05/10/2022

Overview/Learning Outcomes
Understand major components of lung anatomy and
physiological function of the respiratory system
• Anatomy and physiology of breathing
• Alveoli and respiratory epithelial cells

The Respiratory System • Respiratory muscles

• Respiratory control (of breathing and respiratory rate)

• The Mechanics of Breathing

6H4Z1020 Physiological Systems • Respiratory volumes by spirometry
• Respiratory Diseases

Dr Virginia Hawkins • Gas exchange & Gas Transport

v.hawkins@mmu.ac.uk • Partial pressure gradients
• Oxygen-haemoglobin dissociation curves
Key Reference: Pocock Human Physiology 5e
Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology (Martini 2018: 11e pg857 -905)

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Upper and Lower RT

Anatomy & Physiology of the

Lungs

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Lung Shape & Size Trachea and Bronchi

• Lung size is related to body
size and O2 demand for
metabolism
• Men typically have larger vital
lung capacities than women:
~ female < 4 L # male > 4 L
~ difference about 1.5 L
• The right lung has 3 lobes but
the left lung has 2 lobes: mucociliary
~ different shapes due to escalator
the cardiac notch on the The ‘mucociliary escalator’
moves debris from small
left bronchioles to the top of
the trachea to be
 Pocock: Chapter 32 Fig 32.1; pg 507 Figure 23-2 & 23-6: Anatomy &Physiology swallowed
(2011; 9/e) Martini. pgs 816 & 823

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Bronchial The Respiratory Tree

tree and
alveoli • Primary bronchi divide to form
secondary, tertiary bronchi etc
clusters
• Terminal bronchioles divide into
respiratory bronchioles which
Figure 23-9:
Fundamental Anatomy divide into alveolar ducts that
&Physiology (2018;
11/e) Martini.
supply air to alveoli
• Gas exchange takes place in the
alveoli:
~ O2 is absorbed for cellular
respiration (to form ATP)
~ CO2 is eliminated as a waste
product of metabolism

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Alveoli Alveolar epithelial cells and foetal development

• Lungs contains about 500 million
tiny alveoli air sacs:
• Alveoli are 250 µm wide and are
surrounded by capillaries
• The alveolar epithelium maximises
gas exchange:
~ large surface area (100 – 140
m2)
~ a thin cellular membrane
(0.5 - 1 µm)
~ excellent blood supply (5-25
l/min)
~ wet surface (alveolar fluid
containing surfactant)
Red blood cells in the circulatory
system transport O2 from lungs to
tissues and help remove CO2
• Lungs are not used for gas
Alveolar exchange during foetal life but
air space must produce surfactant to be
ready to breathe air at birth
• Alveolar epithelial Type II cells
Alveolar secrete surfactant to reduce
air space surface tension
• Type-II cells mature fully in late
pregnancy (wk 36)
• Premature babies can develop
respiratory distress syndrome
• Alveolar epithelial Type I cells
exchange gasses (02 and CO2)
 Pocock: Chapter 34 Fig 34.3; pg 529
9  Pocock: Chapter 32 Fig 32.7a; pg 511
 Pocock: Chapter 32 Fig 32.7b; pg 511 10

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Inspiration and Expiration

Inspiration is forced
Major cell types in Alveoli • Breathing (physical ventilation) is required to maintain
high O2 levels and low CO2 at respiratory surfaces /
arterial blood
• Inspiration:
~ inspiration is an active process
~ diaphragm and external intercostal muscles
contract which expands the thoracic cage
Exhalation is passive ~ air flows into lungs by negative pressure (-1
mmHg)
• Expiration:
~ expiration is passive
~ external intercostal muscles relax allowing the
thoracic cavity to recoil to its resting position
Figure 23: Anatomy &
Physiology (2011; 11e) ~ air flows out of lungs by positive pressure ( +1
Martini. mmHg) 12
 Campbell Biology (2011; 9/e) pg 967: Fig 42:28

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Respiratory Muscles CO2 and O2 and the control of breathing

• High blood CO2 is the main stimulus for inspiration
• The medulla monitors falling pH levels in cerebrospinal fluid
and blood which directly relate to increasing CO2 levels
~ breathing rate and depth increase as CO2 levels rise
• O2 levels have little effect on breathing control except where
levels are very low (high altitude & sleep apnoea)
~ low O2 levels stimulate deeper breathing
• Exercise can increase breathing from 5 to 100 litres / min
~ breathing remains high after vigorous exercise to clear
oxygen debts caused by anaerobic metabolism
• Breathing air enriched with O2 is used in medical emergencies
and chronic illnesses to reduce respiratory distress
Figure 23-15: Fundamental Anatomy &Physiology (2018; 11/e) Martini. 14

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Higher voluntary controls

Peripheral control of breathing rate
CNS Control of 1 - Pons
2 - Medulla • Sensors in the carotid artery detect blood O2, • Sensors in muscles and tendons
Breathing CO2 and pH levels to help regulated the (proprioceptors) also help increase
activity of the medulla respiratory rate during movement
1.Pons enables voluntary control
and smooths the transition 3 - nerves
between breathing in and out
2.Medulla detects pH changes (due
to ↑CO2 levels) and controls the
breathing rate – primarily
chemoreceptors in the VRG;
rhythm is set by neurons in the
pre-Botzinger complex (also
VRG) • Carotid body sensors only stimulate
greater breathing when blood 02 levels
3.Nerves from medulla respiratory fall to very low levels (eg below 60%)
groups stimulate the diaphragm
and rib muscles to inhale / exhale
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 Pocock: Chapter 35 Figs 35.1; pg 537 15  Pocock: Chapter 35 Figs 35.5; pg 540  Pocock: Chapter 35 Figs 35.4; pg 540

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Summary Content header

• Lung structure is specialised for its function with a large surface • Bullet point
area available for gas exchange • Bullet point
• Alveoli are surrounded by a capillary network
• Inspiration is active, expiration is passive
• Breathing is controlled by the autonomic nervous system (pons
and medulla) sensing and responding to changes in blood CO2
and O2 levels

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