What Is Fluid? - A Fluid, in Contrast To A Solid, Is A Substance That Can Flow. - Example: Liquid and Gas

Lecture 8
Fundamental of Fluid System
LECTURER :
SITI AFIFAH BINTI HAJI MOHSHIM 1
Engineering Mechanics
DEFINITION OF FLUID
What is fluid?
• A fluid, in contrast to a solid,
is a substance that can flow.
• Example : liquid and gas
Ms Siti Afifah Mohshim 2
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Fluids At Rest
y
F2
Air
y=0
Water
A Level 1, p1
y1
Sample
y2
A mg Level 2, p2
F1
Figure 1 shows a tank of water open to the

atmosphere. 3
Fluids At Rest
• The pressure increases with depth
below the air and it decreases with
altitude as one ascends into the
atmosphere.
• This is called hydrostatic pressure.
• It is due to fluids that are static (at
rest).

Fluids At Rest
• First, just look at the increase in
pressure with depth below the
water’s surface.
• The set up a vertical y-axis in the
tank as in Figure 1, with its origin
at air-water interface and the
position direction upward.
Fluids At Rest
• We next consider a water sample
contained in an imaginary right
circular cylinder of horizontal base
(or face) area, A such that y1 and
y2 (both of which are negative
numbers) are the depths below
the surface of the upper and
lower cylinder faces, respectively.

Fluids At Rest y
F2
Air
y=0
Water
A Level 1, p1
y1
Sample
y2
A mg Level 2, p2
F1
From Figure 1;
• The balance of the force : F2 = F1 + mg
• We know that : F = pA
• So, F1 = p1 A
F2 = p2 A 7
Fluids At Rest
• And
mg = mass x gravity
= (density x volume) x gravity
= (density x area x depth) x g
= (ρ x A x y) x g
= ρA (y1 – y2) g

Fluids At Rest
From slide 7;
F2 = F1 + mg
p2 A = [p1 A] + [ρA (y1 - y2) g]
p2 = [p1] + [ρ (y1 - y2) g]
p2 = p1 + ρg (y1 – y2)
• This equation can be used to find pressure :

– Liquid (as a function of depth)
– Atmosphere (as a function of height)
9
Fluids At Rest
• Then we choose : (refer Figure 1)
– Level 1 = surface
– Level 2 = distance, h
– p0 = atmospheric pressure on the surface
• We substitute :
– y1= 0 y
Air F2
– y2 = - h y=0
– p1= p0 Water A
y1 Level 1, p1
– p2= p
Sample y2 A
mg Level 2, p2
10
F1
10

Fluids At Rest
So, the equation would be :
p2 = p1 + ρg (y1 – y2)
p = p0 + ρg (0 + h)
p = p0 + ρgh
11
PRESSURE
p=F
A
Unit : N/m2 or Pascal (Pa)
Some other common pressure units are:

1 atm = 1.01 x 105 Pa = 760 torr
12

MEASURING PRESSURE
1)The Mercury
Barometer
– The mercury
barometer is a
tube with a
reservoir of
mercury at one
end.
– p0 = ρgh
– ρ = density of
the mercury
Ms Siti Afifah Mohshim Figure 2 13
13
MEASURING PRESSURE
2) The Open-Tube
Manometer
– It measures the
gauge pressure pg of
a gas.
– pg = p – p0 = ρgh
– ρ = density of the
liquid in the tube
– The gauge pressure
pg is directly
proportional to h.
Ms Siti Afifah Mohshim Figure 3 14
14

PASCAL’S PRINCIPLE
• Pascal's principle : Pressure applied
to an enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to every part of the
fluid, as well as to the walls of the
container.
• Pascal's principle can be used to
explain how hydraulic systems
work.
15
• A common example of such a
system is the lift used to raise a car
off the ground so it can be repaired
at a garage.
• In a hydraulic lift, a small force
applied to a small-area piston is
transformed to a large force at a
large-area piston.
16

• If a car sits on top of the large
piston, it can be lifted by
applying a relatively small force,
the ratio of the forces being
equal to the ratio of the areas of
the pistons.
17
Figure 4
18

P1 = P2
F1 = F2
A1 A2
• Even though the force can be

much less, the work done is the
same.
19
• Work is force times the distance.
W = Fd
– W = Work [Joule (J)]
– F = Force [Newton (N)]
– d = distance [meter (m)]
• Work, W done on the input piston by the

applied force is equal to the work W
done by the output piston in lifting the
load placed onMs Siti
it.Afifah Mohshim 20
20

• So if the force on the large

piston is 10 times larger than
the force on the smaller
piston, the distance it travels
is 10 times smaller.
21
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
• When a body is fully or partially
submerged in a fluid, a buoyant
force (Fb) from the surrounding fluid
acts on the body.
• The force is directed upward and
has a magnitude equal to the weight
(mg) of the fluid that has been
displaced by the body.
22

23
Fb = mf g
Where;
• Fb = buoyant force (N)
• mf = mass of the fluid is displaced by the
body (kg)
• g = gravity (m/s2)
• mg = weight (N)
24

CONTINUITY EQUATION
• You may have noticed that you can
increase the speed of the water
emerged from a garden hose by
partially closing the hose opening
with your thumb.
• The speed, v, of the water depends
on the cross-sectional area, A,
through which the water flow.
25
CONTINUITY EQUATION
26

CONTINUITY EQUATION
• Use this
common volume
∆V to relate the
speeds, v and
areas, A.
• Figure below
shows a side
view of a tube of
uniform cross-
sectional area,
A.
27
CONTINUITY EQUATION
• Given, ∆x = v ∆t
• The volume, ∆V of fluid that has passed
through the dashed line in that time
interval ∆t is:
∆V = A ∆x
= Av ∆t
• Applying to both the left and right ends of
the tube segment;
∆V = A1v1 ∆t = A2v2 ∆t
28

CONTINUITY EQUATION
• So, the equation of continuity is:
A1v1 = A2v2
• This equation is relation between

speed, v and cross-sectional area,
A.
• It applies not only to an actual tube
but also to any so-called tube of
flow. Ms Siti Afifah Mohshim 29
29
CONTINUITY EQUATION
The volume flow rate must be the same for

all cross sections of the tube flow. 30
30

CONTINUITY EQUATION
• We know that, with the increase in area,
A, the speed, v must decrease. So,
Rv = Av = a constant
• SI Unit for Rv : m3/s
• Which Rv is the volume flow rate of the

fluid (volume per unit time). 31
31
CONTINUITY EQUATION
• If the density, ρ, of the fluid is
uniform, the mass flow rate, Rm is:
Rm = ρRv = ρAv = a constant
• SI Unit for Rm : kg/s
32

CONTINUITY EQUATION
Example:
• Each second, 5525 m3 of water
flows over the 670 m wide cliff of the
Bukit Hijau Falls. The water is
approximately 2 m deep as it
reaches the cliff. Determine its
speed at that instant.
33
CONTINUITY EQUATION
Exercise:
The Thomas water tunnel at Paris University
has a circular cross section that
constricts from a diameter of 3.6 m to the
test section, which is 1.2 m in diameter.
If the speed of flow is 3.0 m/s in the
larger-diameter pipe, determine the
speed of flow in the test section.
35

BERNOULLI’S PRINCIPLE
• As a fluid moves through a pipe of
varying cross section and elevation, the
pressure changes along the pipe.
• Bernoulli’s equation is a consequence of
energy conservation as applied to an
ideal fluid.
• Figure in slide 38 represents a tube
through which an ideal fluid is flowing at
a steady rate.
38
• Fluid flows at a steady
rate through a length L of
a tube, from the input
end at the left to the
output end at the right.
• From time, t in (a) to time
t + ∆t in (b), the amount
of fluid shown in purple
enters the input end and
the equal amount shown
in green emerges from
the output end.
p = pressure, v = speed,
y = elevation 39
39

• From the figure, let y1, v1 and p1 be
the elevation, speed and pressure
of the fluid entering at the left.
• While y2, v2, and p2 be the
corresponding quantities for the
fluid emerging at the right.
• By applying the principle of
conservation of energy to the fluid,
the quantities are related by:
40
Left = Right
p1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgy1 = p2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgy2
So, the Bernoulli’s Equation:
p + ½ ρv2 + ρgy = a constant

41

• Bernoulli’s Equation states that :
The sum of the pressure, p, the

kinetic energy per unit volume,
(½ ρv2), and the potential energy
per unit volume, (ρgy), has the
same value at all points along a
streamline.
42
VISCOSITY
What is viscosity?
• Viscosity refers to the internal
friction of a fluid. It’s very
difficult for layers of a
viscous.
43

VISCOUS FLOW
(a) The particles in an ideal (nonviscous)
fluid all move through the pipe with the
same velocity.
44
VISCOUS FLOW
(b) In a viscous fluid,
the velocity of the
fluid particles is
zero at the surface
of the pipe and
increases to a
maximum value at
the center of the
pipe.
45

VISCOUS FLOW
• To better understand
the concept of
viscosity, consider a
layer of liquid between
two solid surfaces, as
in figure below :
46
VISCOUS FLOW
A layer of liquid
between two
solid surfaces in
which the lower
surface is fixed
and the upper
surface moves
to the right with
a velocity, v
under the action
of an Force, F.
47

VISCOUS FLOW
• The force, F, required to move the upper
plate and distort the liquid is proportional to
both the area, A, in contact with the fluid
and the speed, v, of the fluid.
• The force is inversely proportional to the
distance, d, between the two plates.
• We can express these proportionalities as
F α Av/ d
48
VISCOUS FLOW
• The force required to move the upper plate
at a fixed speed, v, is therefore:
• Where η (the lowercase Greek letter eta) is

the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid. 49
49

VISCOUS FLOW
• Question: Use equation below to find
the units of viscosity coefficient, η.
50
VISCOUS FLOW
• In many engineering problems we will be
concerned with the ratio of viscous
forces to inertia forces (forces resisting
the acceleration of particles of fluid).
• Since viscous forces are proportional to
viscosity () and inertia forces are
proportional to density () then the ratio
of  to  is an important quantity.
52

VISCOUS FLOW
• This quantity is called the kinematic
viscosity and is given the symbol 
(pronounced new). That is :

=

53
VISCOUS FLOW
Question:
• What are the units of

kinematic viscosity,  ?
54

Types of Flow
• Two of the most significant classifications
are laminar flow and turbulent flow.
• Osborne Reynolds, whilst at Manchester
University in the late nineteenth century,
was responsible for making the distinction
between the two types of flows more
clearly seen by a series of experiments in
which dye was injected into a moving
stream of water.
56
Types of Flow
• In laminar flow, the fluid flows in
laminas, or layers, and dye
injected into the flow will leave a
thin line.
• In turbulent flow, the dye would
soon become irregular and
tangled up – a chaotic motion.
57

Types of Flow
• A simple example of laminar and
turbulent flows can be seen by observing
the smoke rising from a cigarette.
• Near the hot part, the smoke rises
smoothly in laminar flow, but further
away the smoke begins to flow
irregularly and the column widens into
chaotic motion – turbulent flow.
• The transition from laminar to turbulent
takes place over a narrow region.
58
Types of Flow
• You will find that laminar flows are
not very stable in low viscosity fluids
or high velocity flows.
• In such circumstances, the laminar
flow soon breaks down into
turbulent flow, which seems to be
the most common state in nature.
59

Types of Flow
• Reynolds’ observations showed that the
transition from laminar to turbulent was
dependent on the velocity of the fluid
and the diameter of the pipe, in addition
to viscous and inertia forces.
• He proposed a ratio which we call the
Reynolds number, Re, to classify the
flow.
60
Types of Flow
Re = Ud

• Where ;
U = mean velocity of the fluid (m/s)
d = pipe diameter (m)
 = kinematic viscosity (m2/s)

61

Types of Flow
Question:
• What are the units of the

Reynolds number ?
62
Types of Flow
• For flow through pipes the following
criteria exist –
Re < 2000 : flow is

laminar
Re > 4000 : flow is

turbulent
64

Types of Flow
Problem :
• Water at 200C is flowing at 2m/s through a
pipe of diameter 6mm. Is the flow laminar or
turbulent ?
Given :
Water density, ρ = 1000 kg/m3.
For water at 200C, viscosity () = 1 x 10-3kg/m.s
65
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
• You have seen how the continuity equation is
a mathematical way of representing
conservation of mass.
• Another, and very important conservation law
is that relating to energy. In mechanical
systems, kinetic energy and potential energy
are conserved – that is, the sum of these
energies remains constant.
• Conservation of energy means that energy is
neither created nor destroyed but is
transformed into a different form, such as heat.
68
68

KE + PE = constant
• The same is true in fluid flow except that

there is an extra energy term known as
pressure energy which is given by :
69
• Pressure energy = pm

• Where;
p = pressure (Pa)
m = mass (kg)
 = density (kg/m3)
70

Question:
• Write down a conservation of
energy law for fluids in
motion.
71
ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPELINES

• Flow of fluid along long pipelines are normally
turbulent
• This introduce energy loss due to friction with
the wall of the pipelines
• The energy loss is referred as “head loss” (hf)
which is measured in meters and can be
calculated using the Darcy’s formula:
where: f = friction factor
2 L = length of pipe
2 f Lv
hf  v = mean fluid velocity
gd g = gravitational acceleration
d = diameter of pipe 73
73

ENERGY LOSSES IN PIPELINES

• The friction factor, f, depends on the
“roughness” of the pipe wall material
• The values for f can be obtained from
Moody diagram which shows the variation
of f with Reynolds number and the relative
roughness of the pipe wall material
• The relative roughness is defined as k/d
where k is a property of the pipe wall
material.
74
Moody Diagram for some common material
75

Example
Determine the energy loss due
to friction when water at a
temperature of 20oC flows
through a 150mm diameter
wrought iron pipe 20m in length,
if the average velocity of the
water is 3m/s.
76
Example
Calculate the velocity at which
water (at 20oC) flows through a
galvanised steel pipe, 120mm in
diameter and 80m in length, if
the head loss due to friction
factor of 0.028 is to be limited to
8m
80

STEADY FLOW EQUATION IN

BERNOULLI’S EQUATION
Bernoulli’s equation:
p1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgy1 = p2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgy2
Conservation of energy in fluid:

2
p1 u12 p u
  h1  hw  hQ  h f  2  2  h2
g 2 g g 2g
Where  hQ = head gain/loss due to heat

 hW = head gain/loss due to work
- hf = head loss due to friction
82
Example
Water at 20oC is flowing through a
horizontal galvanised steel pipe of
length 5m. The entrance to the pipe is
80mm diameter and the values for the
speed and pressure of the water at the
entrance are 4.5m/s and 400kPa
respectively. The exit of the pipe has a
diameter of 40mm. If there are no heat
or work energy gains or losses, find the
velocity and pressure of the water at the
exit.
83

What Is Fluid? - A Fluid, in Contrast To A Solid, Is A Substance That Can Flow. - Example: Liquid and Gas

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Lecture 8

Fundamental of Fluid System

Ms Siti Afifah Mohshim 2

Prepared by : Siti Afifah Mohshim 1

Figure 1 shows a tank of water open to the

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Ms Siti Afifah Mohshim 8

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• This equation can be used to find pressure :

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Some other common pressure units are:

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• Even though the force can be

• Work, W done on the input piston by the

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• So if the force on the large

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• This equation is relation between

The volume flow rate must be the same for

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• SI Unit for Rv : m3/s

• Which Rv is the volume flow rate of the

Rm = ρRv = ρAv = a constant

• SI Unit for Rm : kg/s

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p1 + ½ ρv12 + ρgy1 = p2 + ½ ρv22 + ρgy2

So, the Bernoulli’s Equation:

p + ½ ρv2 + ρgy = a constant

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The sum of the pressure, p, the

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• Where η (the lowercase Greek letter eta) is

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• What are the units of

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