DEEP LEARNING IN LIE DETECTOR

AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING

Shubhangi Sharma
Computer Engineering Department
MKSSS’s Cummins College Of Engineering For Women
Pune-411052, Maharashtra, India
shubhangi.sharma@cumminscollege.in

Abstract —- Lie detectors, also known as polygraph tests, are instruments used to measure changes in
physiological responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration, in response to questioning. These
changes are believed to be associated with stress and anxiety, which can be indicative of deception. A polygraph
test typically involves attaching sensors to a person's body and asking a series of questions, and a trained
examiner interprets the results. Brain fingerprinting, on the other hand, is a technique that measures changes in
the brain's electrical activity in response to specific stimuli, such as pictures or words. This technique involves
measuring an individual's brainwaves and using deep learning algorithms to analyze the data and identify
patterns associated with specific information. Brain fingerprinting is used to determine whether an individual has
specific information stored in their brain, such as knowledge of a crime scene or details of a terrorist attack.In lie
detection, us upward functional magnetic resonance imaging derives from studies which suggest that the person
shows many different patterns in the brain rather than when they are being truthful.This new technique uses the
brain waves which are helpful in identifying whether that person, who is subjected to the test, is able to remember
the minute details of the crime or not. Even if the subject tries to suppress the necessary information, it is trapped
in the brain and released in the form of waves. Brain Fingerprinting can detect the information with the help of
measuring cognitive information processing. It does NOT detect stress, emotion or the lies. It just computes
whether the “information is present or not” and a statistical confidence for each conclusion. Laboratory tests and
field tests at CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), US Navy, FBI (Federal Bureau of Investigation) have resulted in
100% accuracy. All the results’ determinations were correct. 3% of the results were found to be “indeterminate”.
It has been applied in many criminal cases too and is considered to be acceptable as a proof. Many alternative
techniques have failed to meet the accuracy and validity of the Brain Fingerprinting. Even after a reward of
$100,00, no one could beat the countermeasures of the Brain Fingerprinting test. Many principles of applying it
in the field as well as the laboratory have been discussed here.

Keywords —- Brain Fingerprinting, Lie Detector, electroencephalography, Deep Neural Network,

Convolutional Neural Network, polygraphic test, P-300 MERMER.

I. INTRODUCTION wave which surely is enough to catch him. This

The Lie Detector model is based on a few
assumptions that when a person lies, his heart rate,
respiration rate, fear, blood pressure and galvanic
skin resistance increases. A graph known as
polygraphic graph captures and records these
changes.
A new lie detecting technology has been developed in
the United States of America, by Dr. Larry Farwell,
known as Brain Fingerprinting. This is a new
invention in the field of criminology. This invention
is somehow outcasting the drawbacks of the already
existing polygraph test (also known as the Lie
Detector Test). Even if the person tries to suppress
the important information, the brain still generates a
technology works on “what you see is what you
remember” instead of “what you see is what you get”.
It is designed to recognize if the person recognizes
any small detail or something related to the pictures,
words or phrases being shown on the screen. The
pictures are relevant or irrelevant to the subject. The
relevant ones should trigger the brain and produce the
electroencephalographic waves. It is also known as
the “Guilty Knowledge Test”. Farewell has used this
technique in one of his cases where a person
convicted for murder was proved innocent and his
accuser was found guilty.
There are two types of features of the crime scene
that are of use:

1
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
1. Permanent Features: They are the ones
which pre-exist at the crime scene and are
persistent even after the crime. This may
include buildings, land, streets etc.
2. Changed Features: They include the changes
that took place during the crime which may
include the position of the body (during a
murder), fingerprints, blood etc.
Even the participants in the crime have these two
features:
1. Permanent Features: It includes DNA and
Fingerprints.
2. Changed Features: It includes, for example
injuries sustained during the crime.
In some of the cases the investigators are able to
establish connections directly between the feature at
the crime scene and the permanent feature of the
culprit. This is mostly the case with the DNA and the
fingerprints. In few other cases, the investigators are
able to establish connections between the crime scene
and the culprit. For example, a fiber sample at the
crime scene can be matched with the features of the
suspect’s clothes he owns.
The culprit and the witnesses virtually know that they
have either participated and/or witnessed it
happening. The record of the crime in the brain for
the both, is almost the same and is often a much
comprehensive account of the crime.
The two main disadvantages of a witness testimony
are,
(i) The witness may lie in desired situations, (ii)
Human memory is really imperfect.
Brain fingerprinting is a very controversial technique
used to identify a terrorist or a dangerous person (an
accused) by measuring the “brain print”. This
technology is designed to see if a person/accused is
able to identify specific information corresponding to
some script, place, picture, words or phrases (related
to training camp or manual in case of terrorists). This
test is based on the P-300 complex which consists of
a series of well-known brain wave components.
When the brain is able to identify something similar
or familiar, it elicits a wave-like response which is
called MERMER (Memory and Encoding-Related
Multifaceted Electroencephalographic Response).
The MERMER consists of the brain response P-300.
The test, where the subject is fitted with a headband
equipped with sensors and shown a few
images/words in series on a screen, takes less than 10
minutes to complete. It is a Guilty Knowledge Test
where the “guilty” part in the brain is expected to
react in some way related to the event of the activity.
The polygraph test (i.e. lie detecting test) relies on the
measurements of autonomic arousal such as the heart
rate or the palm sweating, while the brain
2
fingerprinting measures the electric responses
through the headband consisting of many sensors.
The test’s accuracy is highly disputed by the
researchers but this is the latest well known test
which is accurate in detecting the “guilty” rather than
the lie detector test which can show false readings.
Lie detectors, also known as polygraph tests, are
instruments used to measure changes in physiological
responses such as heart rate, blood pressure, and
respiration, in response to questioning. These changes
are believed to be associated with stress and anxiety,
which can be indicative of deception.
The technology behind lie detectors involves the use
of sensors to measure physiological responses, which
are then recorded on a polygraph machine. The
sensors typically include a blood pressure cuff,
respiration sensors, and skin conductivity sensors.
The polygraph machine records these physiological
responses as a series of lines on graph paper.
In recent years, technology has advanced to include
digital polygraph machines that record physiological
responses electronically, as well as computerized
algorithms that analyze the data collected by the
sensors. These algorithms use statistical models to
detect changes in physiological responses that are
believed to be associated with deception.
The accuracy and reliability of lie detectors have
been the subject of debate in the scientific
community, and their use in legal proceedings is
controversial. Critics argue that the technology is not
reliable enough to be used as evidence, while
proponents argue that lie detectors can provide
valuable information in certain situations, such as
criminal investigations or security screenings. The
use of lie detectors in legal proceedings varies by
jurisdiction, and in some cases, their use is
prohibited.
Lie detection has been a topic of interest for many
years, with various techniques developed to detect
deception in individuals. One of the techniques used
for lie detection is polygraph testing, which measures
physiological responses such as heart rate, blood
pressure, respiration, and skin conductance. However,
the accuracy and reliability of polygraph tests have
been a subject of debate in the scientific community,
and researchers have been exploring alternative
methods for detecting lies. Deep learning, a subset of
machine learning, has shown promise in this area.
Deep learning algorithms are designed to recognize
patterns in large datasets by using neural networks
with multiple layers. They have been used in a
variety of applications such as image recognition,
speech recognition, and natural language processing.
In recent years, researchers have been exploring the
potential of deep learning in lie detection.
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
One of the main applications of deep learning in lie
detection is through the analysis of facial expressions.
Researchers have developed algorithms that can
analyze micro-expressions, which are brief facial
expressions that occur when individuals try to
suppress their emotions. These micro-expressions are
often a sign of deception and can be used to detect
lies. Deep learning algorithms have been used to
detect these micro-expressions in real-time, which
could be used in applications such as security
screening or job interviews.
Another application of deep learning in lie detection
is through the analysis of speech patterns.
Researchers have developed algorithms that can
analyze speech patterns and detect changes in pitch,
tone, and volume. These changes in speech patterns
are often associated with deception and can be used
to detect lies. Deep learning algorithms can be used
to analyze large amounts of speech data and identify
patterns that are associated with deception.
There are also applications of deep learning in lie
detection that combine both facial expressions and
speech patterns. Researchers have developed
algorithms that can analyze both facial expressions
and speech patterns simultaneously and use this
information to detect deception. These algorithms
have been tested in real-world scenarios such as job
interviews and have shown promise in improving the
accuracy of lie detection.
While deep learning algorithms have shown promise
in lie detection, there are also challenges associated
with their use. One of the challenges is the need for
large datasets to train the algorithms. Another
challenge is the potential for biases in the algorithms,
which could lead to inaccurate results.
In conclusion, deep learning has the potential to
revolutionize the field of lie detection. Its ability to
analyze large amounts of data and recognize patterns
makes it a promising tool for detecting deception.
However, further research is needed to improve the
accuracy and reliability of these algorithms, and to
ensure that they are free from biases.
Brain fingerprinting is a technique used to identify
whether specific information is stored in a person's
brain. The technique involves measuring an
individual's brain waves in response to specific
stimuli, such as pictures or words, and using deep
learning algorithms to analyze the brainwaves and
identify patterns associated with the information
being tested.
Deep learning has shown promise in brain
fingerprinting as it can analyze large amounts of
brainwave data and identify patterns that are
associated with specific information. In recent years,
researchers have been exploring the potential of deep
3
learning in brain fingerprinting to improve its
accuracy and reliability.
One of the main applications of deep learning in
brain fingerprinting is through the analysis of
event-related potentials (ERPs). ERPs are changes in
the brain's electrical activity that occur in response to
specific stimuli. Deep learning algorithms can be
used to analyze these changes in electrical activity
and identify patterns that are associated with specific
information [1]. Researchers have used deep learning
algorithms to analyze ERPs in response to specific
words or pictures, and have shown that they can
accurately identify whether the individual has
knowledge of the specific information being tested.
Another application of deep learning in brain
fingerprinting is through the use of functional
magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). fMRI is a
technique that measures changes in blood flow in the
brain in response to specific stimuli.
While deep learning has shown promise in brain
fingerprinting, there are also challenges associated
with its use. One of the challenges is the need for
large datasets to train the algorithms. Another
challenge is the potential for biases in the algorithms,
which could lead to inaccurate results. Additionally,
brain fingerprinting is a controversial technique, and
its use has been a subject of debate in the scientific
community.[2]
In conclusion, deep learning has the potential to
improve the accuracy and reliability of brain
fingerprinting. Its ability to analyze large amounts of
brainwave data and identify patterns associated with
specific information makes it a promising tool for
identifying whether specific information is stored in a
person's brain. However, further research is needed to
improve the accuracy and reliability of these
algorithms, and to ensure that they are free from
biases. Additionally, the use of brain fingerprinting
and deep learning in this context remains a
controversial topic, and its ethical and legal
implications need to be carefully considered.
II. METHODS
Brain fingerprinting is a technique that measures
changes in the brain's electrical activity in response to
specific stimuli, such as pictures or words, to identify
patterns associated with specific information.
A. In Brain Fingerprinting
Here are some of the methods and technologies used
in brain fingerprinting:
1.Event-related potentials (ERPs):
ERPs are brainwave patterns that occur in response to
specific stimuli, such as words or pictures. In brain
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
fingerprinting, the individual's brain waves are
measured using an electroencephalogram (EEG), and
the ERPs are analyzed to identify patterns associated
with specific information. ERPs are measured using
an electroencephalogram (EEG), which records the
electrical activity of the brain through small sensors
placed on the scalp. When a person is presented with
a stimulus, such as a picture or word, the EEG
records a change in brain activity in response to that
stimulus. These changes in brain activity are known
as ERPs and are recorded as a series of waves on the
EEG.[3]
The ERP components that are typically measured in
brain fingerprinting are the P300 and the N400. The
P300 is a positive wave that occurs approximately
300 milliseconds after the presentation of a rare and
meaningful stimulus, such as a specific word or
picture. The N400 is a negative wave that occurs
approximately 400 milliseconds after the presentation
of a stimulus that is semantically incongruent or
unexpected.
In brain fingerprinting, the individual's brainwaves
are measured using an EEG, and the ERP
components are analyzed to identify patterns
associated with specific information. For example, if
a person has knowledge of a specific event, their
brainwaves may show a larger P300 response to
stimuli associated with that event compared to stimuli
that are not associated with the event. By analyzing
the ERP components, it is possible to identify
patterns of brain activity associated with specific
information, which can be used to determine whether
a person has knowledge of that information.
2. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI):
fMRI is a technique that uses magnetic fields to
image changes in blood flow in the brain, which are
believed to be associated with neural activity. In brain
fingerprinting, fMRI can be used to identify changes
in brain activity in response to specific stimuli.
During an fMRI scan, the person lies on a table and is
moved into a large, tunnel-like machine that uses a
powerful magnet and radio waves to create images of
the brain. When the person is presented with a
specific task or stimulus, such as a picture or word,
the fMRI machine detects changes in blood flow in
different regions of the brain.[4]
The changes in blood flow are believed to be
associated with changes in neural activity in those
regions of the brain. By analyzing the fMRI images,
it is possible to identify patterns of brain activity
associated with specific tasks or stimuli.
In brain fingerprinting, fMRI can be used to identify
patterns of brain activity associated with specific
information. For example, if a person has knowledge
of a specific event, their brain activity may show
4
increased blood flow in regions of the brain
associated with memory processing when they are
presented with stimuli associated with that event.
While fMRI has shown promise in identifying
specific information stored in a person's brain, its
accuracy and reliability have been the subject of
debate in the scientific community. One of the main
limitations of fMRI is that it is susceptible to false
positives, where the test incorrectly identifies
someone as having knowledge of specific
information when they do not. More research is
needed to improve the accuracy and reliability of
fMRI in brain fingerprinting.[3]
3. Deep learning algorithms:
Deep learning algorithms are used to analyze the data
collected from the EEG or fMRI scans to identify
patterns associated with specific information. These
algorithms use statistical models to detect changes in
brain activity that are believed to be associated with
the presence or absence of specific information. Deep
learning algorithms can be used to analyze the fMRI
data and identify patterns associated with the specific
information being tested. Researchers have used deep
learning algorithms to analyze fMRI data in response
to specific words or pictures, and have shown that
they can accurately identify whether the individual
has knowledge of the specific information being
tested.
Deep learning has also been used in combination with
other techniques such as electroencephalography
(EEG) and magnetoencephalography (MEG) to
improve the accuracy of brain fingerprinting. These
techniques measure changes in the brain's electrical
or magnetic activity in response to specific stimuli,
and deep learning algorithms can be used to analyze
the data and identify patterns associated with the
specific information being tested.
4. P300-based brain-computer interface:
P300 is an ERP component that occurs in response to
a rare and meaningful stimulus, such as a specific
word or picture. P300-based brain-computer
interfaces (BCIs) are used in brain fingerprinting to
present stimuli to the individual and measure their
brainwaves in response to these stimuli. The
P300-based BCI can be used to identify patterns in
brain activity associated with specific information.
P300-based brain-computer interface (BCI) is a type
of BCI that uses the P300 component of the
event-related potential (ERP) measured by
electroencephalography (EEG) to enable
communication between the brain and a computer. In
the context of brain fingerprinting, P300-based BCI
can be used to identify patterns of brain activity
associated with specific information.
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
In P300-based BCI, the person is presented with a set
of stimuli, such as letters, numbers, or images, and
the EEG measures the P300 response that occurs
when the person recognizes a target stimulus. The
P300 response is a positive wave in the EEG that
occurs approximately 300 milliseconds after the
presentation of a stimulus that is meaningful or
relevant to the person.
By analyzing the P300 response to the presentation of
specific stimuli, it is possible to identify patterns of
brain activity associated with specific information.
For example, if a person has knowledge of a specific
event, their P300 response may show a larger
amplitude and shorter latency to stimuli associated
with that event compared to stimuli that are not
associated with the event. This information can be
used to determine whether the person has knowledge
of that event.
In brain fingerprinting, P300-based BCI can be used
as a tool to identify patterns of brain activity
associated with specific information. By presenting
the person with a series of stimuli associated with the
event in question and analyzing the P300 response to
those stimuli, it is possible to identify whether the
person has knowledge of that event.
P300-based BCI has shown promise in identifying
specific information stored in a person's brain, but its
accuracy and reliability have been the subject of
debate in the scientific community. More research is
needed to improve the accuracy and reliability of
P300-based BCI in brain fingerprinting.
B. In Lie Detectors -
1. Polygraph:
The polygraph is a machine that measures
physiological responses such as blood pressure,
respiration, and perspiration while a person is
answering a set of questions. The assumption is that
lying will cause changes in these physiological
responses, which can be detected by the polygraph.
The polygraph measures the person's physiological
responses to each question and compares them to the
baseline established by the control questions. If the
person's physiological responses to a relevant
question are significantly different from their
responses to the control questions, the polygraph
examiner may interpret this as an indication that the
person is lying.
While the polygraph is widely used in law
enforcement and other contexts, its accuracy and
reliability have been the subject of debate in the
scientific community. Some experts argue that the
polygraph is an imperfect tool that can be influenced
by a variety of factors, including the examiner's
interpretation of the results and the person's physical
and emotional state at the time of the test. Others
5
argue that the polygraph can be a useful tool for
identifying deception when used in combination with
other methods and techniques.
2. Voice stress analysis:
Voice stress analysis (VSA) is a method that analyzes
changes in the voice that occur when a person is
lying. It measures variations in pitch, frequency, and
amplitude, as well as other vocal characteristics.
During a VSA test, a person is asked a series of
questions, and their responses are recorded and
analyzed by a computer. The software uses
algorithms to detect changes in the person's voice that
are associated with stress, anxiety, or other emotions
that may be present when a person is lying.
One of the key assumptions of VSA is that when a
person is lying, their voice will display certain
characteristics that are different from when they are
telling the truth. For example, when a person is lying,
their voice may become higher in pitch or more
strained, or they may pause or hesitate more
frequently.
While VSA is widely used in some law enforcement
and military settings, its accuracy and reliability have
been the subject of debate in the scientific
community. Critics argue that the technique is prone
to false positives and can be influenced by a variety
of factors, including the person's physical and
emotional state at the time of the test, as well as the
skill and expertise of the examiner. Others argue that
VSA can be a useful tool for detecting deception
when used in combination with other methods and
techniques.
One example of a deep learning algorithm used in
VSA is the convolutional neural network (CNN). A
CNN is a type of artificial neural network commonly
used in image recognition tasks but can also be used
for analyzing sound signals, such as speech. The
mathematical formulas for a CNN used in VSA
would be similar to those used for image recognition
but would be adapted to the particular task of
analyzing speech signals.
Here is an example of the mathematical formulas
used in a simple CNN architecture for analyzing
speech signals:
1. Convolution operation: In this operation, a
filter (a small matrix of weights) is applied
to a segment of the speech signal. The filter
is moved across the signal in a sliding
window manner, producing a feature map
that highlights certain patterns in the speech
signal. The mathematical formula for this
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
operation is:
F = (S*W) + b
where S is the input speech signal, W is the
filter matrix, b is the bias term, and F is the
resulting feature map.
2. Activation function: After the convolution
operation, an activation function is applied
to the feature map to introduce non-linearity
into the model. One commonly used
activation function is the rectified linear unit
(ReLU), which sets negative values in the
feature map to zero. The mathematical
formula for the ReLU function is:
f(x) = max(0,x)
3. Pooling operation: The pooling operation
reduces the spatial size of the feature map by
taking the maximum (or average) value
within a small window. This helps to reduce
the number of parameters in the model and
prevent overfitting. The mathematical
formula for the max pooling operation is:
pi = max(Fij)
where p_i is the ith pooled value and F_{ij}
is the feature map element at position (i,j).
4. Fully connected layer: The fully connected
layer takes the pooled feature map and
applies a matrix multiplication to produce a
final output vector. The mathematical
formula for this operation is:
Y = Wx + b
where x is the flattened pooled feature map,
W is the weight matrix, b is the bias term,
and y is the final output vector.
3. Eye tracking:
Eye tracking technology can be used to detect
changes in eye movement when a person is lying. For
example, a person may avoid eye contact or blink
more frequently when lying. During an eye tracking
test, a person is typically asked a series of questions,
and their eye movements are recorded and analyzed
by a computer. The software uses algorithms to detect
changes in the person's eye movements that are
6
associated with stress, anxiety, or other emotions that
may be present when a person is lying.
One of the advantages of eye tracking as a lie
detection technique is that it is non-invasive and does
not require the person being tested to be physically
connected to any equipment. Eye tracking can also be
used in real-time, allowing examiners to observe
changes in eye movements as they occur.
Algorithm: Eye tracking in lie detectors typically
involves using deep learning algorithms to analyze
eye movements and patterns to identify changes in a
person's behavior or physiological responses that may
indicate deception.
There are several deep learning algorithms that can
be used for this purpose, including convolutional
neural networks (CNNs), recurrent neural networks
(RNNs), and long short-term memory networks
(LSTMs).
The specific mathematical formulas used in these
algorithms can vary depending on the specific
architecture and implementation, but generally
involve a combination of matrix multiplication,
activation functions, and optimization techniques
such as gradient descent.
For example, a simple formula for a feedforward
neural network with one hidden layer might look like:
h = σ(Wx + b)
y = σ(Vh + c)
Where x is the input vector, W and V are the weight
matrices for the input-to-hidden and hidden-to-output
layers respectively, b and c are the bias vectors, σ is
the activation function (such as the sigmoid function),
h is the hidden layer vector, and y is the output
vector.
4. Facial recognition:
Facial recognition technology can be used to detect
changes in facial expressions that occur when a
person is lying. For example, a person may show
signs of discomfort or stress when lying. During a
facial recognition test, a person is typically asked a
series of questions, and their facial expressions are
recorded and analyzed by a computer. The software
uses algorithms to detect changes in the person's
facial expressions that are associated with stress,
anxiety, or other emotions that may be present when a
person is lying.
One of the key advantages of facial recognition as a
lie detection technique is that it can be used in
real-time, allowing examiners to observe changes in
facial expressions as they occur. Additionally, facial
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
recognition is a non-invasive method that does not
require the person being tested to be physically
connected to any equipment.[4]
However, facial recognition has limitations as a lie
detection technique, as changes in facial expressions
can be influenced by a variety of factors, including
the person's emotional state, physical discomfort, and
other external stimuli. Additionally, facial recognition
is subject to interpretation, as different examiners
may interpret facial expressions differently. As a
result, facial recognition is typically used in
combination with other methods and techniques to
increase its accuracy and reliability.
Facial expression recognition in lie detectors can be
achieved using a variety of deep learning algorithms,
but one popular approach is to use Convolutional
Neural Networks (CNNs). CNNs are a type of deep
neural network that are particularly well-suited for
image recognition tasks, such as facial expression
recognition.
The basic idea behind CNNs is to learn a set of filters
or kernels that can be applied to the input image to
extract relevant features. These features are then
passed through a series of layers to make a prediction
about the class of the input image. In the case of
facial expression recognition, the class would
correspond to the specific expression being displayed
by the individual.
Once the CNN has been trained on a large dataset of
facial expressions, it can be used to classify new,
unseen images in real-time. The mathematical
formulas used in CNNs are quite complex and
involve a lot of matrix multiplications and nonlinear
activation functions, but they can be trained using
standard backpropagation algorithms. [5]
Overall, facial expression recognition using deep
learning algorithms like CNNs can be a powerful tool
for lie detection and other applications that require
real-time analysis of facial expressions. However, it
is important to note that there are many ethical and
legal considerations that must be taken into account
when using these technologies, and they should be
used with caution and in accordance with established
guidelines and regulations.
Algorithm: Convolutional Layers: These layers apply
a set of filters or kernels to the input image in order to
extract relevant features. Each filter corresponds to a
small region of the input image and is applied to
every possible position in the image. The output of
7
this layer is a set of feature maps that represent the
presence of different features in the input image.
The convolution operation is defined as:
$y_{ij} = f(\sum_{m=1}^{M} \sum_{n=1}^{N}
x_{i+m-1, j+n-1} \cdot w_{m,n} + b)$
Where:
● $y_{ij}$ is the output value at position
$(i,j)$ of the feature map
● $x_{i+m-1, j+n-1}$ is the input pixel value
at position $(i+m-1, j+n-1)$
● $w_{m,n}$ is the weight value of the filter
at position $(m,n)$
● $b$ is the bias value
● $f$ is the activation function (e.g. ReLU)
2. Pooling Layers: These layers reduce the
spatial dimensionality of the feature maps by
applying a pooling operation (e.g. max
pooling) over small regions of the feature
maps. The output of this layer is a set of
pooled feature maps that retain the most
salient features of the input image.
The max pooling operation is defined as:
$y_{ij} = \max_{m=1}^{K} \max_{n=1}^{K}
x_{(i-1)K+m, (j-1)K+n}$
Where:
● $y_{ij}$ is the output value at position
$(i,j)$ of the pooled feature map
● $x_{(i-1)K+m, (j-1)K+n}$ is the input value
at position $((i-1)K+m, (j-1)K+n)$
● $K$ is the pooling size
3. Fully Connected Layers: These layers take
the flattened pooled feature maps as input
and apply a set of weights and biases to
compute a final output probability
distribution over the facial expressions.
The fully connected layer operation is defined as:
$y_j = f(\sum_{i=1}^{N} x_i \cdot w_{i,j} + b_j)$
Where:
● $y_j$ is the output value for expression $j$
● $x_i$ is the input value from the flattened
pooled feature maps
● $w_{i,j}$ is the weight value for connection
between input $i$ and output $j$
● $b_j$ is the bias value for output $j$
● $f$ is the activation function (e.g. softmax)
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
III. TECHNIQUE -
Convolutional neural networks (CNNs) have been
used in brain fingerprinting as a way to process and
classify brain signals more effectively. CNNs are a
type of deep learning algorithm that are commonly
used in image and video recognition tasks, but they
can also be applied to other types of data, including
EEG signals.
In brain fingerprinting, CNNs can be used to extract
features from EEG signals that are related to specific
stimuli or events. For example, a CNN can be trained
to identify the P300 response in EEG signals, which
is an important signal used in many brain
fingerprinting techniques. Once the CNN has been
trained, it can be used to process new EEG signals in
real-time, allowing for faster and more accurate
analysis of brain activity.[3]
One advantage of using CNNs in brain fingerprinting
is that they can be trained to recognize patterns in
EEG signals that may be difficult for human
examiners to detect. Additionally, CNNs can process
large amounts of data quickly, making it possible to
analyze brain signals in real-time.
However, CNNs also have limitations in brain
fingerprinting. For example, they require a large
amount of training data in order to be effective, and
the accuracy of their results can be influenced by
factors such as noise in the EEG signal. As a result,
CNNs are typically used in combination with other
methods and techniques to increase their accuracy
and reliability.
The well-known fact about this technique is that it
uses the signals called P300 emitted by the brain
(which begins around 300 milliseconds after
confronting a stimulus of some importance. The main
application of this technique is to identify the P-300
in the brain as a response to the stimuli relating to the
crime or situations such as a murder weapon, or the
face of the victim or the working of a terrorist cell.[4]
The test is based on EEG signals and hence, doesn't
require verbal responses to the questions, images or
stimuli. [8]
The subject is made to wear a special headband with
many electronic sensors.
The stimuli are of three types:
1. Irrelevant: the stimuli which is irrelevant to
the investigation and to the subject.
2. Target: the stimuli which is relevant to the
investigation and known to the subject.
3. Probe: the stimuli which are relevant to the
investigation and the subject denies knowing
it. It consists of the information that should
8
only be known by the guilty and the
investigating officers and not the general
public or the innocent suspect.
Before the test starts, the scientists identify the targets
related to the subject and make sure that he knows
these stimuli. The subject is also not told what all is
included in the probe. He is just told that, for
example, “You are going to see several items, out of
which one will be the murder weapon. But he isn’t
told which items have been included in the probe and
which are irrelevant.
For example, if a subject has claimed not ot have
been at the crime scene and don’t know what the
murder weapon was, a probe stimulus could be the
murder weapon, for example a knife. The protocol
ensures that the probe doesn’t contain any
information which the subject might know from the
news media information.
The scientific question which is addressed by a brain
fingerprinting is whether the subject knows about the
crime or the investigated situation or not. Specially,
the critical variable is the recognition of some
information which is contained with respect to the
crime or the lack of it. If and only if, it is present, it is
predicted that P300-MERMER will be elicited by the
probe. The characteristics of the individual subject’s
response to a stimulus when the subject knows some
information are Amplitude, Latency and Morphology.
For “information present”, the probes contain the
information describing the features that are known of
the crime.[6] For “information absent”, the probe
consists of the information which describes the
features that are plausible of the crime and are not
known to be correct. It is necessary to isolate the
critical variables to classify the probe responses into
one of these categories. Two standards are required to
accomplish this: a standard for the responses of the
subject to the stimuli which contains the known
features of the crime and a standard for the responses
which contains the plausible but unknown or
incorrect features of the crime.
IV. .PHASES OF FARWELL BRAIN
FINGERPRINTING
In DNA Fingerprinting, the evidence recognized and
collected from the crime scene and then preserved
properly until when the suspect is apprehended, is
then scientifically compared with the suspect to find
some match at the crime scene. Whereas, in the Brain
Fingerprinting, except that, the evidence collected is
the informational evidence rather than the physical
evidence. This includes four stages, which are similar
to the DNA fingerprinting:
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING

Brain Fingerprinting Crime Scene Evidence V. BRAIN SIGNAL TYPES-

Collection
Brain Fingerprinting Brain Evidence Collection
Brain FIngerprinting Computer Evidence Collection
Brain FIngerprinting Scientific Result
An expert here examines the crime scene and the
other evidence related to it to identify the details that
must only be known by the guilty. Then the Brain
Evidence Collection is conducted by the expert to
check if the evidence from the crime scene matches
with the evidence stored in the brain of the
suspect/accused. In Farwell’s Brain Fingerprinting
system, it makes a mathematical determination for
whether a specific piece of evidence is stored in the
victim’s brain or not. The determination and
statistical confidence is the Scientific Result and
claims that: either “Information Present” i.e. the
details of the crime are present in the brain of the
suspect, or “Information Absent” i.e. the details of
the crime aren’t present in the suspect’s brain. [7]
As we have known that Brain Fingerprinting uses
brain waves to test the memory, a crime suspect is
provided with words or images which would only be
known by the police or the person who has
committed the crime. There are 4 types of
waves/signals:
1. Alpha Wave: They are generated by the
human eyes. Frequency is 9-13 Hz.
2. Beta Wave: They are generated by the
human mind. Frequency is 15-30 Hz.
3. Delta Wave: They are generated by the
human nose. Frequency is 1-3 Hz.
4. Theta Wave: They are generated by the
human mouth. Frequency is 4-7.5 Hz.

Figure 4.2: Types Of Waves Emitted

Figure 4.1: Brain Signals

VII. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LIE DETECTORS AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING

Parameters Lie detectors Brain fingerprinting

Measures physiological responses Measures brain responses to stimuli

Principle of method to stimuli and compares them with and compares them with stored
known truthful and deceptive patterns of known information

9
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING

responses

Changes in physiological Changes in brain waves, such as

responses, such as heart rate, blood P300 response and MERMER,
Basis of detection
pressure, breathing rate, and skin associated with recognition of
conductance familiar information

Controversial and can be

influenced by various factors, such Claims to be highly accurate and
Accuracy
as anxiety, medications, and less vulnerable to countermeasures
countermeasures

Can't distinguish between different

Limited to detecting information
types of deception, such as lying,
Limitations that the suspect has previously
withholding information, and
encountered or witnessed
feigning emotions

Admissible in some jurisdictions, Admissible in some jurisdictions,

Use in legal cases but not widely accepted due to but still controversial and not
reliability concerns widely accepted

Brain fingerprinting relies on

Some researchers have explored the
machine learning techniques to
use of deep learning algorithms to
Use of deep learning identify patterns in brain wave data
improve the accuracy of lie
and make comparisons with stored
detection
patterns of known information

VIII. CONCLUSION In conclusion, deep learning algorithms have been

shown to be effective in improving the accuracy and
reliability of lie detectors and brain fingerprinting

10
DEEP LEARNING ALGORITHMS IN LIE DETECTOR AND BRAIN FINGERPRINTING
techniques. By using advanced machine learning
techniques, such as neural networks and CNNs, it is
possible to extract useful features from complex data
such as EEG signals and speech recordings. These
features can then be used to detect changes in brain
activity and physiological responses that may be
associated with lying or deception.[7]
While these techniques are promising, there are still
limitations and challenges to their use. For example,
the accuracy of lie detectors and brain fingerprinting
can be affected by a variety of factors, such as the
person's emotional state and the complexity of the
stimuli being presented. Additionally, the use of these
technologies can raise ethical and privacy concerns,
particularly if they are used in law enforcement or
other settings where individual rights may be at risk.
Despite these challenges, deep learning techniques
have the potential to significantly improve the
accuracy and reliability of lie detectors and brain
fingerprinting. As research in this area continues to
advance, it is likely that we will see new and
innovative methods for detecting deception and
identifying individuals based on their brain activity.
IX. ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude towards
my seminar guide Prof. Simantinee Kulkarni for
her valuable guidance, suggestions, encouragement
and timely help throughout the completion of my
research. I would also like to thank her for giving me
this opportunity to study this topic in depth.
I am grateful to Dr. Supriya Kelkar, Head of
Department, and all the staff members of the
Computer Engineering Department for their support,
encouragement and guidance throughout my research
work.
11
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[2] R. H. Nugroho, M. Nasrun and C. Setianingsih,
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