divine powers: under these are angels and demons, and below these on earth are terrestrial powers. Celestial powers command, angelic Powers carry ou:, and earthly things are ruled in this trispatil and trftetional ‘design of the cosmos. From this it follows that In the nature of man there is something royal, another is placed inthe middle, and a third sti the lowest part its the highest which commands, the middle ‘which acts, and the third which is ruled and governed. Therefore the soul ‘commands, the energy placed in its breast carries out, and the other parts ofthe body down to the genitals and below are ruled and managed" ‘Thus before elucidating the meaning of the social division found in the Timacus. Caleidivs linked the designs of the cosmos and the human body. Ia fact his consideration of the city-state was to be but another illustration ofthe ‘ipartite nature of this scheme. Caleidius begins chapter 233 of his commentary by announcing that he has iscovered this same tripartite arrangement in the Republic. There Plato, examining the question of justice, ‘tured from the nature of one man to the famous example ofa city and its people ...™ He saw. in other words, a parallel, established between man's physical and social worlds: He ordered the chief men of this city as the most prudent and wise to dwell inthe highest places of the city, under these were to lve the Young soldiers outfitted with arms, 10 whom he subjected the tradesmen and masses, so thatthe chet ‘men a8 one fll of wisdom might give orders, the soldiers might act and carry ut, and the masses might furnish appropriate and useful service. So we se the soll also ordered: indeed its rational part asthe Witest holds the chief part just like ‘the Capitol the whole body, its energy which i simile to temper i like young ® Comm. 232, e. Wastnk.p. 246. ® Comm. 232 e. Waszink,p. 245, 1, 15-19 ‘ut summits quidem sit dimen celestioas bisque subecta Giunis potesatibus quae appellantur angel et deemones, inl terra wero ‘erresibus,etimperant quidem aces, exeqwuntr ero angelic pots, regunr Doro ‘errena, prima sumaum locum cbtinenéa, secunds tedatatem, ea vero qiae sublets Sunt * Comm, 232,04 Wastnk, . 246, 20-23: a natura hominis xt quidsam reqale, salud ‘auoque in medio psitum, ert teva in imo, summury quod imprat, medium Guod ag testium quod rgitaretadminisratur- Import itr anima, exequtir igor eis in peste constitu, reguntur e dispensantur cetera pube tenis et nfo. Comm. 283, 0 Wain, p. 246 24-25 ® Comm. 233, ef Wasznk. p 247, -2: ‘ex univs hominis ingenio aust ita et opullconfugt exenplum ...”A version ofthe same expression ovurs in Accessus 3. ed ‘Wastink,p.$8,18.Cr Republic S80p-S818,| TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 85 soldiers abiding in camps of the hear, and the masses and tradesmen, that i. deste or passion, are hidden in the lower regions and are concealed by nature Knowing, then, ofthe fller social theory of the Republic, Caleidius attempted to make sense of the inchusion of the social material ofthe prologue, specifically at I7e, in the overall ccsmological content of the Timaeus, ‘The scheme, with its basic division into the highest, middle, and lowest, has an obvious and all-important comparative quality. Each tripartite scheme, in other words, suppors the claims of the next to bea true and telling pattern. The entire sequence can be schematized as follows Location ‘Orders Lacation Orders ‘Location Faculties it fonctions ‘Sommus Cael inpront Ealiores Principates Caputo rb loi le saplentes Mesos Angeli et dae Casta Mlltis——Pestus_—Vigor,racun- Imus Terma regumcir —‘Tnferiores Sellar Catera pube Copia oc eublgnres tenure seu bdo intra “The implications of this scheme for an understanding ofthe state are important, Since a static, hierarchical, and elitist conception of the state could be justified by recourse to the nature of the human body: men were to obey those above them just as the members of the body are subject to the head; this is a theme ‘which Caleidius stresses.” The exemplar forthe entire scheme, both in order of % Comm, 233, ed, Wastink, p.247, W212 “Principles quidem wrbis ius wiros wt prudentsimos sapentstimeegueeaoresurbis loos habtare ius post hos mitre aie {emis postam iwuenttem, quibve suiect slularios aque wulgares. uti quidem ut Sones preecepea dent, naliares agant ate exequsntur, wulgares vero comptens et ule ‘praebeant minierium. Sie animam quoque ordintam tidests:rtionabiem quidem patem Zhe, ut sepintsimam, pencipem farm obtnentem lamquam ius corporis capitis, igoem wero qu est Hecudiae sls ut mitarem sUvenutem in cords casts manent Uulgareeseluarium,quodost copia sou Ubi, inferiorbusabtum occultatumgue mass Seo ao Strve, Die Euwiklung, pp 67-11 2 Seo Comm 238, ed. Wasink, pp. 247-8,86 PE. DUTTON. Priority and presentation, is the cosmos, from which the trispatial design ‘emerges. The cosmic pattern embraces the others and establishes the identities Of their functional roles. Man, who stands at the bottom third of the macro- ‘osm, possesses his own corporeal and social subsets of the larger design. In both of these subsets each member-part contributes to the well-being of the Whole and its role is specified. Thus we have a system which recognizes both the position and function of its members. Interestingly enough the functions of the members change progressively from active to passive as they descend from {op to bottom: the verbs employed by Calcidius reflect this functional shift from activity to passivity. The image of the city provides yet another demonstration of the way in which the relationships of members of the state are predetermined. ‘and delineated. Like the reality ofthe body and an all-inclusive cosmos, the city stands asa single, self-contained entity whose members must function propery im order to achieve a harmonious whole. Moreover, each tripartite division aids the reader in understanding the nature of the others. From the perspective of the city-state a set of similarities can be drawn. The courageous and impettous nature of young soldiers, for instance, is like both the active agency of the angels and the energy found in the human heart. The masses and tradesmen are Set in the furthest reaches of the city, at its periphery, as man himself is set in the cosmos. They are also associated withthe genitals, the organs of desire and passion, which are placed far away from the head and are hidden by a covering of hair. On high, presiding over all, are the wise rulers who are, as imperial ‘ideology would have it? Godlike and the height of wisdom in the state just as reason comman¢s the citadel of the human head. ‘The Timaeus appears to have had little influence on social speculation in the ‘west before the twelfth century. A suggestive parallel does arise, however, in the case of Corippus who wrote an elaborate poom celebrating the accession of the Byzantine Emperor Justin IT in 565, Thinking of his new ruler, he asserts that wisdom is joined to the head, the citadel of the body (corporis ar), in order to rule the memters of the body. Senators are the breast ofthis body, while the inferior classes are lower down and protected by the head. But we should ‘not forget that there was a tradition of imperial ideology along these lines. 2» The postulate connection of Calcd with the crcl of Constatine shoud be kept in ‘mind: se Rs, Bast's"Neoplatonism™, 15589, and 1. D. Barres Constatne and Eusebius (Cambridge, Mass. 1981) pp. 13-16 In lauder Tisini 2. 2 Joseph Parsch (MGH Auctores antiguistini 3, Brin, 1879), pp. 131-35 Il 186.274. On Corppus, see Avril Cameron, this Oxford 1970, po. 1215,A TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 87 SJustnian’s Code, repeating a similar pronouncement from the Theadosian Code. hhad referred to Senators as part of the imperial body.” A later introduction to the Institutes, moreover, likened the imperial bureaucracy to the members of ‘body. But none of these references bears specific resemblance to the tripartite division of society outined by Calcidius: they lack, in particular, the ilusire ciuitats et popu exemplum which i its distinguishing feature. They owe more, it would seem, to the familiar notion that the state is organic in nature, that its another body.” In western Europe tefore the eleventh century the Timacus seems, from the record of surviving manuscripts, to have had a restricted readership.” No hint of Calcidius’ interpretation of its social scheme appears among Carolingian thinkers, who were supposedly on intimate terms with the text. The Timacus ‘was rather, as one scholar has suggested, a venerated curiosity. admired but ‘not systematically studied. Even Haimo of Auxerre's statement that among the Jews and Romans there were three orders, namely, senators, soldiers, and farmers, as distinguished from the division into priests, soldiers, and farmers prevailing in the church of his own day would seem to have been the expression of a late Cerolingian commonplace, one which became a familiar ‘loss on Revelation $:9-10 at Laon. If Haimo's tripartite formulae were ‘among the first explicit expressions of this type, many more were to follow. During the Carolingian period the most popular division of society was into ‘monks, cleries, and laymen (either monachi, praelati et Iaici or continentes, praedicatores et coniugati)> In the eleventh century, as Duby has illustrated, a ™ Codex Theodoxianus 9.143 and Codex Justinian 985. 2 Soe Hermann Fiting, ed, JuristscheSchrifen des fraheren Mitelaiers (alle, 1876: Alen, 1968) p48 "Son the organi metighor of sae in the Middle Apes ee especialy Struve, Die Ent- wvickung. Forte ealymedevl se ofthe deme, ee Suzanne F. Wempl, Claudius of Turin’ ‘Organic Metaphor or the Carolingian Doctrine of Corporations’. Speculum 49 (1974) 2227. SF See Gitson, The Stuly ofthe Times, 183-8, > in, 188 2 Expats inApocalypun | (PL 117 9534-6), Cf Hrabanus Maur, De unuers 164 (PL 111,452e1 00 le passage depends on Isidore, Exymologae 9.47 ‘At Laon the reading ef Reventon led the masters to formula notion ofthe three order see Guy Lobrichoa,l dpoclyse dex hte a siéle(Diss. cole des Hautes Exes en Siences soils niversté de Pars X-Nanterte, 1979) pp. 14865 and Duby. Les as ordre, pp. 289.9. For other madval formulations of te three orders, ee the studies listed above in ‘2,45, and below in 37. 3 See Cies Constable, Monae Tes rom Their Origins to the Twelfth Century (Cambridge Studio ia Medieval Life end Thought, NS. 10, Cambridge, 1968), pp. 147-4. See also the ‘pacground studies of F.Chitilon, 1a genera hominum: Noe, Danie J Revue du Mayen lage latin 10 (1954) 169-76 and Georges Folie, "Les wos catgories de chretics in Augustin Matter. Congres imernatonal auustnien, Paris. 21-24 septembre 1986 2 (Paris, 1954), pp. 631488 P.&. DUTTON. division into priests, warriors, and workers oratores, bellatores et laboratores). ‘which had earlier been employed in the circle of King Alfred, found new and pointed expression among royalists in northern France." During the eleventh. century as well the polemics ofthe Investiture Controversy had brought a series, of dualistic distinctions of Christian society to the fore. A deep rethinking of the fundamentals of Christian society may well have led theorists to consider afresh ‘man’s place in nature, his standing in the scheme of things.” By the twelfth century there wes a profusion of overlapping and often confusing ways to divide society into social, anthropological, theological, and politcal twos and threes. When speaking of church and society some thinkers simply chose to ‘repeat a number of classificatory schemes as though this would encompass all ‘The abundance of ad starus statements inthe twelfth century represents in part only the persisterce of past expressions, but it may also reflect a new aware ‘ness ~ this i particularly true of sermons ~ of audience, of rather audiences. In view of the muliplicity and general confusion of competing conceptions of society." one might almost say that the early twelfth century witnessed a crisis, Les trots ordre. pp. 2881. For the Anglo-Saxon scheme of gebedmen 7 firdmen 7 eorcmen, se King Ad's Old English Version of Botan’ De conoltionephlsophiae e ‘Walter John Sedge (Oxford, 1899). p40 and, Tor the formulations of fire and Wallan Marguerite Marie Dusois, he: sermonnaire, dacteur et grammarien (Pars, 1943) pp. 209. a On notions of Christian dualism, see Eens H. Kantrowice, The King’s Two Bods: A ‘Study n Mediaeval Palieal Theology Princeton, 1957 pt. 1981) On studs tants nate nd consequenty mats place in the social and peltcal Scheme o hing during and ater the Investiture Controveny. se Pos, Studes, pp. 494-56; Wilhelm Kelme mage man. dat Weltverstindnis im Seif des Invesitursuets Stud greperiant 9 (1972) 167-98, August ‘Nits, Das Verstadnis fr GreporsReformen II lahrunet Stud grezoran’ 911972) 141-66, For more geceral studies ofthe interaction of political thinking snd te pereeption of ature in the Middle Ages, see August Nischte, Varrerkewuins und polischen Hendebt int Mueller, Korper~senegung—Rawn (Suigarer Betrage zur Geschichte wad Posh 2. Stuart 1967) an Wolfang Stirsr, Natur und Geselcht im Denken des Hoch. und ‘Sparmtctaiers: naurvisenschafliche Krafivorstllungen und. dle Motiverung paischen ‘Handtns in Texten de 12. is 14. Jahrhunders(Statgarter Beige mt Geschiche tnd Polk Fe Sauter, 1973), For instance, the twelNti-entury monk Willam of Ramsey wrote in his isnetanes super Canica Cancun: Diaesi sunt erdoes i eclesin, qua aces erdinai. Sunt cleric, niles, colon. Sunt urges, continents et coalugt Sunt sot, sat contemplate peta tJ. Lacerea, ‘Les Disnctiones super Cantca Ge Guilaame de Ramsey Saers crush! 10 (4935) 348 (329-82) “For other ‘wet contury theories of soil structure, se Giles Constable, ‘Te Strveure ‘of Metieval Society ascodng tothe Dicatres of te Twelfth Century in Low. Church and Soci: Essays in Motor of Stephan Kunr,e&. Kenneth Petington and Rober Somers (Philadelphia, 1977), pp. 25247 and D. E Luscombe, ‘Conceptions of Hierarchy before te ‘Thineenth Century’ in Sociale Ordmungen im Selsversindnis des Miter, e& Albert ‘Zimmermann, 2 vols (Miscelanes modisevalin 12; Bela, 1979) {1-13\ TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 89 in tripartite thinking. For one group of thinkers, though, the Timaeus threw ‘new light on What the three orders had been or were supposed to be. These were the glossators of the Timaeus, whose work we shall now examine. A number of twelfia-century glosses and commentaries on the Timaeus survive? and many of these have something to say about the famous example of the city-state. No doubt an eleventh-century tradition of Timaeus glosses existed, but these were, so far as is known, minor in nature and their "unsystematic and scattered references do not appear to reveal a major interest in the social implications of the prologue: rather these early glossators turned to the Timaeus, as readers would continue to, for its physical, mathematical, and medical information. An abundant series of marginal and interlinear glosses ‘which seems to date from the frst half of the twelfth century is to be found in Paris, Bibliotheque Naionale ws. lat. 16579.! The glosses reveal an almost exclusive dependence upon the commentary of Calcidius. This is enerally not ‘a common characteristi> of glosses on the Timaeus and tends to distinguish this sot of glosses from eleventh-century examples. At Timaeus 17c the writer noted that the state is fashioned like the human body whose res publica has been arranged by God. Employing many of the terms found in Calcidius’ ‘commentary, he states that reason is located in the citadel of the head, which is the brain, temper like the energy of youth is found under the citadel in the ‘heart, and desire has itsabode in the loins, the lower members ofthe body as if ‘on the outskirts (suburblum) serving the higher. With a few minor changes © On the jor gloss and commentaries on the Tima, See Kuban. The Contin of the Plane Tradon. 29-31 and Gibson, ‘The Study of the Timaeus, 15638 {See Gibson, ii, 18394. On the study of philosophical glosses in general, ee Edooard Jeaunea, Glos commentaires de textes piosophiques (xxi) In es genres linear dans les sources topes ef phosopiques medivaes. Actes du Colloque nernational de oyai-arNeuve, 28-27 mat 1987 (Louvan-ia-Newve, 1982) pp. 117-3 tO Pare lat. 16579, se Wasink, Tomaeus a Cale transl, pcx I the titan ‘century thew. wa inthe possession of Gerard Abbevle whe eventualy donated it and other Paton materia to the Sortonne: see Kits. The Cozy ofthe Plone Tradion. p29. Portions ofthis et of gloss: have been edited by Tullio Gregory Platonsm medievae: tdi e Fieerche Roane, 1988) pp. 1-73, 7-78 a1, and 95.96 8.3 “Pacis lt 16879, fo 3v let margin. a poss corresponding to Nonne inthe text of the Timaeus ed Westin, p81 4 "Quod ad magne human corporis fact est ulus rs Dublca sca sumo ordnaa est oii In ace enim capitis id ex in creo, versa rat, Bub arce wero. Hct in code, acundia quai vigor hema Posten autem consierantar ‘cetera membre inferior, quai ia suburbio, aloribus membrs subseruentia Et ut brevis ‘ica, rato etn opt, igor acundia in corde, cupiits in inferiribus cies cat i superiors dominant Another gloss at Sod Secandae (Timaeus 440, ed. Wastnk, p36. LET) Pais iat 16579, fol 3Srright margin, nots: Ratio quae abet locum in are capt est, Prime digas, cca corr, secunda;cupiias cca geal trcoe.90 ». DUTTON land additions, this gloss is also to be found in Avranches, Bibliotheque Municipate ws. 226 (fl. 96v) which contains a gloss on the Timaeus from the second half of the twelfth century. In neither of these are the various orders of :men Who occupy the city-state specified, but the Paris glossator certainly knew the outline ofthe scheme, since he says slightly later that by juuentus at 17c was ‘meant the young men who, placed beneath the citadel, guard the entire state? ‘When the author reached Timaeus 44a, which immediately precedes Plato's discourse on the body. he copied chapters 232 and 233 of Calcidius’ ‘commentary outight, with some changes in spellings, verb tenses, and ‘occasional words. At the very least, even if he demonstrates litle originality, we know that the glossator was familiar with Calcidius’ commentary, something few medieval readers could claim before the twelfth century, There hhe encountered, and to some extent absorbed (as his earlier gloss at 17c indicates), Calcius’ formative explanation of the city-state and 1s likenesses. With William of Conches we enter a period of mature interest and systematic study of the Timaeus and its teachings, including the social material of the prologue. A student of the famous Bernard of Chartres, probably in the 1120s, ‘William himself went on to teach such renowned students as John of Salisbury.” At the center of William's pedagogies, and this he had learned from the example of Bernard, lay the reading of texts, the lectio philosophorum. Ata “ BdouardJeaunen, ed. "Glses marginale sur le Time de Platon da manuscrit 226 dela [ibitheque muncipule EAvranches, Sacrs erudir) 17 (1966) 76 [71-49] and reprinted in Seaunea ‘Leet phiesophorum’. pp. 214-15 (200.2T} “Hee cites ad exempium, human ‘corporis sc descrip est. Untuscuitsque hominis enim pudica res & Deo surnno artifice st ‘ordinate Tn afc ei caps id est in cerebro, coneretar rato, ula V sens corporis ‘otantr per quos disenimus. Sub aoe uer, i est in corde, cand quss igor Muerte Posten autem consieantur ewera membrainferiora. qual in subutbio alioribus membrs subserienia. Et ut euiusdcams, racist in capi, ulgoe in Corde, cuniias in inferior ‘rca lmbos. cul rain et rac dominant * Corresponding t Timaens, od. Wasuink. p.8, LS, Pars at 16579, fo. 3 let margin state: 'Auuenibus, gu totam rem publcam Ham deeederen poi xa are Compare the ‘wording of tis gloss with the one contained inn. 67 below “Ts Paris lat. 16579 long gloss enresponding toes ad ue satu (Timacus 440, Wasink, p40. 12) mss tm the ght margin of fal. 39 the lft margin off 39 the ih ‘margin of fl 40, wo thee margin off Av. The scion fom 2 40 to Oy repeats eaters 252-233 of Caleidus’ commentary ed. Wastin, pp. 246,1, 12-247. 12. Sse nn. 22,23, and 25 shove "For concise treiments of Wiliam’ lie, see Edouard Jeaunets, ed, Gulllaume de Conches, Glos super Plaronem (Texesphilosophiques du Moyen Age 3: Pars 1969) pp. 9 10; Richard W. Southern, ‘Humanism and the School of Charizes in Souther, Medieval ‘Humanism and Other Studies (Oxtors, 1970, pp. 1-73: Joka Hole Newell, The Disa af ‘Manin Wiliam of Crches and the Schoo af Chars i the Tele Century (Ds. Duke 197, 1p. 2435; and Tuli Gregory, Anima manda flea di Gullo a Conches ela Seva hares (Plorence. 1855 9p. 14[A TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 91 personal level this reading was ongoing so thet his study of one text was informed by his investigation of another, and his works reflect the fruitful cross-ferilization. His gosses on Macrobius’ Commentary on the Dream of Scipio are a case in point. Although this work is tentatively assigned to the early part of William's career, t nevertheless reveals a keen awareness ofthe contents ff the Timacus and a projected set of glosses on the dialogue. Near the beginning of one redaction of this work, when commenting on Macrobius’ discussion of the Republics of Plato and Cicero, William introduced a lengthy, bt for our purposes pertinent, digression: Inthe state Plato wanted there tobe some men commanding and overseeing such asthe senate, some fighting suc as soldiers, and some serving such a the lower classes. Plato and Socrates, in their arrangement of the stat, imitated the divine arrangement which in the human body is the following: the head holds the highest place an, soto speak, lordship over the other members, and init s the abode ot wisdom ox account of is three chambers, Which We Will discuss f@sewhere, Therefore just as wisdom is located in the head and overses the remaining members ofthe body, so the senators being inte highest place thats, in the citadel ofthe city, oversee the lower classes and regulate their movements, ‘and actions. Under the head are hanés which are disposed to act and the heart ‘where the abode of courage is located; so under men from the senatorial order are Soldiers who ate disyosed to endure hardship and are courageous in defense of the state. The kidnejs, in which human desire flourishes, are located under the heart and 50 under the soldiers are found confectioners, cobbler, skinners, and ther craftsmen, At the remotest part of the body feet are found, so outside the ‘walls on the outshirs of the city are farmers to cultivate the fells" > Fora tentative chronology of William's work and the place ofthe Glosae super Macroiurt ‘and Glace super Tomacun in. so Jeaunea id p. 10-16, especall pp. 1313. Se aso E, Seauneaw, loses do Guile de Conches sur Macrobe. Note sr les manusert, Archives ‘Fhe dcinate einer du Meyen Age 27 (1960) 17-28 (reprinted in Jeauneat ‘Leet, Piilsephorum pp 167-78) 3d Helen Eunice Redit, The Decne ofthe rity Gullewme (de Concher Gites on Macribis: Texts and Sues (Diss. Calumba. 1972) pp 1037 5 Glasae super Macrobium Comme 1-1) ceed by Jeanneau in Gloae super Parone. 75 sie, Plato woluit in m publica ese quesdam inperantes et prouidentes ut sent. ‘tucedarn pugneics ut mite, quesdam seruestes ut plebern, Ete Pat et Socrates in ordine {1 publioe duinam imitate aposttonem que et i humano corpore tals: capt alcorem cum optinet et quastdomisium supra cera membra, in quo et sees sapeniepropter res falls de qibus al Quemadmodum igitur sapien et in cepite ot in religuis membris rout, enatores inact loco existent, id et in arce cits nferioibusprouident et ‘onum mots et sociones disensnt. Sub capt sunt manus que sunt prone ad agendum et In quo eft sedes animosiate Il sub lls do Sentero ofine subt miltes quad laboris tolerant pron sunt ea fe puie dfensionem aims. Sub corde sunt renes In qubus humane wiget conepiscet. a sub mllubus suaccupodenari, sutotes.pelipai et exer fntfies Ad ultimum sunt pede sc extra mus ia suburbio sunt agricole ad colendarura92 P=. DUTTON. William does nct mention the Timacus in this gloss because, no doubt, he understood from chapter 233 of Calcidius’ commentary that this scheme of the city-state derived from the Republic and it was this work to Which the gloss on Macrobius referred. However, even at this stage of his career, the master of Conches did not rly entirely on Calcidius, but rather within the basic outline of the tripartite division felt free to interpret and amplify. Senators, although identified with wisdom of the head, replace Caleidius’ wise men and oversee as well as command the city and its inhabitants. Under the senatorial order (senatorius ordo) are located soldiers who are identified with the heart, the abode of courage, and, in a departure from Caleidius' commentary, with hands disposed to act. The confectioners (cupedenarii) head the list of Workers from the lower classes. Whereas Calcidius had only mentioned tradesmen and the ‘masses and assoriated them with the genitals, William names confectioners, cobbles, skinpers, and craflsmen as tradesmen andl likens them to the kidneys. as the seat of human desire, Finally William added feet to his analysis and associated farmers, who live outside the walls of the city on its outskirts, with them, Farmers support, in other words, the state as feet support the human body. William introduces, it needs to be noted, an element of complexity absent in CCaleidius’ presentation of the scheme. At several levels his tripartite divisions ‘expand in order to embrace more social and anatomical realities, as can be seen from the following schematization: Location ‘Orders with fnctons __Leaton Faculties Alcor ees. jn ‘Senaioresinperamtes caput Sopienia sre Suita prouideies ‘Manus Prontas a agendum Sub sentorio utes pugnames dine cor Animestas Sub mlibus les: cupedenai sures. ‘Renes——-Concupsceta. pellipari aries seruenes Exira muros in Agrcooe ad colenda ura Pees suburtio By counting farmers as outside the walls of the city, William has in a sense preserved the tripartite division of the city-state. He has merely expanded, or Tather recognized, the complex composition of the lower classes. The functionality of the scheme is also maintained through his use of commanding and overseeing, fghting, and serving. But the parts ofthe body named are nowA TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SoctETY 93 five and the first four of these possess faculties. A correspondence is likewise Worked out between each of the faculties and the activites of the state. By multiplying the signs of the body which could be assigned to members of the state, William has, after a fashion, paved the road down which John of Salisbury was soon to walk. In his glosses on the Timaeus itself, William of Conches approached the ‘material at [7c in a different way. At the outset of chapter 15 of this work, he asserts that since Socrates followed the divine plan of the arrangement of man in his establishment of te state, so shall he.* He proceeds, therefore, from a consideration of the human body to the composition of the stat, placing greater ‘emphasis on the former. According to William, God wished man to be able to possess the wisdom to dkcern good from evil. the irascibility to resist evil, and the desire for good. To this end he gave each of these faculties an abode in man. ‘Wisdom as the most worthy was placed in the human head, the worthiest place in the body. Wisdom consists of three things: the power of understanding ‘quickly, the power of discerning what has been understood, and the power of retaining it in memory. Drawing a metaphor of the brain as a ship from the Liber de oculis of Constantinus Africanus, he explains thatthe three ventricles. or chambers as he had called them in the gloss on Macrobius, are found in the prow, middle, and stern ofthe head.** After analyzing the humors of the head, William claimed that this design had been verified by an examination of open. ‘wounds.* All ofthis was to support his contention thatthe head was the abode of wisdom, Under it was found the heart, the source of anger in men, and lunder the heart were located the kidneys, which are the abode of desire, Thus ‘William artived at the city-state, which he mentions only cursorily According to this ikaness, Socrates wanted thereto be a senate inthe citadel of the city as wisdom isin the citadel of the head, under it soldiers as courage abides inthe heart, and uncer the soldiers confectioners as desire isin the loins. And as heavy fet in the lowest part of the body tread the earth, so farmers, hunters, and shepherds manage the land outside the walls of the city.” 2 Glosae super Platoon 15. ed. Jesu, p74 See lsae super Patonem 15, elena, p. 74 3nd n. Se also Wiliam of Coaches. Phiosopha, mand 421, ef Gregor Matach Pretoria, 1980) pp. 106-107. and Wiliam of CConches, ragnaicon seu Dolous de subianis pls, ed. G. Grataroli Srasbour, 1567. ‘it, Frankurt. 1967), pp. 27680 Glee super Platonem 15, ed Yeaunea, p75. hv "Ad hae ueo siaddnem ol Soerates in arc clutats ese senatum ut in arce cit et sapientia sub foes mites ut in corde animostatem, sub quibus sunt cupsinri ut in fumbis ext soncupnenta Et pes bri fron parte calcant tram, i agriole et94 Pe. perro ‘This gloss differs rom the earlier one in several respects. Inthe first place the ‘cupidinarit here sand alone as representatives of the lower classes and trades- ‘men: they represent, in simple terms, a class of desirous men. Moreover, the coliection of suburban workers farmers, hunters, and shepherds) has its source, 2s William seems to acknowledge, in Tinaeus 244-a.5" The overall impression left by this briefer gloss is that William was engaged in simplifying a subject he hhad considered some years before, but that only the details and not the substance of his consideration had changed When William came to discuss PIato's argument that women should be held in common (Timseus 18n-p), he used the division of society into classes to excuse Plato on the grounds that he had merely meant to probibit intermarriage between men and women of different classes.* These classes, incidentally, do ‘not equate with the tripartite breakdown of the ordines. Interestingly enough, William showed little regard for Timaeus 244 where we discover the other distinct mention of society's composition. He simply took the reference there 10 the separation of priests from soldiers and others asa reflection of the fact that priests had lived separately in cloister then as they did in his own time. Thus William of Conches, the most influential medieval commentator of the Timacus, had duifully pointed out the likeness of the city-state to the body. Even if he was more interested in what this meant for our understanding of the human body, his systematic study of Plato and of Caleidius' commentary led ‘him to comment on the shape of the state. Nor should we forget that William ‘was above alla pepularizer of ideas, as his Philasophia mundi and Dragmaticon testify. With the increased twelfh-century interest in the Timaeus, which was due in no small measure to William. the famous example of the city-state became more widely known. Because ofthe smilariy ofthe words cuppedium (oafecton rom which the cupedenartt of Willams pass on Macrabius derives. and eupido (dese or longing), seems ely tht ‘Willan Wanted the cypidinarit of his lasso the Timaous to sand for the entice clase of esrous men. In adtion the othography ofthe second usage draws closer silo cups (desire). On eupeedinarius,cupedinarns, seu cupldinara, See Thesauri lnguae latina, v0. Cone yulus (Leia. 1906-1909), col 1836 "At Timaeus 2 ed. Wastink, p16, 17, Wiliam, Glsae super Platonem 29, ed Seauneau 9.98. Wrote ‘Colondt et esercend: dem ex. Eumdem ordnem exequtu hc quash et Socrates superis. * Gilsae super Plonem 19. e. Jeaunesu,p. 79 ‘Dicunt quidem quo in eodem dioeo precept Pato quod mulieressritodarentur ut, i aligus aliquam haber ull sor mitertsr bn eam habere deter ft nulla sine sore fungeretir, Nobis ero alter deur” quod Pato ‘Populum per ches suit ut in una ent sentoes, in ali ete, in aa ears, in alia gto in alla seul et sk de ali eta quod Homo uns sis bon ungeretur mule alee se umusqusque desi clase acipret Gloae super Pionen 29,06. Jauneau,p.95.a gles on the word polluA TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SoctETY 95 A major but unattributed Timaeus commentary from the twelfth century* asserts at Ic that the state is fashioned after the likeness of man. In describing the tripartite shape of the human body and its faculties or powers, the ‘commentary reflects not only Calcidus but also the phrasing found in Pars lat. 16579 and Avranches 226." The anonymous commentator maintains that the sate is established so that in the loftiest part of the city the powerful (poentes) reside, in the middle dwell noble citizens (ives honest), and on the outskirts of the city (in suburbifs) are located cobblers and the practitioners of other trades.” Later, however, when commenting upon Timaeus 44, the commentator returned to this theme bu: altered his use of terms. The state and the human body are similar, he informs us, because just as the greatest men dwell in the highest place ofthe city, sc the greatest power of the soul, namely, reason, is set in the head, Soldiers, who defend the city, live in the middle of it, and so the hheart possessing the natural energy of the soul, that is, the anger by which we resist evil, resides in the middle of man. At the outer edges of the city (circa extremes) live workers, namely, tradesmen and other servile classes, who always desire to acquire things, and so in man desire lives around the body's hhindmost quarters. This passage, with few changes, is repeated amongst the © On the ws. ofthis commentary, whose incipitis Soerates dere publica x brs disput sce Kifunshy. The Continuity ofthe Platonsc Triton, p. 30 and Gibson, The Stuy of the Timaew 188 Gregory, Pltonno medivale, pp. 66-71. 76 n. I. and 103, as edited parons (of this commentary from to ws. Consulted for this study have bees the copies of the ‘commentary found In Manic, Sayeriche Statsbbliodbek Cin S4OB (on thins see Jeune, ‘Glosae sper Platonem. pp. 41-8) Vienna, Oserieisce Nationaliiothek 2376 on this we ‘sce Wastin, Timacus a Cali rans, p. xxv Orleans, Bibicthegue Municipal s.260, (G16) (on this ws seo Catalogue general des mamusri des bblavhégues publgues de France Deparemente (Oca Series} 12(0rcens| (Pars, 1889. 128); Durham, Cathetral Library ms CVT lon this ws se R. A.B Mynors Durham Cathedral Manuscips to the End of the Teeth Century Oxford, 1939] p. 58 and Pommerseden,Grafich Schonborn'sche Biothek ‘76 (2663 Con tit ws ee Wasink, Timacus a Calcio Iansars, px) Compare the txt printed inn 62 below with those printed in a. #5 and 46 above "© fnieh Clim S40B, for, Vienna 2576 fo 20y; Ortans 260 26), p. 178: Durham C 1. 7, fol. 42va, and Pommerfeden 76 (2663), To. 43v,coresponding to Timaeur {Tc e ‘Wastin p 8.1 Quid ud et ordinationem illam qulem exe fudeat, que facta ox ad sinltudinem hominis, eos ees publica a Deo sc ordinates In arce enim capi id ext in Gerebvo, versa sapien: sub afee, Id est in corde. lmacundia quasi vigor iuuentuts oncypicents in inleronibus, seit circa umbos. eu lla superiera dominant Ii in Superior parte rb, potent in medio, cues honest: in suburbs, sutores et ceteris Toa sont Munich Cim S40B, fo. 2p; Orléans 260 (216), p. 202: Durham C. V.7 0.47: and Pommerfelden 162653, fo. Sr coresponding wo Timacus 4, 2d. Wasink, p40, 122 Ex ‘iiem: Potest vero nota in regione humans corporis disposi rei publica quia sict in ‘tnencior loo eats hain meiores, fi eapte maior ws anmae id et rao. Etsiut ‘medio cuits mites habitant. qu dfendunt cute, iain medio homins, destin corde, ‘atures uigor anise, scliet ia per quam mals asc debemus. Bt siut in evita crea96 Pe, DUTTON badly rubbed set of twelfth-century Timacus glosses to be found in British Library ws. Royal 12.B.xxii In the anonymous commentary, then, one finds ‘ovo similar presentations of the example of the city-state, neither seemingly influenced by William of Conches but both reflecting the general features of Calcidius’ presertation. The most interesting aspect of this commentary for our ‘purposes is its two sets of expressions for the three orders inthe frst they are called potentes,cives honest, sulores et ceter smiles and in the second maiares, ‘miltes, sellarit (sic) et ceteri seruiles. The second scheme with its reference 10 ‘tradesmen, soldiers, and chief men of the city seems to draw directly from Caleidius, but the first may suggest an attempt to describe a different social situation particularly with its unusual rendering of the second order as cites Jhonesti, The serulles of the second formulation is also uncommon, but perhaps ‘ natural descristion for an order whose primary function was, as William of Conches hid said, to serve. Labelling the third order as decidedly materialistic or desirous had. of course, become a standard observation of readers of the Timaeus. While Calcidius had associated the third order with human genitals ‘and William had likened the cupidinarit with the kidneys, thus giving these confectioners or desirous men an alimentary function, the anonymous ‘commentator linked the lowest order of men with the buttocks of the human body. The third order of the city-state was thus characterized by Timacus ‘commentators a given over to passionate pursuits, to acquisitiveness and consumption, ard to material waste. Reason, which was restricted to the wise, rulers, and even courageous public action, which was the responsibility of soldiers, were denied these men. Their function in the city-state, while not praised by the commentators, was, however, viewed as necessary for the harmonious working of the whole, extremos habitat pies det eli le) ot exter series gui semper eopiantadguirere ta In homin ica poseriora habitat concupiscenine "Vienna 2376 ends abruptly a Timaeus #2 land therefore does aot cide this los. In ation, Oriéans 260 (216) has & homoeotletc Tacuna rom mare to ies, aling between the two habian ofthe fast 0 sentences. Other ‘han that only word odor and orthography separate the ss. fr these glosses except tala the ‘third seaence of ths gloss, cho Orleans codex has smiles ia plac of sere. Tondo. Belts Libary ws. Royal 128-00, fl 38 top margin gloss corespending to Timacus 48o, ed. Wastin p40, 1,22 Ext auom: ‘Et potest nota in postions hur corporis republics: disposito, quia cut in einen! ooo ati habitant mares, in tpt maior ui animae, dest rai. Fico in medi mutes qi agunt et efendunt cater, iain medho hominis, i etn corde, natura igor snime, i et ie per quam mali ial ebemas. Et sit serues,opiies cupients aliqued adgurere, cea extrema, a ceca ostriora hominis habitat concpiscenta On this ws, se the descupion of Gouge F. Warner fad Julius P. Gilson, Brash Museum. Catalogue af Western Manuscripis the Old Royal and ing’ Callecon 2 (ondon, 192).p 18. Se aso Geson, "The Sty of the Tima. 188. Post, Studies. . 507 a. 2) wansries incompletely, one smal ut interesting los fom ths wsA TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 7 Leiden, Bibliotheek der Rijksuniversiteit ws. B.P-L. 64 also preserves an interesting twelfth-century marginal gloss on Timaeus 17c It states that Socrates established the city in the likeness of the human body: the citadel of the city, which is inhabited by elders (senes), is similar to the head and thus the ‘elders are in the citadel «s the brain possessing wisdom is located in the head. Soldiers are found under the citadel as the heart, the abode of temper like the energy of youth, is placed under the head. Finally common folk (rust) and others serve the soldiers and elders, just as the other members of the human body serve the head and heart. The elders of this formulation are certainly ‘meant to represent wise men since it is wisdom which is their equivalent in the head, Moreover a distinction is implicitly drawn between the youthful soldiers and the rulers of the city who must be their seniors.” The word ‘rustici’ indicates the lower classes, and, while not common among Timaeus glosses, was a rather familiar term for the third order in the Middle Ages. In this particular formulation ofthe tripartite division of society, the specie functions. of the top two orders are not explicitly expressed: only the function of the lowest order to serve the higher orders is specified Osford, Bodleian Library ws. Digby 23 is well known to medievalists as the ‘manuscript which contains an important twelfth-century copy of the Chanson de Roland, but it also holds a less well-known text of the Timaeus which is + On this ws. see Caalous compendarus continens codices omnes manuscripts gut 12 ‘iblithece Acadeniae Lgano-Boravae esservatur | aiden, 1932) p, 102: Wastin, Timacus Calcio rant, eX, and L- Minko Paull, od, Phaedo inierprete Henrico Artaiopo (lao Latins 2: Landon, 1980) pp. xe. ‘aiden BP.L- 68, fl 37 et margin, a gloss corresponding wo Timacus eed. Waseink 4.1.4: -Notandom eat urben a Secrate consttutam ad simiitudinem humani corporis. Quod Sipossumus dere Arxs quidem ub sene babtabent ad siilitdner caps distur In capt ‘nim et cerebrum, in quo ent sapiena,scut in are ene. Sub are vero sunt mits, seu ‘Sub caite eat cor ubl ext feces racundag,quab st quas igor invents. Psteauero sunt Fuste et ctr mis et efor seruents, seu sub capt corde suntextera membra cori e7On the ago luventuis and pare-senatores i teipartte formulations. see Carozi, Adalbéron de Laon Poem au ri Raber. pp. cxrirexX. Interestingly enough the term sees is ployed forte frst oder another sc of Timacus glosses. Pomrselden 16 (2563), which ‘Sonn as we have seen the xt ofthe anonymous commentary on the Timaeus, also posesses copy of the Timacus in Caetcue tancaton with an abundant set of late twelfth or eaty ‘hitenth-sentuy posses. Teese is pat reflect the anonymous commentary, but fl 3y (ih Inara loses Timaowe I7eved. Wasa. p. 8,1 5 auemute: dest iuvenbus ui tot rem Publica i defen post uta are. in qu snes, cum alsin suburb Another gloss 1 Tumaeus 7c in the le marin of te ste io speaks ote fuller scheme: ‘Simitusinor Seruaut de re publics human corporis rato etn also parte omnis id est in cpt, ut vnes in roe i infers crc cor fovenes crea arom: cups in nfs, id est Im mb ut pulliparcerdones,e ctr in suburbio” Seer, we should remember. were sented with ‘ovaores andthe snate was thought to be @dlibertive body of sens: et Cicero, Cato Maio ‘de smeciaie 619 and 163698 . &, DUTTON richly glossed A glossator from the second half of the twelfth century introduced a long gloss on our theme at Timaeus 7c. He remarked that Socrates, unatle to find any state or kingdom established according to the reason of positive justice: proposed therefor, a certain state and arranged it according to a pattern which the had contemplated in the macrocesm and microcosm. For he saw in the ‘macrocosm, that i, inthe greater world, certain loft things such as God and tbe planets, certain middle things such as the active and ministering spirits, end certain lowest things such as other spirit like cacodemons whirling about in the sir above us!” In the microcosm, thats, in man, Socrates saw wisdom set on high in the head, ‘which possesses three chambers: imagination is set in the forehead, logical reasoning in the middle, and memory in the hack ofthe head. In the middle of ‘man, Socrates observed the heart where courage abides and desire which abides in the vicinity of the kidneys and loins. The lowest parts of the human body are the feet and hands.” Socrates’ observations of the macrocosmn and microcosm aided his creaton of the state: “Therefore he established the state according to this pattern, making highest things such as the senators, the middle as active soldiers, and the lowest as the practitioners of the mechanical arts, namely skinners, cobblers, tanners, and farmers, but outside the city.” On his ws. we Catalog codicum manuscriporum BiblhecaeBodliana, vol. 9: Codces 4 iro clarssimo Keneim Dighy ~..e&. W. D. Macy (Oxfor, 1883) ex. 19-20: Chris ‘Samaran (historia and alacgrapiical study) and Alexandre de Laborde (introduction. Le ‘hanson de Roland: reproduction photoppigue ds maniac Dihy 23 ela Botan Libary ‘Oxford (Paris, 1833), pp. Ale and Raoul Morte, Le exes de La chanson de Roland. 0 la yerson Oxford Par. 1940), pp. xis xvi, 9 Onfors Digby 23. fo St. a gloss corresponding to Timacus Ic-p, ed, Wasik, p 8, A> 10: “Proposuit ero rem public quamdam et cam ocinaut secundum dipostonem ‘quamdam quam cosirauerat in macrocosmo ot micvocoo. Visit enim in macrocosne id «stn maori mundo. queda summa ut Deu et plana, qustam media spirits agentes instore), quedar iia ut ais spss fn nostro tere verantes ut cacodemente, ee In this pasage and in. 90 below, the expeeson minsirtorl sirius real the minstering sprit of Heb 114, Gregory. Plone medieval, p. 61 3 eed a portion of ths gles, Including the frst sentence which Ihave omited. My study ofthis st of glosses was preaty facltated by an uepublshed su of tis os Which Edouard Jsuneau generously placed am) ‘spo "The gloss coninues frm ‘cacodemeones, eto the same foi: Vit simi in micro ‘cosmo, i est ome, quedam summa st sapientam hatin, us sees in sums parts ius est est in capite. in tidus calls fantasica sce que in fronte es ina Us lmagnandi, i es percpienl rex ipsa, comtneur. et logisica que in medio, bi als est . &. DUTTON familiarity with the commentary of Calcidius that allowed the glossstors to conceive of the importance of the prologue of the Timaeus. Some glosses, such as those to be found in Paris lat. 16579, merely repeated large sections of Calciaius, while others, such as Digby 23, adapted, interpreted, and so trans- formed the Calcidian explanation. In William of Conches' gloss on Macrobius and even in Digby 23 we see the complexity to which the system could tend: the human body. afte al, could supply an almost endless set of potential signs for members of society and the city could be counted to have at least four areas in and around it: citadel in the center, an area below the citadel, the outskirts of the city, and an area outside the city’s walls. In a sense these two metaphors for society, the human body and the city, were competing for popularity. The ‘example ofthe body as a more plentiful set of signs was, of course, to triumph, but the current reading of the Timaeus in the twelfth century temporarily ‘bound them together in an elaborate scheme. ‘The words employed to name the member-groups of the city-state adhere to 8 fairly regular tripartite pattern: Commentary Wiliam of Coches on: Unatibed Leiden ws. Bodielan ss ‘of Caledius —MecrobiasTimacus Commentary on: -BPL. 64 Dighy 23 Me. so Splentes——sestores senatores potent misioes snes ——_‘enators| rare smilies mites cues mites ites lites hones sets plebs: cupidinarii sutores sella rustici—macankarum tuulgres cupedenari a e rum Sawes ceteri cots eteri_——_ professors: aii similes series pellipac pieolae agricole sricolse pastoes uo in arc capi, sin cerebro, ratio vers, xt scent, sapiens in arc. Inferas vtem mats, pron loco uxt, sc! ira in corde. Deine clos agroram et hulsinox in Suburb, scat cupidtas in inferribus membrscorprsuidlice! ambi, ita” Oa this ws set Moniague Rhodes Janes, The Western Manuscrps ithe Library of Trini Cale, Cambrie 4 Desersive Catalogue 2 Cambridge, 1901, pp. 265466 snd Wastink, Timaeea e Collate transarus, pcx. Trevor Kaye, Sot-Lbrsian of Tray Colege, kindly consulted this thy ‘ound xt inorder confirm a pint unclear in my microm ‘in Oxford, Corpus Cristi Callege us. 243. thre exists «commentary onthe Timaeus by the socalled "AnonyinusOxoninsis (ee Kbansky. The Contino th Platonic Tradion- 99.30| TRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 101 ‘A certain consistency is fo be observed in the first two orders. Established in the citadel or Capitol of the city, the first group of men was naturally called senators by the Latin glssators. The potentes and maiores of the unattributed commentary may well reflect Calcidius’ use of principales wiri to describe the first order. Soldiers is the common name for the second order, except in the same unattributed commentary where they are called ciues honest. almost as if they were wealthy burghers of a medieval city. The third order clearly ‘comprises all the rest as the phrase er ceteri suggests. This i a class of laborers and, for this reason no doubt, the glossator of Digby 23 assigned hands as the corporeal equivalent, while both he and William placed fect as the equivalent of the farmers. From Caleidius’ simple reference to tradesmen and the masses. the twelfth-century glossators proceeded to specily and enrich the makeup of the last order. William adds a list of specific occupations to his general order of plebs, and in his gloss on the Timaeus he allows the cupidinari to stand for all the desirous men ot the turd order. With the glossator of Digby 23, he counts farmers as part of the third order, but recognizes that they live outside the walls of the city with hunters and shepherds. They rest uneasily in the scheme, not properly part of the city-state and yet admittedly necessary for its support. At ‘best, the glossators were attempting to suggest the diverse composition of the ‘third order by allowing a few examples of medieval trades to stand as representatives. Taken «s a whole we are introduced toa series of occupations: tradesmen, confectioners, cobblers, skinners, tanners, artisans, farmers. hunters, and shepherds” It is a list which could not hope to capture the complexity of twelftheentury urban society, nor was it the intention of the ‘lossators to do so, We lack, for instance, any mention of bakers. butchers, or fishmongers. The emphasis ofthe glossators was rather upon characterizing the functional role of the third order: to serve the frst order which commands and oversees the city and the second which was to fight on behalf of the rest. The nature of the orders, and William had called them ordines and not classes, was thus determined by their function within society as a whole sn 52) which was copied out by a certs Frederch Nagel of Oxford in 1423. On thi ms. ee Honry ©. Coxe, Catalog codcum MSS. qul in calegis auligue Oxontensbus hod tiservantur pars 2 (Oxford, 1952p. 100-101 and Mini Pala, Phaedo ierpree Henrico “ristppoc XA fl 139% oe reds, corresponding to Timaeus 17c, ed. Westnk,p 8.1.4 ‘Preawee’ sc post boraines in ciate Ta suburbio agrculores, stim ine meni plotessores asim mechanism sicl plies, stores et huiwsmodk intel loco mites, Trquaro et modi sapien et phlowophos disposult” For another ate se of the scheme, 66 iansy, The Contin ofthe Plante Tradition, p 68 eR numberof ether ccspations ae ied in nterlinga loses tthe Words ‘eerarumgue asumnproesoces of Tomovur Ve, ed: Waszink, pk 45102 PE purton’ ‘Thus, although the glossators were principally interested in what a tripart division of society could tell them about the configuration of the human body, their systematic study ofthe Timacus led them to a form of basic social typing, As commentators, in other words, they were forced to comment on and make sense of the description of the city-state Which they encountered in the opening pages of the Tirtaeus. They aided in two ways the transmission of the famous ‘example of the city and its people. On the one hand, some of the glossators like William of Corches must have made the scheme known to students through their teaching: cn the other, when learned men turned to copies ofthe Timacus they must frequently have found a gloss at 17c similar to those we have ‘examined. Throughout the twelfth century a series of influential thinkers found ‘the image of the ilusire ciutatis et popull exemplum to be significant. proof ‘enough of the success of the act of popularization in which the Timaeus alossaluis were engaged. Among thinkers usually associated with the school of Chartres. the ‘comparison of the city-state to the cosmos and the huznan body finds recurring expression. Of course, in the early twelfth century, before the reception and. translation of Greek and Arabic works on a large scale.” the Timaeus along, With the works of Macrobius and Martianus Capella was one of the most influential texts.* Indeed the well-known commentary on the firs six books of % For views of te schoo! of Chartres, ee Richard W. Southern, Humenism and the School of Charue in Medieval Humanism, ep 61-85; Nikolaus Haring, Caattes and Pars Revised in Esays in Monour of Anion Charles Peps, ed 3. Reginald ODoanall Toronto, 974) pp. 268- 329; and Petr Dronke, ‘New Approaches to the School of Charzes Anuar de eudos ‘edievates 6 (1969) 117-40, On the inroads made by Arabi texts at Chartres, ee Heinrich Schipperges, ‘Die Schule ‘von Chars unter dem Finfas ds Azabu’ Sushos Archiv fr Geschichte dor Meditn sind der Natureisseschfien 40 (1956) 193-210 and Die Asimlvion der arobachen Media ‘durch das latensche Mitelater ‘Sudhot Archiv fir Geschichte dee Medina det [Naturwisesschafie, Bethe. Heft; Wiesbaden, 1964), pp. 111-23: and Droake. ‘New Ap. proaches 124-27 "On ihe imporance and iuence ofthe Tomei inte welt century, se Mari- There \FAlerny, Le coms symbolique du xu" sgl’ Archives dhsivedocrnale etter da Moyen Age 20 (195) 69-8} [3L81} MoD. Chenu. "The Pistons of the Twelfth Century ‘Chenu Nature, Mar, and Soe nthe Twelfth Conary: Ess on Now Thedopca Perspectives {nthe Lan West, ns. Jerome Tayor and Laster K. Lite (Cicego 1968), 9p. 1998, Crepory, Plaontno media, p. 83-153. Eugenio Garin. Stud sul platontsmo medtevale (uaa 8 letertura e rte 17; Florence. 1950) pp. 46-87; and Winthrop Wetnertee, Patna and etry in the Twelfth Century: The Literary Inftuence ofthe Schoo! of Charives rinceon, 1972, pp 2877|ACTRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY 103 Virgi’s Aeneid, writen in the first half ofthe twelfth century by an author long assumed to have bee Bernard Silvestri,” attests throughout to the direct influence of the Timaous. Several times the commentator mentions the duty Imposed upon soldiers of protecting the city against external, internal, and domestic attack (Timazus 17D)" He even quotes Calcidius’ translation of the Gialogue at 17c-p, in which the functional role ofthe soldiers is separated from the duty of others."' Furthermore, in his discussion of the shape of the human hhead, he reveals a femiliarity with Calcidius’ commentary in the sections leading up to the treatment of the city-state. His various statements about the three ventricles ofthe brain and their respective powers also suggest either that the commentator was familiar with the teaching of William of Conches or vice When dealing, therefore, with an author intimately familiar with the ‘Timaeus and its interpretation, one is not surprised to come across the famous ‘example of the city-state. The commentary on book 3 of the Aeneid opens With fn identification of Aeneas’ city with the human body. Just as there are four divisions of dwelling alaces in the city and four orders (ordines) of men who inbabit these, so too, ays the commentator, there are four dwelling places with four powers in the human body. In the city the first dwelling is the citadel Inhabited by wise men: in the body the head holds down the citadel, and in it abide wisdom, the instruments of the senses, and the three chambers of the brain, The second dwelling of the city isthe home of the solders, as in the body courage holds forth inthe heart. The third dwelling place is held by the desirous ‘ones, the cupidinarit and so in the third abode of the body desire is located around the kidneys, At the furthest reaches ofthe city, on the outskirts, farmers are found, and so atthe extremities of the body are located the hands and feet, On the author of the commentary, see Julian Ward Jones and Elizabeth Frances Jones. ‘eds, The Commentary onthe First Ste Books ofthe ‘Aeneid’ af Vere! Commonly Attributed Bernards ives 4 New Creal Eaton (neo, Neb 1977). Xo Tey ag tha is by'no means certain hat is commentary is by Berard Sveti, a issue origialy raised by Brian Stock, Moh and Science ithe Pvelfh Century: Shudy of Bernard Sieser (Princeton, 1972), p36 n. 42. Peer Dromke, ed, Berardus Sibesrs, Casmographa (Texts minores 53 Leiden, 1978), pp. 3 and Edouard Jeauneau in a review of ths edion which appeared in ‘Medians acvun 91980) 12-13 1111-6), howeve,asept ita a work f Bernardo a eset 60 ‘bo geason at present fr énving the atbuton See dened 6.188 are, oJores a Jones, p63, 7-19; 6.483 glancum, . 9719: 25, and 6612 arma, p12, I 0-13. The txt ofthis commentary was err ated by W. Riedel, Comment Bernr Sivesris super sex libros Eneldos Vigil (Greta, 1928) TW eneld 6478 secrets, ed lnes and Jones, p97, 610. © Sceveneld 6207 sicumdares ed, Jones and Jones, p. 65,1. 12-13 and nn, 19, 20, and 23 above See dened 648 Dee Jones and Jones, pp. 46,1 24-47. 1. 7: 6184 arms, p. 63,17 19 and 6.207 ereumdare p63. 1318.108 .. urToy which are disposed to action. Thus, he concludes, the city i said to be @ body. This presentation clearly bears great similarity to William of Conches" gloss on ‘the Timaeus. There are a number of shared phrases, a comparable breakdown of the compartments ofthe brain, and in both the cupidinaril represent the third order. In addition both place the farmers outside the city, but this leads the ‘commentator on the Aeneid to conceive of the Scheme as quadripartite, Their lists of ordines, however, are virtually the same, Near the end ofthe commentary, when discussing book 6 of the Aeneid, the author returns to “he image ofthe city-state. He points out that Elysium signifies the divine form ofthe state, since the world is divine work and the state shares this form. Thus itis called another world. Just as the world has four regions, each with its owr adornment, so the city is divided into four by statesmen. AS there are rational substances in the highest region and brutes in the lowest, so labso isthe ety arranged." He states that “Plato and Socrates placed philosophers in the citadel of the city, soldiers in the second quarter, confectioners in the third, and farmers on the outskirts of the city." This, the commentator informs Us isthe World of Salmoneus. The only change in the list of ordines here is that the wise men of the first order are called philosophers following the wel Aeneid 2. ed Jones and Jones. pp. 15. 11616, 1.6: ‘Civitas ergo Enee est corpus humanum quod spirits. mumanus ineolit & rep ideoque ius cies dictur. rum ‘quemadmodim in Gutate sunt quattor mansionum diusiones ct quar homimar ordines ils mansonesincolntes, ia quogue in humano corpore quater sun ansiones et potent sede ins babes. Pima clits mansio et ares, quam spine nccunt fa in corpore prima et eminenior mansio et ares corporis et capo n quo sapentasedem abet tine ‘nsrumentasensuum et es ingeni et ations et memerie calle. Secunda cutis ansio ex ‘ileum: ta Secunda corporis manso ex animosiatis in corde, set qucmadmodu ila ext snimosoru. Tecis mansio cuts estcapainarioram: a tea xin corpore cupid hee futem ein renibus. I utimo cia es suburblum sedes aioli: Hin etremo coors Sunt manus t pees ad agen. deo ells corpus ctr” On thi passage, sex). Regield O'Donnel, “The Sowoes and Meaning of Bernard Siveser's Commentary on the Aeneid Mediaeval tutes 241962) 242-43 [233-49], who atibvted the scene to Apulks In adaton, chee are srihng similarities Wiliams glos on Macrobies (St above) "mans ad agendum. cor. et sede animosiatis and the placing of esr in the kidneys. But ‘he dened commeniry does not corespond exscly to either of Willams losses, which sogges perhaps tat the commentator was familar with Willams teaching. Moreover. the commentator’ use of rupidinar tem which We aw develop ino a representative category ih the thinking of Witiam, may suggest tha it was Willar Who influenced the commentator ot the Aeneid and not te other wat ron, 6 ened 6.585 Salmonea, ed Jones and Jones, p 109. 1 12-17Els ictus Eleysam. i est lun operis forma, que est ses pubic. Diuinum autem opus est miundus res autem publi eo et eis forme quod etiam aller mundus du Sicut enim mds quatur habe eones ft unaqueque suum het erratum se clutas per quater 4 pols dasa et et sicut in sa fe sunt radonables substan etn aim bre, i ti cute bi. I 17-19:"n are enim Plato et Soerates ponun palesopbs, in seewndo ico mites, ‘neti cupiinaris. in suburb agricola.ACTRIPARTITE SCHEME OF SOCIETY los Known Platonic notion of the ideal ruler. In conceiving of the state as {quadripartte, the commentator on the Aeneid has drawn a conclusion which had remained only a possibility in the gloss of William of Conches on the Timacus. In counting the orders of the city-state, he has said, in effect, that a