Ye. Mkhitaryan, N.

Hambartsoumyan,
A. Markaryan, N. Avakyan

A BASIC ENGLISH
GRAMMAR
•
MORPHOLOGY

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ÏáÕÙÇó áñå»ë ¹³ë³·Çñù µáõÑ»ñÇ áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ

©
ºðºì²Ü – 2011

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Ðî¸ 802.0:801.55(075.8)
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µ.·.Ã. ¹áó»Ýï ². âáõµ³ñÛ³Ý
Ø. º÷ñ»ÙÛ³Ý
È. γñ³å»ïÛ³Ý

Ye. Mkhitaryan, N. Hambartsoumyan, A. Markaryan, N. Avakyan

A BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR: MORPHOLOGY

Ð587 ²Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ù»ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ. Ó¨³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ / º. ê. ØËÇóñÛ³Ý,

Ü. ì. гٵ³ñÓáõÙÛ³Ý, ². ì. سñ·³ñÛ³Ý, Ü. Ø. ²í³·Û³Ý: ÊÙµ.ª º. ØËÇ-
óñÛ³Ý.– ºñ.: ¼³Ý·³Ï–97, 2011.– 344 ¿ç:

§²Ý·É»ñ»Ý É»½íÇ ù»ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝ. Ò¨³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõݦ ¹³ë³·ÇñùÁ ݳ˳ï»ë-

í³Í ¿ ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÁ áñå»ë Ù³ëݳ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝ áõëáõÙݳëÇñáÕÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ, µ³Ûó ϳ-
ñáÕ ¿ ݳ¨ û·ï³Ï³ñ ÉÇÝ»É ù»ñ³Ï³ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç ÑÙï³Ý³É ó³ÝϳóáÕÝ»ñÇÝ:¸³-
ë³·ÇñùÁ µ³Õϳó³Í ¿ »ñÏáõ Ù³ëÇó: ²é³çÇÝ Ù³ëÝ Áݹ·ñÏáõÙ ¿ ųٳݳϳÏÇó
³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇ Ó¨³µ³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ: ºñÏñáñ¹ Ù³ëáõÙ ÝÛáõÃÇÝ ³éÝãíáÕ í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ
»Ý: Ð³Û áõë³ÝáÕÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ ³é³í»É ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝ Ý»ñϳ۳óÝáÕ ù»ñ³Ï³Ý³Ï³Ý
»ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÁ Éáõë³µ³ÝíáõÙ »Ý ѳۻñ»ÝÇ ½áõ·³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ùµ:
î»ë³Ï³Ý Ù³ëÁ ϳ½Ù»É ¿ º. ØËÇóñÛ³ÝÁ, í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ` Ü. гٵ³ñÓáõÙ-
Û³ÝÁ, ². سñ·³ñÛ³ÝÁ ¨ Ü. ²í³·Û³ÝÁ:

Ðî¸ 802.0:801.55(075.8)
¶Ø¸ 81.2 ²Ý·É+81 ó73

ISBN 978–99941–1–909–7

¡ лÕÇݳÏÝ»ñ, 2011
¡ §¼³Ý·³Ï–97¦, 2011

2
 CONTENTS
Preface ......................................................................................... 7

MORPHOLOGY

General Classification of Parts of Speech .................................... 9

The Noun .................................................................................. 10
The Category of Number ....................................................... 11
The Category of Case ........................................................... 14
The Category of Gender ....................................................... 15
The Article ................................................................................. 18
The Indefinite Article ............................................................. 19
The Definite Article ................................................................ 21
The Use of Articles with Proper nouns .................................. 22
Absence of the Article ........................................................... 24
The Pronoun ............................................................................. 27
Personal Pronouns ............................................................... 28
Possessive Pronouns ........................................................... 29
Reflexive Pronouns ............................................................... 30
Reciprocal Pronouns ............................................................. 31
Demonstrative Pronouns ....................................................... 32
Indefinite Pronouns ............................................................... 32
Negative Pronouns ............................................................... 34
Defining Pronouns ................................................................ 35
Interrogative Pronouns .......................................................... 37
Conjunctive Pronouns ........................................................... 38
Relative Pronouns ................................................................. 39
The Adjective ............................................................................. 40
Substantivized Adjectives ..................................................... 43
Statives ................................................................................. 44

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The Adverb ................................................................................ 45
Modal Adverbs ...................................................................... 46
The Numeral .............................................................................. 48
The Preposition ......................................................................... 50
The Conjunction ........................................................................ 52
The Particle ............................................................................... 53
The Interjection .......................................................................... 54
The Verb ................................................................................... 55
General Characteristics ......................................................... 55
The Finite Forms of the Verb ................................................ 58
The Indefinite Form ............................................................... 58
The Present Indefinite ...................................................... 58
The Past Indefinite ........................................................... 61
The Future Indefinite ........................................................ 63
The Future Indefinite in the Past ....................................... 64
The Continuous Form ........................................................... 65
The Present Continuous ................................................... 65
The Past Continuous ........................................................ 67
The Future Continuous ..................................................... 69
The Future Continuous in the Past ................................... 70
The Perfect Form .................................................................. 71
The Present Perfect ......................................................... 71
The Past Perfect ............................................................... 74
The Future Perfect ........................................................... 75
The Future Perfect in the Past .......................................... 76
The Perfect Continuous Form ............................................... 78
The Present Perfect Continuous ....................................... 78
The Past Perfect Continuous ............................................ 80
The Future Perfect Continuous ......................................... 80
The Passive Voice ................................................................ 82
The Get-Passive ............................................................... 85
The Passive Voice vs the Compound Nominal Predicate . 85
Modal Verbs .......................................................................... 86
The Category of Mood .......................................................... 99

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 The Indicative Mood ....................................................... 100
The Imperative Mood ..................................................... 100
The Subjunctive Mood .................................................... 101
The Present Subjunctive ................................................ 102
The Past Subjunctive ..................................................... 102
Ways of Rendering the Subjunctive Mood into Armenian 105
The Non-Finite Forms of the Verb ....................................... 106
The Infinitive ................................................................... 107
Morphological Features .................................................. 107
Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive ................................. 108
Infinitive Predicative Constructions ................................. 109
1. The Infinitive Construction with a Complex Object ...... 109
2. The Infinitive Construction with a Complex Subject .... 110
3. The Infinitive Constructions with the Preposition for .... 111
The Gerund ......................................................................... 112
Predicative Constructions with the Gerund ..................... 114
The Gerund and the Infinitive Compared ........................ 116
The Gerund and the Verbal Noun Compared ................. 117
The Present Participle ......................................................... 118
Predicative Constructions with the Present Participle ..... 120
1. The Participial Construction with a Complex Object .... 121
2. The Participial Construction with a Complex Subject .. 121
3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction ...... 122
4. Prepositional Absolute Construction with the Present Participle
........................................................................................ 122
The Present Participle and the Gerund Compared ......... 123
The Past Participle .............................................................. 124
Predicative Constructions with the Past Participle .......... 126
1. The Predicative Participial Construction with a Complex
Object ............................................................................. 126
2. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction ...... 127
3. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction with
the Past Participle .......................................................... 127

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 4. The Absolute (Prepositional and Non-Prepositional)
Construction ................................................................... 128

EXERCISES

The Noun ................................................................................ 129

The Article ............................................................................... 137
The Pronoun ........................................................................... 148
The Adjective ........................................................................... 162
The Adverb .............................................................................. 170
The Numeral ............................................................................ 177
The Preposition ....................................................................... 179
The Conjunction ...................................................................... 190
The Particle ............................................................................. 195
The Interjection ........................................................................ 196
The Verb ................................................................................. 198
The Present Indefinite ......................................................... 200
The Past Indefinite .............................................................. 207
The Future Indefinite ........................................................... 213
The Present Continuous ..................................................... 223
The Past Continuous .......................................................... 229
The Future Continuous ....................................................... 235
The Present Perfect ............................................................ 242
The Past Perfect ................................................................. 250
The Future Perfect .............................................................. 257
The Present Perfect Continuous ......................................... 263
The Past Perfect Continuous .............................................. 270
The Future Perfect Continuous ........................................... 274
Revision of Tenses ............................................................. 278
The Passive Voice ................................................................... 287
Modal Verbs ............................................................................ 297
The Mood ................................................................................ 312
The Non-Finite Forms of the Verbs .......................................... 321
The Infinitive ....................................................................... 321

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 The Gerund ......................................................................... 326
The Present Participle ......................................................... 330
The Past Participle .............................................................. 333

Appendix ................................................................................. 336

References .............................................................................. 343

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 The book is dedicated to the memory of our parents

PREFACE

The textbook is intended for students of the English department

who have completed a pre-intermediate course of English
grammar. The presentation of the material is made as practical as
possible. It contains information at various levels, ranging from
relatively simple points to more advanced problems. The
description includes not only much of the material that is in
conformity with the traditional use of English grammar, but also
some new tendencies which are observed in present-day usage of
English.
The book consists of two parts: theory and exercises.
The theoretical part presents a comprehensive survey of major
classes of words and their forms and functions. Each point
contains an explanation followed by numerous examples of correct
usage. The explanations are simplified as much as possible, with a
minimum of terminology. The examples are intended to be as self-
explanatory as possible. Points of particular difficulty have been
given special attention. In many cases grammar items are
presented and commented on in comparison with their Armenian
counterparts.
The book provides opportunities for practice through extensive
varied exercises. Many exercises are specifically designed to
enhance vocabulary acquisition while students are practicing form
and structure usage. The introduction of vocabulary is controlled

8
so that students should not have to spend a great deal of time
looking up words in the dictionaries.
We have made use of a number of books, two of which are our
prior publications: English Syntax (exercises) by Ye. Mkhitaryan
and Z. Kostanyan (2006); A Practical English Grammar by Ye.
Mkhitaryan, N. Hambartsoumyan, A. Markaryan, N. Avakyan
(2009). Also, we have consulted and used Practical English Usage
by M. Swan (1982); A Reference Grammar for Students of English
by R.A. Close (1979); An English Grammar by N.A. Kobrina et al
(2004); Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English
by A. S. Hornby (2005), etc.
The theory part is written by Ye. Mkhitaryan, Exercises by N.
Hambartsoumyan, A. Markaryan and N. Avakyan.
We wish to express our gratitude to our collegues for their
friendly and useful suggestions which were taken into account in
compiling the textbook.

9
 MORPHOLOGY

GENERAL CLASSIFICATION OF PARTS OF SPEECH

According to their meaning, morphological features and

syntactic functions, words in English fall into classes called parts of
speech. These are:
1. The Noun
2. The Adjective
3. The Pronoun
4. The Numeral
5. The Verb
6. The Adverb
7. The Preposition
8. The Conjunction
9. The Article
10. The Particle
11. The Interjection

Parts of speech are divided into two major types: notional and
structural. Nouns, adjectives, pronouns, numerals, verbs and
adverbs belong to notional parts of speech, as they have
independent meaning and function in the sentence. Prepositions,
conjunctions, articles and particles are considered structural parts
of speech (form-words). They have no independent function in the
sentence. They serve to connect words or clauses (prepositions
and conjunctions) or to specify or emphasize the meaning of words
(articles and particles). Interjections are used to express various
kinds of emotions, but they do not enter the structure of the
sentence as a part of the sentence.
Unlike most English grammars of the Soviet and post-Soviet
period, in which modal words are presented as a separate part of
speech, this textbook refers them to a class of adverbs as a

10
special group having modal meaning, since the authors do not find
substantial linguistic ground for this kind of separation.
Likewise, statives are presented as a special group of
adjectives, not as a separate part of speech.
THE NOUN

The general meaning of the noun is substance. According to

morphological composition nouns can be divided into simple,
derived and compound. Simple nouns consist of one root-
morpheme: table, cat, milk. Derived nouns (derivatives) are
composed of one root morpheme and one or more derivational
morphemes (prefixes and suffixes): modesty, unemployment,
vacancy, freedom, disadvantage. Compound nouns consist of two
or more stems: airmail, girlfriend, pineapple.
Semantically, nouns fall into proper nouns and common nouns.
Proper nouns are individual names given to persons and things.
These are:
1) the names of individual persons (Mary, Peter, Shakespeare,
Hemingway)
2) geographical names (London, Spain, Africa, the Pacific)
3) the names of months and days of the week (January, Friday)
4) the names of ships (the Titanic)
5) the names of hotels, buildings (Hilton, Buckingham Palace)
6) the names of squares, streets (Downing Street, Piccadilly
Circus)
7) the names of newspapers (the Times, the Guardian).
Common nouns can be classified into countable nouns
denoting objects that can be counted and uncountable nouns
denoting things that cannot be counted (money, furniture,
equipment, progress, advice, bread, etc.). Further classification is
into concrete nouns, abstract nouns and nouns of material.
Concrete nouns fall into the following subclasses:
1. nouns denoting living beings – persons and animals (man,
tiger)

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 2. nouns denoting inanimate things (toy, desk)
3. collective nouns denoting a group of persons or objects
(family, foliage, machinery).
Abstract nouns denote ideas or qualities that cannot be
perceived physically (freedom, honesty). Nouns of material denote
material (silver, cotton, wood).
Both abstract nouns and nouns of material usually belong to the
class of uncountable nouns, but they may be used as countable
nouns:
She is a woman of great beauty (·»Õ»óÏáõÃÛáõÝ). – She is
a real beauty (·»Õ»óÏáõÑÇ).
Iron (»ñϳÃ) is a hard strong metal. – She bought a nice
iron (³ñ¹áõÏ).
Some abstract nouns function as countable (idea, hour):
It would be a good idea to visit them before they leave.
It took me an hour to translate this article into Armenian.

The Category of Number

Nouns in English have three categories: number, case and

gender.
Countable nouns in English have two numbers: the singular and
the plural. The singular noun is unmarked (has no special
inflexion). The plural noun is marked by the inflexion -s, which is
pronounced in different ways:
[s] after voiceless consonants (maps, desks, rats)
[z] after vowels and voiced consonants (toys, keys, bees, flags,
beds, gloves)
[iz] after sibilants (bridges, houses).
If the noun ends in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -tch, -x, the plural is formed
by adding -es [iz] to the singular form: gas – gases, actress –
actresses, brush – brushes, bench – benches, match – matches,
fox – foxes.

12
 If the noun ends in -y preceded by a consonant, y is changed
into i before -es: lady – ladies, sky – skies.
But the letter y remains unchanged in:
a) proper names: the Kennedys, Marys
b) compounds: stand-bys, lay-bys.
If the final -y is preceded by a vowel, it remains unchanged
before -s: day – days, key – keys.
Nouns ending in -o form their plural by adding -es: tomato –
tomatoes, hero – heroes.
Words of foreign origin or abbreviated words ending in -o add -s
only: dynamo – dynamos, piano – pianos, kimono – kimonos, kilo
– kilos.
Nouns ending in -f or -fe change them into -ves: shelf – shelves,
wife – wives, leaf – leaves, life – lives, calf – calves, half – halves,
self– selves, knife – knives, thief – thieves, wolf – wolves.
The nouns hoof, scarf and wharf take either -s or -ves in the
plural: hoofs – hooves, scarfs – scarves, wharfs – wharves.
Other nouns ending in -f or -fe add -s in the ordinary way: cliff –
cliffs, safe – safes, roof – roofs.
Some nouns form their plural by a vowel change: man – men,
woman – women, foot – feet, tooth – teeth, mouse – mice, goose –
geese, louse – lice.
The nouns ox, child and brother form their plural by adding -en
or -ren: ox – oxen, child – children, brother – brethren (members of
a male religious group).
Some words of Greek and Latin origin make their plurals
according to the rules of the Greek and the Latin languages:
phenomenon – phenomena, criterion – criteria, memorandum –
memoranda, datum – data, crisis – crises, thesis – theses,
terminus – termini, radius – radii.
But some foreign words follow the English rules: dogma –
dogmas, gymnasium – gymnasiums, formula – formulas (formulae
is usually used in science).

13
 Musicians usually prefer Italian plural forms for musical terms:
libretto – libretti, tempo – tempi. But the forms librettos, tempos are
also possible.
Some nouns have the same form for the singular and plural:
deer, sheep, swine, trout, salmon, carp, pike:
There is a sheep in the field.
I see two sheep grazing beside the river.
Collective nouns family, team, crew, committee, board, etc. can
take the singular form if they mean a single group or unit or the
plural form if they imply a number of individuals taken separately:
Our team has won the match. – Our team are wearing
blue shorts today.
His family has moved here quite recently. – His family
are scattered around the world.
The nouns people, cattle, police and pair are always plural:
The police have caught the robbers.
People find him kind and generous.
The cattle were grazing by the river.
The pair are planning a trip to Italy.
But: The couple was/were married in 1970.
Certain nouns ending in -s are always plural and take a plural
verb: clothes, pants, trousers, pyjamas, breeches; binoculars,
glasses, scissors; outskirts, surroundings, earnings, stairs,
damages:
Where are the scissors?
His clothes were scattered all over the room.
A number of nouns ending in -ics (acoustics, politics, ethics,
physics, polemics, mathematics) take a singular verb if they
denote a special branch of science. However, this use may vary
and they can take a singular as well as a plural verb, especially
when they are used in a more practical sense:
Mathematics is an exact science.
If my mathematics is/are right, the answer is 70. (the
process of calculating)

14
 Their tactics are reasonable.
His politics are extreme. (his political views)
Politics is/are what interest(s) him most.
The names of certain diseases and games – mumps, rickets,
billiards, dominoes, darts, draughts as well as the noun news take
the singular verb:
Mumps is highly contagious.
No news is good news.
Darts is often played in British pubs.
In compound words the more semantically important
component is made plural: brothers-in-law, girl-friends, travel
agents, courts-martial, passers-by.
In compounds with man and woman both components are
made plural: man-driver – men-drivers, woman-doctor – women-
doctors.
Abbreviations can be made plural:
MP – MPs (members of parliament)
VIP – VIPs (very important persons)
OAP – OAPs (old age pensioners)
UFO – UFOs (unidentified flying objects).
e.g. Labour MPs are expected to adopt the Education Reform
Bill.
OAPs are admitted freely here.
There are a few nouns in English the plural of which besides
having a regular plural meaning is used in quite a new sense.
These are:
a colour – colours: an official flag of a country (¹ñáß)
a custom – customs: taxes paid to the government on goods
brought in from other countries (Ù³ùë³í׳ñ)
a glass – glasses: spectacles (³ÏÝáó)
a window – windows: the computer program (ÏáÙåÛáõï»ñ³ÛÇÝ
Íñ³·Çñ)
a minute – minutes: the proceedings (³ñӳݳ·ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ)
a manner – manners: behaviour (í³ñù³·ÇÍ)

15
 The Category of Case

Nouns in English have two cases: the Common case and the
Genitive (or the Possessive) case. The Common case is not
marked by any formal sign, i.e. it has no inflexion. The Genitive
case has the apostrophe -s (’s), which is added to the noun in the
Common case:
John’s house, the cat’s tail, my brother’s books, the lion’s mane.
The pronunciation of this ending is similar to that of the plural
ending of nouns.
The Genitive of plural nouns is formed by the apostrophe only:
students’ dormitory, the eagles’ nest, the Dunnets’ house.
Nouns that make their plural by other than -s ending take ’s in
the Genitive case:
women’s rights, men’s hats, children’s toys.
Classical personal names ending in -s take only the apostrophe
for the Genitive case:
Euripides’ [ju°ripidi:z] plays, Socrates’ [s krə°ti:z]
philosophy, Pythagoras’ [pai° əgərəs] theorem.
Other names ending in -s take ’s or only the apostrophe:
Mr. Jones’s (or Mr. Jones’) flat, Yeats’s (or Yeats’) poems,
Max’s (or Max’) address.
The names of people or professions may sometimes be used in
the Genitive case to mean house, place or shop (the Absolute
Genitive):
We met at Mary’s. The baker’s may be closed now.
You should go to the dentist’s.
The Genitive case is chiefly used of people and animals. But it
can also be used of countries, ships, boats, cars, planes and other
vehicles, but the construction with of is also possible:
England’s territory – the territory of England
the ship’s name – the name of the ship
the plane’s crew – the crew of the plane.

16
 The Genitive case can express time, space and money + worth
relations:
yesterday’s match, two miles’ distance, ten dollars’ worth of
cheese.
Nouns in the Genitive case may express a quality used
attributively:
He has got a mathematician’s mind.
He arrived at the party in his new officer’s clothes.
In compounds with the Genitive case (the so-called Group
Genitive) the ’s is added to the last component:
the Secretary of State’s arrival, the Duke of Norfolk’s castle,
someone else’s opinion.
In compounds with parts joined by the conjunction and the ’s is
added to the last element if they express a single idea:
In an hour or two’s time
Ilf and Petrov’s novel (the novel is written by both).
But: Hemingway’s and Fitzgerald’s novels (the novels are
written by different writers).
The combination of+the Genitive case denotes one of…:
an old friend of my father’s – one of my father’s old friend
a cousin of my husband’s – one of my husband’s cousins
The Genitive case is used in the following set-expressions:
at arm’s length – å³ïϳé»ÉÇ ï³ñ³ÍáõÃÛ³Ý íñ³
to one’s heart’s content – ëÇñïÝ áõ½³ÍÇ ã³÷
a hair’s breadth – Ýí³½³·áõÛÝ ï³ñ³ÍáõÃÛáõÝ
at a stone’s throw – ß³ï ÙáïÇÏ
at death’s door – Ù³Ñí³Ý ß»ÙÇÝ

The Category of Gender

Modern English has no grammatical gender. The noun does not

possess any special forms (like in Russian or German) that may
indicate gender in English. What is traditionally called gender in
English is a division of nouns into three classes according to their

17
lexical meaning: masculine (referred to as he) – man, boy, uncle;
feminine (referred to as she) – woman, aunt, girl; neuter (referred
to as it) – tree, bus, lamp.
A great many nouns in English refer to the so-called common
gender, referring to both genders: masculine and feminine. The
distinction between them can be made clear by introducing:
1) certain words functioning as sex-indicators:
girl-friend, boy-friend, woman-doctor, man-servant, he-bear,
she bear, Tom-cat, Jane-cat, cock-pheasant, hen-pheasant, billy-
goat, nanny-goat.
2) suffixes indicating feminine gender (-ess, -ine, -ette):
actor-actress, tiger-tigress, hero-heroine, usher – usherette.
3) different words are used for male and female gender
indication:
gentleman– lady, king– queen, monk– nun, uncle– aunt,
bachelor– spinster.
When there is no gender indication, only a larger context can be
helpful, since the subsequent sentences can eventually reveal the
real sex of the subject referring it either to he or she as the case
may be.
If the gender is still unknown or the statement is of general
character including both masculine and feminine gender, the
common noun is related to the pronouns he or she, his or her,
herself or himself often introduced by a slash: he/she, his/her,
herself/himself:
A person can reduce the number of cigarettes he or she
smokes by applying to various tactics.
In this country, students would usually address a
university professor by his or her (his/her) last name.
At present there is a tendency to use the pronoun they instead
of the double indication of the gender:
A speaker should respect their hearer.
They is also used generically in regard to somebody, anybody,
everybody:

18
 If anybody is late they will have to wait outside.
As for animals, they may be considered neuter (it), when their
sex is unknown or is indifferent to the speaker. On the other hand,
the owner of the animal will generally prefer using he or she even if
he/she doesn’t know anything of the natural sex of the animal. This
way the owners want to express their emotional attitude towards
their pets: love, affection, pride, tenderness.
Consider an example taken from “Harry Potter” by J. Rowling:
He spotted it at once: a dazed and ruffled-looking owl
sitting on the kitchen sill. (Harry Potter sees the owl for the
first time.)
His owl, Hebwig, was off hunting; her cage stood empty on
the desk. Harry paced the bedroom waiting for her to come
back. (Harry grows fond of the owl and even gives it a
special name.)
But the general tendency as in regard to animals is as follows:
nouns denoting larger and fiercer animals refer to the masculine
gender (horse, elephant, dog), while nouns denoting smaller and
weaker animals refer to the feminine gender (cat, hare, parrot).
Below is an example to illustrate it:
The elephant slowly lifted his trunk.
The cat guards her young ones with all her might.
Breakfast table: a wasp is hovering about the jam.
Lady: Look at him.
Gentleman (foreigner): Why do you call it him?
Lady: Because we look at it as something horrible.(G.
Wendt)
The same attitude may be expressed towards inanimate things
– love, pride, admiration:
You should have seen him when he walked around the
house to the terrace where I was sitting – he had white
paint over him. And he was beaming. “I’ve finished her”
(painting the fence).

19
 When abstract notions are personified, the masculine gender is
used with nouns suggesting such ideas as strength, power,
fierceness, aggression (anger, death, war), while the feminine
gender is associated with ideas of beauty, gentleness (spring,
peace, dawn):
I love wisdom more than she loves me. (G. Byron)
It seemed as if death were raging round this floating prison
seeking for his prey. (W. Irving)
Love is wiser than Philosophy, though he is wiser and
mightier than Power. (O. Wilde)
It is interesting to mention that when H. L. Mencken, an
American linguists, describes the Russian language, he uses the
masculine gender to emphasize the power and richness of its
grammatical forms and phonetics:
“The Russian language with his six cases, his three
genders, his palatalized consonants and his complicated
pronouns … luxuriates in a language which has only two
cases, no grammatical gender… and output of pronouns
so simple that one of them suffices to address the
President of the United States or a child in arms.”
There are certain traditional associations: the nouns moon and
earth are related to the feminine gender, the noun sun to the
masculine gender.
The names of vessels (ship, boat, steamer, etc.) and vehicles
(carriage, couch, car) are often referred to as feminine:
Look at my new car! Isn’t she beautiful!
What a lovely yacht! What is she called?
The names of countries are referred to as it when they are used
in a purely geographical sense:
England is a large country. Its population has increased
considerably of late.
But: England is proud of her heroes.

20
 THE ARTICLE

The article is a form word whose basic role is to mark nouns or

noun phrases as either definite or indefinite. Accordingly, there are
two articles in English: the definite article and the indefinite article.
The notion of definiteness or indefiniteness determines the
important role of the article in the process of communication. The
definite article usually points to something which is already known,
while the indefinite article presents a new item of information. The
choice of the definite or the indefinite article is determined by the
speaker’s and hearer’s mutual perception of objects.
Both articles were once notional words, whose meaning can be
traced in modern uses of these words.

The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article has two forms: 1) a before words

beginning with a consonant (a lady, a gentleman, a good boy), 2)
an before words beginning with a vowel (an apple, an oak-tree, an
old man).
The indefinite article is used
1) with countable nouns in the singular when it retains its
original meaning of one:
He returned in a minute.
He did not utter a word during the whole evening.
There were a hundred young people at camp this summer.
2) to indicate that the object denoted by the noun is one of a
class of similar objects. In this case the indefinite article has a
classifying meaning:
A man wants to see you.
Give me a peach, please.
He is a doctor.
3) with nouns used in a generic sense:
A horse is used for riding on or pulling carriages.

21
 A monkey usually lives in a hot country.
A thermometer is used for measuring the temperature of a
person’s body.
4) with nouns modified by a descriptive attribute:
It was a nice picture of an old country house.
A woman of extraordinary beauty stood in the doorway.
This kind of use of the indefinite article is also found with nouns
indicating unique things: sun, moon, sky, etc.:
A full moon was shining in the sky.
A hot sun makes the grass dry.
We could easily see stars in a clear dark sky.
5) with names of materials when they denote different sorts or
are used as countable nouns:
It was an excellent French wine.
I bought a very good cheese yesterday.
Please give us two teas and a coffee.
He ordered a whisky for himself and an ice-cream for his
son.
6) with personal names when they represent the works or
qualities associated with their professional works:
He bought a Picasso and was very proud of it.
I saw John driving a red Ford.
He wore an old mackintosh.
He is quite a Monte Cristo.
7) before ordinal numerals when they mean one more, another:
He asked for a second glass of wine.
He tried a third time, but failed again.
8) with the adjectives little and few to mean a small amount or
number:
There was a little hope to find the lost child. (More hope is
implied).
Compare with: There was little hope to find the lost child.
(Less hope is implied).
I like a few of his movies. (‘Some of them’ is implied).

22
 Compare with: I like few of his movies. (‘Not many’ is implied).
9) in exclamatory sentences beginning with what:
What a beautiful girl!
What a charming cottage it is!
What a lovely morning it is!
10) in certain expressions of quantity: a lot of, a great number
of, a great deal of, a few, a little.
11) in proverbs expressing general truths:
A friend in need is a friend indeed.
An apple a day keeps a doctor away.
Let’s call a spade a spade.
There are a number of set expressions with the indefinite
article:
in a sense – áñáß ÇÙ³ëïáí at /from a distance – áñáß Ñ»é³íá-
in a whisper – ßßáõÏáí ñáõÃÛ³Ý íñ³
in a low voice – ó³Íñ Ó³ÛÝáí as a result – ³ñ¹ÛáõÝùáõÙ
in a hurry – ßï³å, ѳå×»å as a matter of fact – ÷³ëïáñ»Ý
at a glance – ÙÇ Ñ³Û³óùÇó to have a good time – ɳí
at a loss – ÙáÉáñí³Í, ³Ý»É³Ý»ÉÇ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³ÝóϳóÝ»É
íÇ׳ÏáõÙ it is a pity – ³÷ëáë, ó³í³ÉÇ ¿
it is a pleasure – ѳ׻ÉÇ ¿

The Definite Article

The definite article developed from the Old English

demonstrative pronoun se – tham (dative), whose meaning is felt
in expressions like: under the (those) circumstances, nothing of the
(that) kind, etc.
The definite article has two ways of pronunciation: [ði:] before
words beginning with a vowel (the eyes, the orange juice) and [ðə]
before words beginning with a consonant (the boy, the red apple).
Unlike the indefinite article, the definite article is used with
nouns both in singular and plural. The definite article has
specifying and generic functions in the utterance. The specifying
function of the definite article consists in pointing out an object or a

23
group of objects (things, humans, animals, abstract notions) from
other objects of the same kind. The specification is made clear by
a) the situation:
What are the boys doing? (the boys as members of this
family)
They are playing in the garden. (the garden of this house)
Please pass me the salad. (the salad on the table)
She was standing by the window. (the window of the
room)
b) the previous context:
He met a girl whom he liked at first sight. The girl made a
favourable impression on his mother too. (noun
mentioned a second time)
She bought a new car last month. But the car broke two
days ago.
c) by use of the restrictive attribute:
The flat above is locked.
Where is the necklace I presented you with?
The story he told you was all made up.
The corridor leading to the master’s room was dark and
narrow.
The definite article is used
1) with nouns in a generic sense:
The lion is a large powerful animal. (any lion, therefore the
whole class)
The computer can perform high-speed mathematical and
logical operations.
The microscope is used for magnifying objects.
2) with nouns denoting unique things:
The sun was just setting.
By the light of the moon I could read the note.
The earth revolves round the sun.
The sky suddenly went dark and it started to rain.
3) with adjectives in the superlative degree:

24
 He is the most talented boy in the class.
Keep indoors when the sun is the strongest.
4) with substantivized adjectives:
They provided food and shelter for the poor.
There are guide dogs for the blind.
5) with ordinal numerals:
It was the first time they had ever met.
He was the second to arrive.

The Use of Articles with Proper nouns

The definite article is used with

1) astronomical names:
the East, the West, the South, the North, the Great Bear,
the Milky Way, the North Pole, the South Pole, the Arctic.
2) with names of mountain ranges:
the Alps, the Pennines.
3) the names of rivers, seas, oceans, lakes:
the Thames, the Nile, the Hrazdan, the Black Sea, the Indian
Ocean,the Pacific, the Ontario (but Lake Ontario).
4) the names of canals and gulfs:
the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, the English Channel,
the Gulf of Mexico.
5) names of some countries and cities:
the UK (United Kingdom), the USA (United States of
America),
the Netherlands, the Congo, the Lebanon, the Cameroon,
the Senegal, the Hague, the Vatican.
6) the names of groups of islands:
the Philippines, the Bermudas.
7) the names of deserts:
the Gobi, the Sahara, the Karakorum.
8) the names of vessels:
the Titanic, the Queen Elisabeth.

25
 9) the names of public buildings, museums, institutions,
organizations, hotels, theatres:
the National Gallery, the Metropolitan Museum, the
White House, the Hermitage,the White House,the
Grand Hotel, the Bolshoy Theatre, the Saryan
Museum, the Sundukyan National Academic Theatre,
the NATO (North-Atlantic Treaty Organization).
10) the names of most newspapers and journals:
the Times, the Washington Post, the Independent.
11) The definite article is used with personal names and names
of pop groups
a) when they are perceived as a whole:
The Jones were the last to arrive.
The Beatles were popular all over the world.
b) when the name is modified by an attribute:
The frightened Kate could not talk for a long time.
You are not the Harry Eden whom I knew.
He is the Rubens of our time.
12) The definite article is used in a number of set expressions:
in the morning (afternoon, evening) – ³é³íáïÛ³Ý (ó»ñ»ÏÁ,
»ñ»ÏáÛ³Ý)
the other day – ³Ýó³Í ûñÁ, ûñ»ñë
the day after tomorrow – í³ÕÁ ã¿ ÙÛáõë ûñÁ
all the same – ÙǨÝáõÛÝÝ ¿
just the same – ×Çßï ÝáõÛÝÁ
by the way – Ç ÙÇçÇ ³ÛÉáó
in the present (past, future) – Ý»ñϳÛáõÙë (³ÝóÛ³ÉáõÙ,
³å³·³ÛáõÙ)
on the whole – ÁݹѳÝáõñ ³éٳٵ
out of the question – Ëáëù ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ ÉÇÝ»É
to pass the time – ųٳݳÏÝ ³ÝóϳóÝ»É
to play the piano (guitar, violin) – Ýí³·»É ¹³ßݳÙáõñ (ÏÇóé,
çáõóÏ)
to tell the truth – ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ë»É

26
 to tell the time – ųÙÝ ³ë»É
to kiss smb on the cheek – ѳٵáõñ»É Ù»ÏÇ ³ÛïÁ
to be wounded in the leg – íÇñ³íáñí³Í ÉÇÝ»É áïùÇó
to take smb by the hand – Ù»ÏÇ Ó»éùÁ µéÝ»É

Absence of the Article

The absence of the article, which is sometimes referred to as

the zero article is quite meaningful. It is used
1) with countable nouns in the plural to signify their classifying
and generic functions. They may have a descriptive attribute,
which does not affect the rule:
Laura and Helen are nurses.
These are new houses.
Monkeys live in hot countries.
No article is used with the nouns man, woman and language
when they are perceived in a generic sense:
God created man and woman to love each other.
The damage caused by man to the environment is great.
Language is a means of communication.
2) with nouns used predicatively and in apposition when they
denote a position which is usually occupied by one person:
He is president of the country.
Mr. Brown, principal of St. John’s school, was nominated
for the Academy Award.
She was elected chairperson of the society.
Nouns introduced by as may also be used without the article:
She works as (a) nurse.
He agreed to appear as (a) witness for the defence.
3) with uncountable nouns unless they are modified by a
restrictive attribute:
I am fond of literature.
I am fond of French literature.
But: I am fond of the French literature of the 20th century.

27
 Do you take milk in your tea?
But: I did not like the milk you bought yesterday.
4) with names of continents, countries and cities as well as
names of single islands and mountain peaks:
Asia, America, Germany, England, London, Madrid,
Madagascar, Everest.
5) with names of streets and squares:
Wall Street, Oxford Street, Trafalgar Square.
But: the High Street, the Strand
6) with names of diseases (Influenza, pneumonia, diabetes,
tuberculosis, mumps, measles, cholera, etc.):
She is suffering from diabetes.
He died of cancer.
They fell ill with flu.
7) with nouns denoting titles, ranks or professions as well as
personal names unless the latter represent a whole family, in
which case the definite article is found:
Sir Adams, Lady Davidson, Captain Nash, Doctor Mason,
Master Rochester, Mr. Davidson.
But: The Davidsons came late.
When one member of the family is implied the indefinite article
is used:
She married a Rochester.
The indefinite article is also used with a personal name if a man
or a woman is not known personally:
A (certain) Mr. Manson wants to see you.
8) with the names of members of a family, such as Mother,
Father, Uncle, Aunt, Sister, Nurse, etc. (used by the family
members):
Where is Mother?
Ask Sister to lay the table.
Has Nurse gone?

28
 9) with the names of days, months, seasons, holidays unless
there is a restrictive attribute, in which case the definite article is
used; in case of a descriptive attribute the indefinite article is used:
We met in April. It was Easter.
But: I will never forget the April of 2010.
We have French classes on Monday and Thursday.
But: It was a Friday when we got acquainted.
It was summer when they decided to move to their
country house in Sussex.
But: It was a remarkably mild summer.
10) with the nouns school, college, camp, hospital, prison, jail,
church, court, home, town, bed, table when these places are
visited or used for their primary purpose. Otherwise, they are used
as ordinary countable nouns:
He got interested in politics when he was in college.
They kept him in prison for almost three months.
He had to go to hospital for treatment.
We took him to court for breaking the contract.
She was lying in bed. (under the covers)
Children must learn to behave at table.
How often do you go to church?
But: It was an old church. The church they saw yesterday was
built in the 11th century.
He was lying on the bed. (on top of the covers)
I am going to the school to talk to my son’s teacher.
11) with the noun town when it denotes a particular town
somebody lives and works in:
Do you stay in town in summer?
But: It was a small university town.
They spent a month in the town of le Ros.
12) no article is used in some set expressions:
at sea – ÍáíáõÙ
at hand – Ó»éùÇ ï³Ï

29
 at sunset (sunrise, dawn, dusk) – Ù³Ûñ³ÙáõïÇÝ (³ñ¨³Í³·ÇÝ,
Éáõë³µ³óÇÝ, ÙÃÝß³ÕÇÝ)
at dinner, breakfast, supper– (׳ßÇÝ Ý³Ë³×³ßÇÝ, ÁÝÃñÇùÇÝ)
by train (plane, bus, car, coach, boat) – ·Ý³óùáí
(ÇÝùݳÃÇéáí, ³íïáµáõëáí, Ù»ù»Ý³Ûáí, ϳéùáí, ݳíáí)
by post, by mail – ÷áëïáí
by radio, by telephone – é³¹ÇáÛáí, Ñ»é³Ëáëáí
by accident, by chance – å³ï³Ñٳٵ
by hand – Ó»éùáí
by sight – ³ñï³ùÇÝáí, ï»ëùÇó
by mistake – ë˳Éٳٵ
in detail – Ù³Ýñ³Ù³ëÝáñ»Ý
in person – ³ÝÓ³Ùµ
in peace – ˳ճÕáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ѳݷÇëï
in sight – ï»ë³¹³ßïáõÙ
out of sight – ï»ë³¹³ßïÇó ¹áõñë
in silence – Éáõé, ÉéáõÃÛ³Ùµ
on board – ݳíÇ íñ³
on deck – ï³Ëï³Ï³Ù³ÍÇÝ
on foot – áïùáí
on tiptoe – áïݳóûñÇ íñ³
on business Рᇖꇒ
out of place – áã ï»ÕÇÝ
with interest – Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛ³Ùµ
with curiosity – Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÃÛ³Ùµ
from morning till night – ³é³íáïÇó ÙÇÝ㨠·Çß»ñ
from time to time – Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³é ųٳݳÏ
from day to day – ûñ»óûñ
from head to foot – áïùÇó ·ÉáõË
from west to east – ³ñ¨ÙáõïùÇó ³ñ¨»Éù

30
 THE PRONOUN

The pronoun is a part of speech which indicates objects and

their properties without naming them. Their concrete lexical
meaning can be made clear in the context or situation.
Morphological and syntactic features of this part of speech are
different with different types of pronouns. Some pronouns have the
grammatical categories of person, gender or case; others have the
category of number. Still, another group of pronouns have no
grammatical categories altogether, having only syntactic functions
in the sentence. Many pronouns are characterized by double
syntactic functions, being used as subject, objects or predicative
as well as attribute.
Pronouns fall into the following groups:
1. Personal pronouns
2. Possessive pronouns
3. Reflexive pronouns
4. Reciprocal pronouns
5. Demonstrative pronouns
6. Indefinite pronouns
7. Defining pronouns
8. Negative pronouns
9. Interrogative pronouns
10. Conjunctive pronouns
11. Relative pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns

The personal pronouns are: I, he, she, it, we, you, they. They
have the grammatical categories of person, number and case. I,
she, he, it belong to the singular number; we, they belong to the
plural number. The pronoun you is used for both the singular and
plural. The 3rd person singular is characterized by the category of

31
gender. Male nouns are referred to as he, female nouns are
referred to as she and inanimate objects as it.
The personal pronouns have two cases: the Nominative case –
I, he, she, it, we, you, they and the Objective case – me, him, her,
it, us, you, them.
The personal pronouns in the Nominative Case are used as
subjects:
They live in France. He speaks French fairly well.
They live in France. He speaks French fairly well.
The personal pronouns in the Objective case are used as
objects (direct, indirect and prepositional):
I cannot see them from here. (direct object)
Please give me your dictionary for a minute. (indirect object)
These roses are for you. (prepositional object)

Occasionally personal pronouns in the Objective case may be

used predicatively:
Who’s calling? It’s me.
The pronouns you and it do not change with different cases:
You should be more attentive. (Nominative case)
I can help you. (Objective case)
It (the book) is on the table. (Nominative case)
Give it to me. (Objective case)
The pronoun it can be used in the function of a demonstrative
pronoun:
It’s my brother.
It is a painting by a modern artist.
The pronoun it may have a formal use in the sentence (the
introductory it), when it introduces the lexical subject expressed by
an infinitive, the Present Participle or a clause:
It was a great idea to invite them to our annual gathering.
It is useless trying to invite him. He won’t come.
It is necessary that we should make some changes in the
project.

32
 It can be used as an impersonal pronoun, functioning as a
formal subject in impersonal sentences:
It is snowing.
It is winter now.
It is 5 o’clock.
The pronoun it may be used in emphatic constructions:
It is here that we met for the first time.
It was John who recognized the old man.
The pronouns you, we, they as well as he may be used
generically to mean every man (we, you, he) or people in general
(they):
You learn a foreign language better if you visit the country
where it is spoken.
It is a friendly place – people come up to you in the street
and start talking.
We should take more care of our historic places.
We live and learn.
He who hesitates is lost.
They say his latest film was not very good.

2. Possessive Pronouns

Possessive pronouns have two forms: the conjoint form which

is normally combined with nouns – my, your, his, her, its, our, their
and the absolute form which is used without a noun – mine, yours,
hers, his, its, ours, theirs. The pronouns in the conjoint form
function as attributes:
My son is at school now.
Her parents live abroad at present.
The absolute form of the personal pronouns can function as
subject, predicative and object:
Their garden is big, but yours is nicer. (subject)
Whose bag is this? It’s mine. (predicative)

33
 I cannot find my book. Will you give me yours for a few
minutes, please? (direct object)
Their house is similar to ours. (prepositional object)
The pronouns his and its remain unchanged for both forms, but
we can distinguish between them by their syntactic functions in the
sentence:
Where is his room? (attribute)
His (room) is upstairs and mine is next to his. (subject and
object)
Sometimes the absolute form of possessive pronouns is
preceded by the preposition of. This kind of structure is called
Double Genitive:
Everybody knows I am a friend of hers.
Mrs. Peters is a neighbour of ours.
Possessive pronouns in English are often used with nouns
denoting parts of body, articles of clothing, etc.:
She put the letter into her bag.
He put on his suit and quickly went out.
She raised her eyebrows in surprise.
Nowadays there is a tendency to delete the possessive
pronoun with such nouns:
She took a book in hand. He shook head.

3. Reflexive Pronouns

The reflexive pronouns have the categories of person, number

and gender. The singular forms are: myself, yourself, herself,
himself, itself. The plural forms are: ourselves, yourselves,
themselves. The generic reflexive pronoun oneself has none of
these categories. Reflexive pronouns have various functions in the
sentence:
My wife and myself were unaware of the whole affair.
(subject)
The child could not dress himself. (direct object)

34
 He poured her a glass of red wine and himself a glass a
Scotch whisky. (indirect object)
She talks only about herself. (prepositional object)
She did not feel quite herself this morning. (predicative)
He did the exercises all by himself. (adverbial modifier of
manner)
My sister like myself is fond of classical music. (adverbial
modifier of comparison)
The reflexive pronouns can be used emphatically to emphasize
the subject or object of the action:
She said so herself.
Did you see the principal himself?
They themselves decided to take this trip.
We’ve thought of going there ourselves.

4. Reciprocal Pronouns

The reciprocal pronouns are: each other and one another. They
indicate a mutual relationship between two or more persons or
(occasionally) non-persons. The pronoun each other generally
implies that only two persons are involved. One another is more
preferable when more than two persons or things are implied:
They really love each other.
We all try and help one another.
The houses stood close by and looked as if embracing one
another.
The reciprocal pronouns have the category of case: the
Common case and the Genitive case. Reciprocal pronouns in the
Common case function as objects:
They looked at each other and laughed.
We’ve learned a lot about one another.
The reciprocal pronouns in the Genitive case function as
attributes:
The sisters sometimes wear each other’s clothes.

35
 We’ve learned a lot about one another’s lives.

5. Demonstrative Pronouns

The demonstrative pronouns point to persons or things and

their properties. These are: this, that and such. This and that have
the plural form: these and those respectively. This (these) points to
what is near in time and space; that (those) to what is remote in
time and space.
This is my brother. – These are my brothers.
That is a rose. – Those are roses.
Syntactically, the demonstrative pronouns can function as
subject, predicative, attribute and object:
This is a picture of our house. (subject)
Give this to Ann please. (object)
Read those pages again please. (attribute)
We did not know how to behave on such occasions.
(attribute)
The damage was such that it cost thousands of dollars.
(predicative)
Unlike the pronouns this and that, such can be followed by the
indefinite article if it refers to a singular noun:
It’s such a fine day!
But: I haven’t seen such beautiful gloves.
Used with the noun country the pronoun this means the country
one lives in:
I will never leave this country. (my country)

6. Indefinite Pronouns

The indefinite pronouns indicate persons or things without

denoting the class of objects they belong to. These are: some, any
and their derivatives – somebody, someone, anybody, anyone
(animate objects), something, anything (inanimate objects). Some

36
and its derivatives are commonly used in affirmative and
imperative sentences, any and its derivatives in interrogative
sentences:
There are some new houses in this district.
Are there any new houses in this district?
Give me some salad please.
The pronoun any and its derivatives may also be used in
a) negative sentences:
I don’t know any person by this name.
b) in affirmative sentences in which this pronoun acquires a
new shade of meaning: one of a number of things or people, when
it does not matter which one:
You can take any picture you like.
Any person will tell you this.
The exercises are so simple that anyone can do them.
c) in conditional clauses:
If you remember anything at all, please let us know.
Some may be used in interrogative sentences meaning “a
certain amount of something”:
Will you have some time to show me your new paintings?
Would you like to have some cake? (in offers and or
invitations)
The pronouns somebody, anybody, someone, anyone can be
used in the Genitive case:
We cannot find them. If you know anyone’s address please
tell us.
The indefinite pronouns can function as subject, object,
attribute:
Anyone knows that’s wrong. (subject)
You can ask anybody about it. (object).
Some facts are required to prove his innocence. (attribute)
The pronoun one is called indefinite-personal. It refers to
persons as well as things. One can be used in the Genitive case:
One should be honest.

37
 One should never criticize if one is not sure of one’s facts.
One can function as a substitute-word, in which case it can be
used in the plural. It may be preceded by an adjective and used
with an article (definite or indefinite):
Our car has broken down. We’re going to buy a new one.
Their house is the one next to the cinema.
The students who are most successful are usually the ones
who come to all the classes.
One can have the functions of subject, object and attribute in
the sentence.
One gets the impression that they are being misled.
(subject)
I don’t like the blue cup. Give me the green one, please.
(direct object)
Can I replace these chairs by those ones? (prepositional
object)
One should do one’s duty. (attribute)

7. Negative Pronouns

The negative pronouns are: no, none, no one, nobody, nothing,

neither.
Unlike Armenian, the English sentence normally requires only
one negative word to make it negative:
There was nobody at home.î³ÝÁ áã áù ãϳñ:
The pronouns nobody and no one are synonyms. They refer to
persons only and can be used in the Genitive case:
Nobody can foretell your future.
No one answered my knock.
I know nobody’s address on the list.
Neither means ‘not one nor the other of two things or people’. It
usually takes a singular verb. It is often used with of-phrase, in
which case the verb may be in the plural:

38
 They produced two designs, but neither was good
enough.
Neither of them has/have a house of their own.
They offered me two books, neither of which was
interesting.
No is used attributively and refers both to persons and
things:
No news is good news.
No person is allowed to enter this room.
None means ‘not any referring to many persons and things’. It
may be followed by of-phrase and it may take a singular or plural
verb:
She told me all the news, but none of it was exciting.
We have three daughters, but none lives/live nearby.
We have many cherry-trees, but none of them yields/yield
fruit.
The negative pronouns can have various functions in the
sentence:
Nothing can be seen from here. (subject)
Unfortunately, we can do nothing to help him. (object)
No leaf stirred. (attribute)

8. Defining Pronouns

The defining pronouns are: all, both, each, every, everyone,

everybody, everything, other, another, either.
All is used in a generalized meaning and can take a singular as
well as a plural verb. When used in the singular all means
‘everything, the whole of a thing’:
All is well that ends well.
I think all of it is a lie.
All in the plural means: the whole number of persons or
things:
All agree that he was wrong.

39
 All of his remarks were reasonable.
When all is used with a noun, it may be followed by the definite
article if the noun is characterized by a restrictive attribute:
All the students of our group are involved in that
discussion. (implying every student of the group)
All students are invited to take part in the discussion. (not
implying every student)
Both means ‘one and the other’ and usually refers to persons
and things. It takes the plural verb:
Both were students.
Will you take this or that book? I’ll take both.
Both (English and Dutch) belong to the Germanic family
of languages.
The pronouns both and all in combination with a noun or a
personal pronoun can have different positions in a sentence:
We are both interested in rock music.
Both of us are interested in rock music.
All the young men are graduates of Oxford University.
The young men are all graduates of Oxford University.
All of them accepted the invitations.
They all accepted the invitations.
Each means ‘a number of persons or things taken individually’,
every has the same meaning with a less expression of
individuality:
Each girl wore what she liked best.
Every boy wore a black suit with a tie.
Every is used in compounds: everybody, everyone (in reference
to persons) and everything (in reference to things):
When we asked him about it, he denied everything.
Has everybody got a book?
Other is the only defining pronoun which has the category of
number:
Some of our students go in for basketball, others for
volleyball.

40
 Other can be used with the definite article to mean ‘the second
of the two’:
He was standing on the other side of the street.
He raised one hand and then the other.
Another has two meanings:
a) ‘a different one’:
I don’t like this book. I am going to ask for another.
b) ‘one more, an extra thing or person’:
Would you like to have another glass of wine?
Either means
a) ‘one or the other of two’:
You can park on either side of the street.
b) ‘each of two’:
There is a door at either end of the corridor.
Other, everyone and everybody can be used both in the
Common case and the Genitive case:
I don’t know the other’s name.
Her extraordinary beauty attracted everybody’s attention.
Defining pronouns can have different functions in the sentence:
a) subject:
Everybody was pleased with the decision.
Each was given a present.
Both were invited to the party.
All have come already, so we can start the discussion.
b) object:
I’ll tell you everything when we meet.
He has lost all.
You can take both if you like.
We examined each very closely.
c) attribute (when used with nouns):
There were trees on either side of the street.
Both girls are charming and intelligent as well.
We knew almost nothing about the other son.
All his colleagues were of high opinion of him.

41
 Such was everybody’s impression.
d) predicative:
This is all you need.

9. Interrogative Pronouns

The interrogative pronouns are: who, whose, what, which. Who

refers to persons and has the category of case: Nominative who
and Objective whom. However, there is a strong tendency in
Modern English to use who for both forms, especially when it
occurs in combination with a preposition:
Who has done it?
Who is the money for?
Who are you playing with?
When who is used predicatively, it can take either a singular or
plural verb:
Who is he?
Who are you?
Who are those men?
Whose is used to ask who something belongs to:
Whose bag is this?
Whose gloves are these?
What refers to things and can take a singular as well as a plural
verb:
What is there on the wall?
What are their names?
When used in reference to persons what indicates an inquiry
about the profession or occupation of the person addressed:
What are you? I am a teacher.
What is he? He is a banker.
But: Who is he? He is my friend’s brother.
Which is used in reference to persons and things. It may be
followed by of-phrase:
Which colour do you prefer?

42
 Which of the patients have recovered?
Which do you like better: swimming or tennis?
The interrogative pronouns have various functions in the
sentence:
What is going on here? (subject)
What do they sell? (object)
Which suit are you going to buy? (attribute)
What suit are you going to buy? (attribute)
The last two sentences differ slightly in meaning: the first
sentence implies a choice from a given number of suits, whereas
the second one does not have the same implication referring to
various types and style of suits – a business suit, a lounge suit, a
two/three-piece suit, etc.

10. Conjunctive Pronouns

The conjunctive pronouns are: who, whom, whose, what, which,

that, whoever, whatever, whichever. They are used to connect
subordinate clauses to the principal clause:
What she says is a pure lie.
I don’t know who sent this parcel.
That he left the country so suddenly surprised everybody.
The conjunctive pronouns have various syntactic functions in
the sentence, in addition to their connective function. The
exception is the pronoun that when it introduces an object clause,
in which case it functions as pure conjunction:
I wonder what brought him here. (subject)
What she says is false. (object)
I asked him whom he was going to invite to his birthday
party. (object)
He is a man whose opinion I highly respect. (attribute)
I want to know what it is. (predicative)

43
 The compounds whoever, whatever, whichever join various
subordinate clauses to the principal clause and have a concessive
meaning. Whoever can take a singular or a plural verb:
Whoever comes tell him to wait for us. (subject)
I don’t want to talk to them, whoever they are. (predicative)
You will have our support whatever you decide. (object)
Choose whichever coat you prefer. (attribute)
Whichever may be followed by of-phrase:
Whichever of you finishes the assignment first will get the
prize.

11. Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns are used to introduce attributive

subordinate clauses. These are: who, whom, whose, which, that.
Who is used in reference to persons and sometimes to animals,
while which refers to things and animals:
The people who called yesterday want to buy this
house.
Mrs. Kennicott, who has a lot of teaching experience at
junior level, will be working at our school next year.
Houses which overlook the river cost more.
The dog who had never seen that strange man in his
master’s house started to bark fiercely.
The man to whom I spoke turned out to be Mary’s father.
Or: (less formal) The man whom I spoke to turned out to be
Mary’s father.
Whose is used in reference to persons, animals and things:
This is a man whose reputation is impeccable.
They found a cat whose tail and paws were almost red.
He brought a bunch of lilac whose scent filled the whole
room immediately.
That is used in reference to animals and things as well as
persons:

44
 The man that called is an ex-champion.
The design that they produced was the best.
The cat that was lost was Laura’s pet.
Which usually refers to things and animals:
It was a crisis for which the country was unprepared.
The boy took care of the wounded bird, which he found
in the garden.
The relative pronouns have independent syntactic functions in
the sentence.
Name a person who can do it on the spot. (subject)
Give me the copy that you have done. (object)
I don’t know a girl whose beauty is as breathtaking as
Gloria’s. (attribute)
I want to visit the places in which I spent my childhood.
(adverbial modifier of place)
Which is also used to refer to the whole sentence:
He refused to take part in the project, which was quite
unexpected.
She won the first prize, which compelled everybody’s
admiration.

Relative Pronouns

The relative pronouns are used to introduce attributive (or

relative) subordinate clauses. These are: who, whose, which,
that.
Who is used in reference to persons and sometimes to
animals, while which refers to things and animals:
The people who called yesterday want to buy this house.

45
Mrs. Kennicott, who has a lot of teaching experience at junior
level, will be working at our school next year.
Houses which overlook the river cost more.
The dog who had never seen that strange man in his
master’s house started to bark fiercely.
The man to whom I spoke turned out to be Mary’s father.
Or: (less formal) The man who I spoke to turned out to be
Mary’s father.
Whose is used in reference to persons, animals and things:
This is a man whose reputation is impeccable.
They found a cat whose tail and paws were almost red.
He brought a bunch of lilac whose scent filled the whole
room immediately.
Which usually refers to things and animals:
It was a crisis for which the country was unprepared.
The boy took care of the wounded bird, which he found in the
garden.
That is used in reference to animals and things as well as
persons:
The man that called is an ex-champion.
The design that they produced was the best.
The cat that was lost was Laura’s pet.
The relative pronoun that is required after certain words such
as everything, anything, nothing, the thing, only, all.
She threw out everything that reminded her of George.
We often use that after superlatives:

46
The Wimbledon men’s final was the best game of
tennis that I’ve ever seen.
The relative pronouns have independent syntactic functions
in the sentence.
Name a person who can do it on the spot. (subject)
Give me the copy that you have done. (object)
I don’t know a girl whose beauty is as breathtaking as
Gloria’s. (attribute)
I want to visit the places in which I spent my childhood.
(adverbial modifier of place)
Which is also used to refer to the whole sentence:
He refused to take part in the project, which was quite
unexpected.
She won the first prize, which compelled everybody’s
admiration.
If the relative pronoun is the subject/object of the attributive
clause, we do not repeat the subject/object:
Marie Curie is the woman who she discovered radium.
This is the house that Jack built it.
We can leave out the pronoun if it is the object of the
attributive clause:
This is the house (that) Jack built. (that is the object of built)
This is the house which was built by Jack. (which is the
subject and cannot be left out)
There are two kinds of attributive subordinate clause:
1. We use relative clauses to make clear which person or
thing we are talking about:

47
Marie Curie is the woman who discovered radium.
This is the house which Jack built.
In this kind of attributive clause, we can use that instead
of who or which:
Marie Curie is the woman that discovered radium.
This is the house that Jack built.
2. We also use attributive clauses to give more
information about a person, thing or situation:
Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
We had fish and chips, which I always enjoy.
I met Rebecca in town yesterday, which was a nice surprise.
With this kind of clause, we use commas to separate it from
the rest of the sentence.
In this kind of attributive clause, we cannot use that and
we cannot leave out the pronoun:
Lord Thompson, who is 76, has just retired.
We had fish and chips, which I always enjoy.

THE ADJECTIVE

Adjectives fall into two groups according to their way of

nomination: qualitative and relative. Qualitative adjectives denote
properties of a substance (warm, kind, charming). Relative
adjectives denote properties of a substance through relation to
other substances (wooden, golden, monthly, drunken, Spanish,
African).
According to their morphological composition adjectives are
classified into three groups: 1) simple (young, true, brave), 2)

48
derived (glorious, legendary, homeless, troublesome), 3)
compound (dark-eyed, yellow-coloured, well-known).
Adjectives do not have the categories of number or case. The
only form of morphological change is the degrees of comparison,
which is characteristic of qualitative adjectives.
There are three degrees of comparison of adjectives: positive,
comparative and superlative. The positive degree is represented
by the stem of the adjective without any inflection. The
comparative and superlative degrees have three forms: synthetic,
analytic and suppletive. The adjective in the superlative degree is
normally used with the definite article.
The synthetic way of formation presupposes the adding of the
inflection -er for the comparative degree and -est for the
superlative degree. It is used with
a) monosyllabic adjectives:
deep – deeper – deepest
young – younger – youngest
loud – louder – loudest
b) adjectives of two syllables ending in -y, -er, -ow, -some, -le:
pretty – prettier – prettiest
tender – tenderer – tenderest
narrow – narrower – narrowest
handsome – handsomer – handsomest
simple – simpler – simplest
The analytic way of formation is characteristic of polysyllabic
adjectives when more and most are added to the stem:
beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
dangerous – more dangerous – most dangerous
interesting – more interesting – most interesting
The suppletive forms of degrees of comparison are observed in
the following adjectives:
good – better – best
bad – worse – worst
little – less – least

49
 many
} more - most
much
Some adjectives have double forms of comparison:
nearest (with reference to space and time)
near – nearer {
next (with reference to succession)

farther – farthest (with reference to space)

far {
further – furthest (with reference to space and time)
older – oldest (with reference to age)
old {
elder – eldest (with reference to seniority)
later – latest (with reference to time)
late {
latter– last (with reference to succession)

However, in Modern English there is a tendency to use

farther/further, farthest/furthest or elder/older, oldest/eldest
indistinguishably:
Petersburg is farther/further than Moscow from
Yerevan.
He stood in the part of the garden which was the
farthest/furthest from the house.
The elder/older of their children goes to college.
Mr. Priestley is the eldest/oldest in the family.
Eldest can be used in reference to two people:
She is the eldest (of the two sisters).
Further can be used to mean ‘more’, ‘additional’:
Have you any further questions?
We decided to take no further action until they arrive.
In some adjectival compounds the first component changes
according to degrees of comparison:
well-known – better known – best known
much-praised – more-praised – most-praised
But: kind-hearted – more kind-hearted – most kind-hearted

50
 The comparative degree is used to compare two things or
persons. It is used with the conjunction than:
This wedding dress is nicer than that one.
He is more talented than his brother.
A repetition of the comparative degree with and is used to
express gradual change:
The tree is growing bigger and bigger.
You are becoming more and more unbearable.
The comparative degree can also express parallel change of
two things or persons. In this case takes the definite article the:
The harder the task (is), the better I feel when I fulfil it.
The bigger the house, the more expensive it will be.
The comparative degree may also be used with words like
much, far, a little (bit), less, no, a great deal, still, even, no, etc.
show a still higher or lower degree of quality:
This method is much better than the one we used to
apply.
This house is far more comfortable than the one we saw
yesterday.
This story is a little more interesting than the first one.
This task is less important than the last one.
The superlative degree is used when more than two things or
persons are compared. Usually a phrase denoting a period of time
(in my life, in the last century, etc.) or a place or a group (in the
country, in the building, of our class, etc.) is used with it. The
superlative degree can also be followed by a relative sentence with
ever:
This is the cheapest watch in our shop.
That was the strangest creature I had ever seen.
Sometimes the superlative degree does not imply comparison,
but shows a high degree of a quality.
I’ll do it with the greatest pleasure.
She is a most beautiful girl = She is a very beautiful girl.
Cf. She is the most beautiful girl I have ever met.

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 Substantivized Adjectives

There are a number of adjectives which function as nouns.

They are called substantivized adjectives. They fall into two
groups:
1) those indicating a group of people in a general sense and are
used with the definite article (the poor, the rich, the blind, the deaf,
the handicapped, the French, etc.). They take a plural verb:
The poor were provided with food and shelter.
In this country the handicapped are surrounded with
care and kindness.
Only the rich are admitted into this club.
If one person of a group is meant, the adjective is used with the
noun man in the singular:
He is a rich man.
I helped the blind man cross the street.
2) those denoting social status, political views, nationality, race,
etc. They take a singular as well as a plural verb and can be used
both with the indefinite and definite article (native, Christian, black,
liberal, etc.):
He thinks of himself as a liberal.
She speaks German like a native.
The Conservatives rejected the bill.
Adjectives function as attributes or predicatives. Like nouns
substantivized adjectives have the functions of subject and object.
They are experienced teachers. (attribute)
The prices are very high today. (predicative)
The English are reserved people. (subject)
This book is designed for the blind. (object)

52
 Statives

There is a special group of adjectives which express state and

are called statives. They present a small group and have the prefix
a-: asleep, alone, afraid. They do not have any morphological
categories.
Semantically, statives fall into several groups denoting
1) physical state of persons (alive, awake, asleep):
He had to steal food just to stay alive.
The noise kept me awake.
2) psychological state of persons (aloof, aghast, afraid, aware,
ashamed):
He stood aghast at the sight of what he saw.
She suddenly became aware of the people looking at her.
3) physical state of objects (afire, ablaze, aflame):
Soon the whole building was aflame.
Cars were set ablaze during the riot.
4) different states characterizing actions or position of persons
or objects (afoot, astir, ajar, afloat, alight):
Somehow we kept the boat afloat.
The hunter’s shots went astray.
The basic function of statives is that of predicative:
She is afraid of snakes.
A stative can also function as objective predicative:
Keep the door ajar.
The function of attribute is not typical for statives. However,
they may sometimes occur in this function (often in post-position):
For many people hunger is yet an alive problem.
He was a cold man, aloof and distant.
Statives can sometimes be modified by qualifiers:
He was well aware of the problem.
The child was fast asleep when we came back.

53
 THE ADVERB

The adverb denotes circumstances under which an action takes

place – time, place, manner of action as well as the degree of
quality. According to their morphological composition adverbs can
be
1) simple (now, here, rather, soon)
2) derived. Most adverbs are derived from qualitative adjectives
by adding the suffix -ly (slowly, happily, tenderly).
Some adverbs derived from adjectives by means of the suffix -
ly acquire another meaning:
hardly – almost not, almost none
nearly – almost, not quite, not completely
lately – recently
shortly – soon
closely – carefully
highly – very, to a large degree
widely – over a large area or range; extensively
presently –soon
deeply – intensely, etc.
The less common adverb-forming suffixes are:
-wards – eastwards, homewards
-fold – two-fold, many-fold
-wise – clockwise, snakewise
-way(s) – midway, sideways
3) compound (sometimes, everywhere, upstairs)
4) phrase adverbs (at last, in fact, at once, at present).
Semantically, adverbs fall into the following groups:
1) adverbs of time or frequency – now, then, today, seldom,
often
2) adverbs of place – here, indoors, downstairs
3) adverbs of manner – fast, slowly, clearly
4) adverbs of degree – quite, hardly, very
5) interrogative adverbs – when, where, how, why.

54
 Adverbs do not have morphological categories, except for
degrees of comparison. The rules of the formation of their degrees
of comparison follow those of adjectives. Monosyllabic adverbs
(primarily qualitative adverbs) form their degrees of comparison by
means of -er for the comparative degree and -est for the
superlative degree.
fast – faster – fastest
hard – harder – hardest
Other adverbs form their degrees of comparison by means of
more and most:
coldly – more coldly – most coldly
delightfully – more delightfully – most delightfully
Some adverbs have irregular forms of degrees of comparison:
well – better – best
badly – worse – worst
little – less – least
much – more – most
farther – farthest
far { (space, time)
further – furthest
The double forms of the last adverb are often used without a
change of meaning:
They had to travel farther/further to get to the place.
In informal speech the adverbs quickly, loudly, cheaply are
replaced by the adjectives quick, loud, cheap respectively:
Come as quick as you can.
Let’s see who can get there quickest.
Don’t play your music too loud.
Can you speak louder?
I got this jacket cheap in a sale.
Adverbs are used in the same structures as adjectives:
You walk much slower today than you do usually.
Can you run as fast as me?
The sooner you come tomorrow, the better for you.
Jack dances best of all.

55
 Adverbs are usually used as adverbial modifiers characterizing
actions, states or qualities:
They are meeting tomorrow. (adverbial modifier of time)
She worked abroad for a year. (adverbial modifier of
place)
I am awfully happy to see you. (adverbial modifier of
degree)
The audience laughed loudly at the joke. (adverbial
modifier of manner)
How are you going to solve the problem? (adverbial
modifier of manner)
There are a number of verbs (link verbs) that are followed
by an adjective and together they form a compound nominal
predicate. If they are followed by an adverb, there is a change
in the meaning of the verb, and the adverb functions as an
adverbial modifier of manner:
Alas, we aren’t growing any younger!
The child is growing very quickly.
You look charming in that dress.
What are you looking so attentively at?

Modal Adverbs

There are a number of adverbs which have modal meaning.

These are primarily adverbs in -ly; the exceptions are: perhaps,
maybe, indeed, of course.
Modal adverbs express the speaker’s attitude towards the
utterance. This attitude implies
1) certainty: certainly, surely, definitely, undoubtedly, really,
indeed, etc.:
Certainly, the early learning years can be crucial for a
child’s educational development.
Some old people want help; others most definitely do
not.

56
 2) supposition: perhaps, possibly, probably, maybe,
presumably, etc.:
This is possibly their best performance ever.
Maybe they will sell their house.
3) general estimation (as positive or negative):
happily/unhappily, luckily/unluckily, fortunately/ unfortunately:
Happily, the damage was only slight.
Unfortunately, I won’t be able to attend our annual
gathering.
Though most modal adverbs have developed from respective
adverbs, their semantic meanings as well as their syntactic
functions are different: modal adverbs function as parentheses
while their prototypes function as adverbial modifiers of manner:
I definitely remember sending the photos to him. (modal
adverb)
Please say definitely whether you will accept our proposal or
not. (adverbial modifier of manner)
This is possibly their best performance. (modal adverb)
I’ll come as soon as I possibly can. (adverbial modifier of
manner)
They got married and lived happily ever after. (adverbial
modifier of manner)
Happily, they were out when the fire broke out. (modal
adverb)
Modal adverbs can have different positions in the sentence;
also they may or may not be separated by commas.
Certainly, I am ready to help them if needed.
He is certainly proud of his son’s success.
He won’t die certainly if given a proper treatment.
Modal adverbs often occur in short answers to yes /no-
questions:
– Will you come to Ann’s birthday party?
– Of course.
– Do you want to buy a new car?

57
 – Probably not.

THE NUMERAL

Numerals indicate precise numbers or the order of persons or

things in succession. Correspondingly there are two basic types of
numerals in English: cardinal and ordinal.
Cardinal numerals denote the exact number. Numerals from 1
to 12 are simple words: one, two, three, four, five, six, seven, eight,
nine, ten, eleven, twelve. Numerals from 13 to 19 are derivatives
formed by means of the suffix -teen: thirteen, fourteen, fifteen,
sixteen, seventeen, eighteen, nineteen. The cardinal numerals
indicating tens are formed by means of the suffix -ty: twenty, thirty,
forty, fifty, sixty, seventy, eighty, ninety. The numerals of two or
more words are composite: forty-five, seventy-two. The numerals
hundred and thousand followed by numerals denoting units and
tens take the conjunction and between them:
105 – one hundred and five
201 – two hundred and one
648 – six hundred and forty-eight
4032 – four thousand and thirty-two
2197 – two thousand one hundred and ninety-seven
All compounds including those with one are followed by a plural
noun:
There were three hundred and five books in the boxes.
I see thirty-one names on the list.
The numerals hundred, thousand, million, dozen (12) and score
(20) may be used with the indefinite article. When preceded by
another numeral they do not take the plural form:
It cost three million dollars.
There were just a hundred of them there.
The city has a population of half a million.

58
 Almost two thousand people were picketing outside the
gates.
He bought three dozen eggs.
When used as nouns hundred, thousand, million, dozen take
the plural ending and may be followed by of-phrase:
Hundreds of fans surrounded their favourite group after
the concert.
Thousands of people greeted the winners of yesterday’s
match.
I have been there dozens of times.
Ordinal numerals denote the order of persons or things in
succession. They are formed by means of the suffix -th:
four – fourth, six – sixth, ten – tenth
The exceptions are: one –first, two – second, three – third.
Numerals ending in -ve change it into -f before -th:
five – fifth, twelve – twelfth
Numerals ending in -ty form their ordinal by changing -y into -ie
before -th:
forty – fortieth, seventy – seventieth
In compound ordinals only the last component takes the form of
the ordinal:
thirty-first, sixty-fourth, five hundred and fifth, one thousand two
hundred and second
Ordinal numerals normally take the definite article:
They were the first to arrive.
April is the fourth month of the year.
The Second World War (World War II =WWII) started in 1939.
Read the Fifth Section.
But: Read Section Five.
Years and dates are read as follows:
1968 – nineteen hundred and sixty-eight or nineteen sixty-eight
1900 – nineteen hundred
1905 – nineteen hundred and five or nineteen o five
2000 – two thousand

59
 2002 – two thousand and two
2011 – twenty eleven or two thousand and eleven
November 19 - November the nineteenth or the nineteenth of
November.
When used with the indefinite article, ordinal numerals lose their
numerical meaning and acquire quite a different meaning:
‘another’, ‘one more in addition to the one you have or use’:
He took a second piece of cake, then a third.
They learn a third foreign language.
Fractional numerals are formed by means of combining a
cardinal numeral with an ordinal numeral, which takes the plural
form, except for one as the first component. They are presented
with a hyphen or without it and are read as follows:
1/7 – one-seventh, 1/3 – one third, 3/5 – three-fifths (three
fifths), 6/7 – six-sevenths (six sevenths).
Numerals have various functions in the sentence.
I counted up the copies. Three were missing. (subject)
How many copies do you need? Give me ten please. (object)
There were five patients waiting for the doctor. (attribute)
When he drank a third glass of wine, I got angry. (attribute)
Combined with a preposition numerals can function as
adverbial modifiers.
They played in twos. (adverbial modifier of manner)
We met at six. (adverbial modifier of time)

THE PREPOSITION

Prepositions show relations between words in the sentence as

well as relations between objects and phenomena. According to
their morphological structure prepositions are divided into
1) simple (on, for, since, with, till)
2) derivative (behind, until, across, concerning )
3) compound (outside, without, upon, throughout)

60
 4) composite (in front of, by means of, on account of, except for,
with regard to)
As to their lexical meaning prepositions may express the
following relations:
1) space (in, at, under, behind, along)
2) time (during, since, prior to)
3) manner (by means of, through, with regard to)
4) purpose (for, for the sake of)
5) cause (because of, due to, owing to, thanks to)
6) concession (despite, in spite of).
Some prepositions are polysemantic and express various
relations:
They meet on Sundays. (time)
The book is on the table. (space)
He came to me for advice. (purpose)
I am going away for a few days. (time)
When prepositions show relations between words in the
sentence, their meanings are difficult to define:
The quality of teaching depends on class size.
True education does not consist in simply teaching facts.
The prepositions after and before are homonymous with the
corresponding adverbs:
I saw him before lunch and we went to the library.
(preposition)
I think we have met before. (adverb)
Prepositions are usually placed before the word they refer to.
But in some cases they may be separated from it and put at the
end of the sentence or clause. This takes place in
1) special questions (in informal speech):
Who are you waiting for?
What are you looking at?
2) passive constructions:
The children are being taken good care of.
His remark was taken no notice of.

61
 3) subordinate clauses:
The man he talked about was Helen’s father.
The old man will be looked after while his sons are away.
Prepositions should be distinguished from postpositions (or
adverbs according to some linguists’ terminology). The latter make
up the second component in the so-called phrasal verbs, thus
changing the meaning of the verb:
Soon she came in. (postposition)
She sat in the hall waiting for him. (preposition)
He made up the whole story. (postposition)
They went up the street in silence. (preposition)

THE CONJUNCTION

Conjunctions serve to connect words or phrases as well as

clauses and sentences. According to their morphological structure
conjunctions fall into the following groups:
1) simple (and, or, till, lest, since)
2) derivative (unless, until, although)
3) compound (meanwhile, whereas)
4) composite (in case, on condition, for fear, as well as, as soon
as)
5) correlative (both … and, either … or, not only … but also).
Conjunctions are used to connect
1) homogeneous parts in a simple sentence:
Both John and his sister were ready to help me.
2) clauses in a compound sentence:
He not only read the poem, but he could also recite it.
3) independent sentences:
Her reaction confused and perplexed him. But she
explained to him why she was shocked at the news.
According to their syntactic function conjunctions fall into two
types:

62
 1) coordinating
2) subordinating.
Coordinating conjunctions include the following types:
1) copulative (and, both … and, not only … but also, neither …
nor, etc.):
Neither Mary nor Laura knew about the changes in the
time-table.
2) disjunctive (or, either … or, else, or else):
Hurry up or else you will miss the opening of the
ceremony.
3) adversative (but, while, whereas):
Some of the experiments showed positive results,
whereas others did not.
4) causative-consecutive (so, for):
We listened to his story eagerly, for it was very exciting.
Subordinating conjunctions are great in number: that, if,
because, after, before, unless, till, until, lest, though, although, etc.
They introduce different types of clauses:
He never mentioned to me that he had a daughter.
(object clause)
Let’s wait until the rain stops. (adverbial clause of time)
You can stay with us for the weekend if you like.
(adverbial clause of condition)
He walked slowly because his leg was aching. (adverbial
clause of cause)
Although he was angry, he tried to control his feelings.
(adverbial clause of concession)
Her voice is more beautiful than I expected. (adverbial
clause of comparison)

63
 THE PARTICLE

Particles are used to emphasize or limit the meaning of another

word, phrase or clause. According to the purpose they serve,
particles are divided into the following groups:
1) intensifying (just, yet, still, even, simply):
He didn’t even call to say he was not coming.
I said it just to please him.
2) limiting (only, solely, barely, merely, but, alone):
Only in Paris you can find cafes like these.
Everyone was present but him.
He said nothing, merely smiled and went out.
3) specifying (right, exactly, precisely):
It’s exactly what I wanted to know.
The train arrived right on time.
4) connecting (also, too, either):
They are going to invite Nick too.
I can’t afford to go abroad this summer, either.
5) negative (not):
I have not seen them today.
His remark was meant not for you.
Some particles are homonymous with other parts of speech:
It’s too late to change anything. (adverb)
They are going to paint the fence too. (particle)
They have just arrived. (adverb)
It’s just what I was looking for. (particle)

THE INTERJECTION

Interjections serve to express emotions without naming them.

These are delight, surprise, admiration, regret, anger, annoyance,
etc. Interjections may be primary and secondary. Primary
interjections are not derived from other parts of speech: oh, pooh,

64
hum, alas, bravo. Secondary interjections are derived from other
parts of speech: well, now, there, why, come, etc.
Oh! How nice of you to visit us! (delight)
Well, really! What a thing to say! (surprise)
Oh dear! I quite forgot to call them. (regret)
Oh damn! The cigarette burnt a hole in the carpet.
(annoyance)
Three cheers for the bride and groom! Hurray! (joy)
Some interjections serve to attract attention:
Hey! Can I ask you something?
Hallo! Is there anybody there?
Some interjections are presented by phrases: by Jove, by God,
my God, for goodness’ sake, dear me, goodness gracious,
goodness me, etc.:
Dear me! What are you going to do now?
My God! What a stupid thing to say!
My goodness! What a strange design it is!
Don’ t tell her about it, for goodness’ sake until I come.
Some of the interjections are polysemantic, expressing various
types of feelings:
Oh, how wonderful! (admiration)
Oh, I’m so sorry! (disappointment)
He has left for France.– Oh! Really? (surprise)
Oh! How dare you say such a thing! (annoyance)
Alas and hurray may be followed by a prepositional phrase:
Alas for my hopes!
Hurray for our plans!

65
 THE VERB

General Characteristics

The verb is a part of speech which denotes an action or state.

According to their morphological structure, verbs are divided into
the following groups:
1) simple – go, walk, take, spend
2) derived. The most productive affixes are:
suffixes – -ize, -fy, -en, -ate (specialize, beautify, soften,
activate)
prefixes – dis-, un-, re-, en- (disappoint, uncover, rewrite,
enrich)
3) compound – blackmail, daydream, sunbathe
4) phrasal – put on, take off, give up, go out.
Semantically, verbs fall into two groups: terminative and
durative. Terminative verbs imply a certain limit beyond which the
action cannot continue – to open, to close, to break, to send, to
fall, to drop. Durative verbs denote actions which do not imply any
time limit – to live, to love, to know, to work. However, some verbs
can function both as terminative and durative:
I’ve found the book. (terminative)
I find this book very interesting. (durative)
From the semantic point of view verbs can be classified into
dynamic and statal (stative) verbs. Dynamic verbs denote an
action or process: to buy, to bring, to work, to push, etc. Statal
verbs denote state: to own, to belong, to know, to remember, etc.:
I bought this house last year.
They own a fashionable large house in the suburbs of
London.
According to their function in the sentence, verbs are divided
into two basic groups: notional and structural. Notional verbs have
full lexical meaning and can have an independent function in the
sentence:

66
 They arrived yesterday.
He will join us in a minute.
Structural verbs either preserve their meaning to some extent or
lose it altogether. They do not have an independent function and
are usually combined with other words in the sentence. They are
represented by the following subgroups:
1) modal verbs – can, may, must, dare, ought, should, etc.:
You can send messages by e-mail from your computer.
He ought to help them as they are in great need.
2) link-verbs – to be, to turn, to get, to grow, to become, to look,
to seem, etc.:
She was extremely tired after the trip.
As time went on, he grew more and more suspicious.
3) auxiliary verbs – to be, to do, to have, will, shall:
I am listening to music.
He has done the work perfectly well.
He will not do it again.
Do you prefer to live in town?
4) causative verbs – to make, to cause, to persuade, to compel,
to get, to have, etc.:
He made them do the work at once.
They persuaded her to accept the proposal.
Polysemantic verbs can function differently in the sentence:
The room gets little sunshine. (notional verb)
It’s getting late. You should go. (link-verb)
I could not get him to tell the truth. (causative verb)
I shall inform them of the date of my arrival. (auxiliary verb)
You shall be informed of any changes in the program.
(modal verb)
All English verbs are divided into transitive and intransitive
verbs. Transitive verbs take an object, while intransitive do not.
Transitive verbs can be
1) monotransitive when followed by one direct object:
She has already completed the work.

67
 2) ditransitive when followed by two objects – direct and
indirect:
He sent her nice flowers.
3) prepositional:
She is waiting for Mary.
Intransitive verbs do not take an object:
He works at a bank.
They go to college.
Some verbs may be transitive in one meaning and intransitive
in another:
He usually walks to his office. (intransitive) ܳ
ëáíáñ³µ³ñ áïùáí ¿ ·ÝáõÙ ·ñ³ë»ÝÛ³Ï:
He walks his dog every evening. (transitive) ܳ ³Ù»Ý
»ñ»Ïá ß³ÝÁ Ù³Ý ¿ ï³ÉÇë:
She has no idea how to run a business. (transitive) ܳ
·³Õ³÷³ñ ãáõÝÇ, û ÇÝãå»ë ·áñÍ í³ñ»É:
The boys ran off as soon as they saw us. (intransitive)
îճݻñÁ ÷³Ë³Ý, Ñ»Ýó áñ ï»ë³Ý Ù»½:
According to morphological forms, English verbs are divided
into finite forms and non-finite forms. The finite forms function as
predicates in the sentence and have the following grammatical
forms: person, number, tense, aspect, correlation, voice and
mood.
The non-finite forms or verbals do not function as full
predicates, serving only as part of the predicate. They are: the
Infinitive, the Present Participle (Participle One), the Past Participle
(Participle Two) and the Gerund.
According to the way the Past Indefinite and the Past Participle
are formed, English verbs are either regular or irregular.
Regular verbs form their Past Indefinite and the Past Participle
by adding the inflexion -ed to the stem of the verb. This inflexion is
pronounced in different ways:
[t] after voiceless consonants: worked, pushed, crossed
[d] after voiced consonants and vowels: lived, screamed, played

68
 [id] after -t and -d: wanted, added.
Irregular verbs form their Past Indefinite and Past Participle by
1) changing the root vowel:
run – ran – run
ring – rang – rung
2) changing the final -d into –t:
send – sent – sent
build – built – built
3) preserving the same root:
put – put – put
cast – cast – cast
4) changing the root of the verb:
go – went – gone
be – was, were – been

THE FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

The finite forms of the English verb include tense, aspect,

correlation (perfect), voice and mood, in addition to person and
number. The category of tense expresses the relationship between
the time of action and that of the utterance. Accordingly, there are
three tenses in English: the present tense, the past tense and the
future tense. There is another tense form, the so-called future in
the past, which is peculiar of English. This tense form represents
the future tense as viewed from some moment in the past, not
from the moment of the utterance, i.e. the present. The category of
tense in English is correlated with the categories of aspect
(indefinite/continuous) and correlation (perfect/non-perfect), thus
building up four verb forms representing the combinations of these
categories (indefinite, continuous, perfect, perfect continuous). As
a result, there are four present tense forms (the Present Indefinite,
the Present Continuous, the Present Perfect, the Perfect
Continuous), four past tense forms (the Past Indefinite, the Past

69
Continuous, the Past Perfect, the Past Perfect Continuous), four
future tense forms (the Future Indefinite, the Future Continuous,
the Future Perfect, the Future Perfect Continuous), four future in
the past tense forms (the Future Indefinite in the Past, the Future
Continuous in the Past, the Future Perfect in the Past, the Future
Perfect Continuous in the Past).

THE INDEFINITE FORM

The Present Indefinite

The Present Indefinite is formed with the infinitive without the

particle to for all the persons singular and plural, except for the
third person singular. The third person singular takes the inflexion -
s or -es, which are pronounced just like the plural endings of
nouns. The ending -es is added to verbs ending in -ss, -sh, -ch, -
x, -o. Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant change the final
-y into ie before -s (I study – he studies).
The interrogative and negative forms are built up by means of
the auxiliary verb do (does for the 3rd person singular). In the
interrogative form the auxiliary do (does) stands before the subject.
In the negative form the negative particle is added to the auxiliary
verb:
Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I work Do I work? I do not work
Singular

He works Does he work? He does not work

She works Does she work? She does not work
It works Does it work? It does not work

We work Do we work? We do not work

Plural

You work Do you work? You do not work

They work Do they work? They do not work

70
 The contracted negative forms are: do not – don’t, does not –
doesn’t.
The verb be has person and number distinctions. It does not
take the auxiliary verb do for its interrogative and negative forms:
Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I am Am I? I am not
Plural Singular

He (she, it) is Is he (she, it)? He (she, it) is not

We are Are we? We are not

You are Are you? You are not
They are Are they? They are not

The contracted negative forms are: is not – isn’t, are not –

aren’t.
The verb have has the same form for all the persons singular
and plural, except for the 3rd person singular (has). The verb have
takes the auxiliary for its interrogative and negative forms when it
is used in meanings other than ‘possess’:
They have supper at 7 o’clock.
Do they have supper at 7 o’clock?
They do not have supper at 7 o’clock.
But: She has dark blue eyes.
Has she dark blue eyes? / Does she have dark blue eyes?
She has not dark blue eyes./ She doesn’t have dark blue eyes.
The contracted negative forms are: have not – haven’t, has not
– hasn’t.
The Present Indefinite is used
1) to state facts referring to the present:
I work at school.
My friend lives not far from the university.
2) to state general rules or laws of nature:
It often rains in spring.

71
 Water freezes at 0ºC.
Lions hunt in groups.
Birds fly.
3) to denote habitual actions:
I get up at 7 o’clock.
We watch TV in the evening.
4) to denote actions and states occurring at the present or at
the moment of speaking (with verbs of sense and mental
perception or verbs expressing possession):
I don’t know Helen’s address.
Do you hear what I am saying?
They own this house.
5) to denote future planned actions (with the verbs of motion: to
go, to leave, to come, to arrive, to start, etc.):
I leave for France tomorrow.
They start work next week.
She arrives on Monday.
6) in adverbial clauses of time and condition:
When they come, tell them to wait.
If she is late, she won’t be let in.
7) to denote complete actions (with the verbs to tell, to hear, to
forget, etc.):
I hear they have left for Australia.
I am told not to touch anything here.
I forget her surname.
The Present Indefinite is often used with adverbs of indefinite
time and frequency such as always, usually, often, seldom,
sometimes, rarely, ever, never, and phrases such as every day
(week, month, year), every other day, etc.:
He always gets up early in the morning.
They meet every Sunday.
They seldom see each other nowadays.

72
 The Past Indefinite

The Past Indefinite is formed by adding the inflexion -ed to the

stem of a regular verb or in some other way in case of an irregular
verb. Verbs ending in -y preceded by a consonant, change y into i
before -ed:
cry – cried, study – studied
But: play – played, stay – stayed.
Verbs ending in a short stressed syllable double the final
consonant:
stop – stopped, refer – referred, compel – compelled.
The Past Indefinite has the same form for all the persons
singular and plural. The interrogative form is built by using the
auxiliary verb do in the past tense (did) and the negative form by
adding the negative particle not to the auxiliary verb:

Affirmative: I (he, she it, we, you, they) worked (went).

Interrogative: Did I (he, she, it, we, you, they) work (go)?
Negative: I (he, she, it, we, you, they) did not work (go).

The contracted negative form is: did not – didn’t.

The verb be has two forms for the singular (was) and plural
(were). Besides, it does not take an auxiliary verb for the
interrogative and negative forms. In the interrogative form the verb
be is placed before the subject.
The verb have has the same past form (had) for all the persons
singular and plural. It takes the auxiliary verb did for the
interrogative and negative forms when it has meanings other than
‘possess’:
She had a toothache.
Did she have a toothache?
She did not have a toothache.
But: He had an expensive car.
Had he an expensive car?

73
 He had not an expensive car.
The contracted negative form is: had not – hadn’t.
The Past Indefinite is often used with words or phrases
indicating the past time: yesterday, the day before yesterday, last
week (month, winter, year) ago, etc.
The Past Indefinite is used
1) to denote past occurrences:
I met her yesterday.
She took a trip to Italy last summer.
2) to denote habitual actions in the past:
She usually watched TV in the evening.
They got together every Christmas.
Past habitual actions may be expressed by the structure used +
to infinitive:
They used to go sailing in summer.
The interrogative form is represented by two ways:
Did they used to go sailing in summer?
Or: Did they use to go sailing in summer?
The negative forms are:
They didn’t used to go sailing in summer.
Or: They didn’t use to go sailing in summer.
Past habitual actions may also be expressed by would +
infinitive, but the latter has some additional modal meaning – will,
willingness, persistence:
When she was in need, her sister would always take care of
her.
She would always be the first to help me.
The Past Indefinite tense is translated into Armenian by means
of different verb forms depending on the context and lexical
meaning of the verb:
We met them at the station. Ø»Ýù ѳݹÇå»óÇÝù Ýñ³Ýó
ϳ۳ñ³ÝáõÙ: (³ÝóÛ³É Ï³ï³ñÛ³É)
We lived in the country the whole summer. Ø»Ýù ³ÙµáÕç
³Ù³é ·ÛáõÕáõÙ ¿ÇÝù ³åñáõÙ: (³ÝóÛ³É ³Ýϳï³ñ)

74
 The Future Indefinite

The Future Indefinite is formed analytically by means of the

auxiliary verbs shall and will which are added to the infinitive of the
notional verb. Shall is used for the first person singular and plural,
will for the rest:

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I shall/will work Shall I work? I shall/will not work
Singular

He will work Will he work? He will not work

She will work Will she work? She will not work
It will work Will it work? It will not work

We shall/will
Shall we work? We shall/will not work
work
Plural

You will work Will you work? You will not work
They will work Will they work? They will not work

The contracted affirmative form is: I shall/will – I’ll; the

contracted negative forms are: shall not – shan’t, will not – won’t.
In Modern English the traditional difference between shall and
will has almost disappeared, especially in AmE, and will is usually
used for all the persons singular and plural. Shall is preserved
when talking about or predicting the future, but even this usage is
becoming less common:
This time next week I shall be in Italy.
Shall is still observed in formal (especially written) speech:
I hope this information is sufficient for your purposes, but
I shall of course come if necessary.

75
 The Future Indefinite is used to denote a future action. The
future time is often expressed by such adverbs and adverbial
phrases as tomorrow, next week, in two days, etc.:
They will arrive next Sunday.
I’ll fax this letter tomorrow.
The Future Indefinite is not used in adverbial clauses of time
and condition:
We’ll wait until she comes.
They will stay in if it rains.
However, the Future Indefinite is used in object clauses
introduced by the conjunctions when and if:
I don’t know when they will arrive.
Ask him if he will take the children to the zoo.
A future action may be expressed by be going to form, which
emphasizes the subject’s intention:
Father is going to take us to the Zoo next Sunday.
Be going to is also used for prediction:
Look at Mary! She is going to fall down.
Be going to is also used to provide an elaboration of frame for
describing future actions:
They are going to arrange the wedding party next month.
They will buy rings, make up a list of guests. She will
select a wedding dress, which is not an easy thing to do
as you know. They will have to choose a proper
restaurant too, and a lot of other things, which attend such
kind of occasion.

The Future Indefinite in the Past

The Future Indefinite in the Past is formed with the past tense
of the auxiliary verbs shall – should and will – would and the
infinitive of the notional verb:

Affirmative Interrogative

76
 I should/would work Should /would I work?
He (she, it) would Would he (she, it)
work work?
We should/would Should we work?
work Would you work?
You would work Would they work?
They would work

Negative
I should/would not work
He (she, it) would not
work
We should/would not work
You would not work
They would not work

The affirmative contracted form is: I should/would – I’d; the

negative contracted forms are: should not – shouldn’t, would not –
wouldn’t.
The Future Indefinite in the Past is used to indicate simple facts
or habitual actions in the future viewed from the past:
I knew they would like this idea.
I said I should meet Laura on Sunday as usual.
The Future Indefinite in the Past is not used in adverbial
clauses of time or condition, but it is used in object clauses
introduced by the conjunctions when and if:
I was not sure if I should complete my thesis next month.
I didn’t know when they would arrive.

77
 THE CONTINUOUS FORM

The Present Continuous

The Present Continuous is formed analytically by means of the

Present Indefinite of the auxiliary verb be and the Present
Participle of the notional verb. In the interrogative form the auxiliary
verb stands before the subject. In the negative form the particle not
follows the auxiliary verb:

Affirmative Interrogative Negative

I am working Am I working? I am not working
Singular

He is working Is he working? He is not working

She is working Is she working? She is not working
It is working Is it working? It is not working

We are working Are we working? We are not working

Plural

You are working Are you working? You are not working
They are Are they
They are not working
working working?

The affirmative contracted forms are: I am – I’m, he is – he’s, it

is – it’s, we are – we’re; the contracted negative forms are: I’m not,
he isn’t, we aren’t.
The Present Continuous is used to denote
1) an action happening at the moment of speaking:
It is raining now.
What are you doing? I am listening to the latest news.
2) an action lasting for a longer period of present time:
I am reading “The Great Gatsby” by Fitzgerald.
She is teaching French at our college this term.
3) a future planned action:
We are meeting at 6 o’clock.
78
 She is leaving for Paris tomorrow.
4) something that happens more often than is usually
considered normal or reasonable. It may be used with the adverb
always.
He is always talking loudly.
The old woman is always losing her glasses.
The Present Continuous is not used with verbs of sense or
mental activity as well as with verbs expressing feelings and
emotions. Neither is it used with the verbs to be, to belong, to
possess or to have (in the meaning to possess):
I see some object, but I can’t say what it is.
We expect them tonight.
She dislikes his manners.
She is very beautiful.
This collection of paintings belongs to Mr. Jones.
However, sometimes these verbs can be found in the Present
Continuous used deliberately for stylistic purposes (to increase in
value) or to emphasize the temporary character of the action:
She is forgetting things as she is getting older and older.
We are enjoying our stay in Rome.
We are expecting another reduction in food prices.
You are being very impatient, Laura. Listen to me attentively.

The Past Continuous

The Past Continuous is formed by means of the Past Indefinite

of the auxiliary verb be and the Present Participle of the notional
verb. In the interrogative form be stands before the subject; in the
negative form the auxiliary verb is followed by the particle not:

79
 Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I was working Was I working? I was not working
Singular

He was working Was he working? He was not working

She was working Was she working? She was not working
It was working Was it working? It was not working

We were working Were we working? We were not working

Were you You were not
Plural

You were working

working? working
They were Were they They were not
working working? working

The contracted negative forms are: was not – wasn’t, were not
– weren’t.
The Past Continuous is chiefly used
1) to denote a past action continuing for some time. This period
may be expressed by the exact time:
They were playing tennis from 2 to 4 o’clock.
Pete was doing his sums at 3 o’clock.
Compare: He did his sums at 3 o’clock.
Unlike the Past Indefinite which shows that the action began at
3 o’clock, the Past Continuous implies that Pete started doing his
sums before 3 o’clock and was in the middle of it. The exact time
may be denoted by another action used in the Past Indefinite:
When they arrived, it was still raining.
We were completing our test, when the bell rang.
When two successive actions are mentioned (without a long
interval between them), both can be used in the Past Indefinite:
When he saw me, he hid something under the table.
When I entered the garden, the boy ran away.
2) to indicate a more casual, less deliberate action as compared
with the Past Indefinite:

80
 Pete was speaking to the professor the other day.
(implying that it may not be Pete’s initiative)
Pete spoke to the professor. (implying that speaking to
the professor was Pete’s initiative)
3) to indicate uninterrupted actions, otherwise Past Indefinite is
used:
Pete was speaking to Ann when I saw him. – Pete spoke
to the professor several times this month.
He was playing the piano when I entered the room. – He
played Chopin’s nocturne twice.
4) in descriptions to make the narrative more vivid:
When I opened the door, I saw an unusual scene: my son
was humming something under his nose, my daughter
was screaming, and the cat was purring furiously.
5) with verbs of motion (leave, go, arrive, come, return, etc.) to
denote a future action viewed from the past, usually planned or
expected:
I knew they were leaving in a few days.
We guessed she was going to London on her own.
The verbs to stand, to sit, to lie indicating actions in progress
are commonly used in the Past Indefinite if they are followed by
the Present Participle:
She sat beside him, laughing at every joke he cracked.
He lay in bed, reading a book.
In questions the Past Continuous may appear
a) more polite than the Past Indefinite:
What were you discussing with Pete?
But: What did you discuss with Pete?
b) or may imply that the action is not considered desirable:
What were you doing in Helen’s room?
What did you do in Helen’s room? (not having this
implication)

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 The Future Continuous

The Future Continuous is formed by means of the Future

Indefinite of the auxiliary verb to be and the Present Participle of
the notional verb. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary stands
before the subject; in the negative form it is followed by not:

Affirmative Interrogative
I shall/will be working Shall I be working?
Singular

He will be working Will he be working?

She will be working Will she be working?
It will be working Will it be working?

We shall/will be working Shall we be working?

Plural

You will be working Will you be working?

They will be working Will they be working?

Negative
I shall/will not be working
Singular

He will not be working

She will not be working
It will not be working

We shall/will not be working

Plural

You will not be working

They will not be working

In the first person will is more preferable than shall, except for
the interrogative form.
The Future Continuous is used to indicate an action taking
place at a definite point in future:
This time tomorrow I’ll be having my French class.
When I come back, she will still be doing her home
assignment.
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 The Future Continuous is also used to indicate an action taking
place in the ordinary course of events:
We’ll be taking our English exam in June.
Compare the actions in the Future Continuous with those in the
Present Continuous:
I will be meeting Henry tomorrow. (not indicating a specially
arranged action; the action will take place maybe because
they work together)
I am meeting Henry tomorrow. (implying a deliberately
arranged action)
The difference between the Future Indefinite and the Future
Continuous is as follows: the Future Indefinite implies intention,
while the other tense has no such implication, indicating the action
as a mere statement of fact:
I’ll ask him about it when he comes.
I’ll be asking him about it when he comes.
But in questions like ‘What will you be doing tomorrow
evening?’ the Future Continuous is used regardless of whether the
action is intentional or not. The Future Indefinite used in questions
may express a request, invitation or offer, whereas the Future
Continuous implies a mere question:
Will you do it for me? (request)
Will you be doing it for me? (question)
Will you have another cup of tea? (offer)
Will you be having another cup of tea? (question)

The Future Continuous in the Past

The Future Continuous in the Past is formed with the auxiliary

verb to be in the Future Indefinite in the Past and the Present
Participle of the notional verb. In the interrogative form the auxiliary
(should/would) stands before the subject; in the negative form the
particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb:

83
 Affirmative Interrogative
I should/would be working Should/would I be working?
He (she, it) would be Would he (she, it) be
working working?
We should/would be Should/would we be
working working?
You would be working Would you be working?
They would be working Would they be working?

Negative
I should/would not be working
He (she, it) would not be
working
We should/would not be
working
You would not be working
They would not be working

The Future Continuous in the Past is used to indicate an action

in progress at a definite future time viewed from the past or an
action expected as a result of a naturally developing situation:
I knew she would be playing tennis at 4 o’clock.
He said he would be studying in the library after classes.

THE PERFECT FORM

The Present Perfect

The Present Perfect is formed with the Present Indefinite of the

auxiliary verb to have and the Past Participle of the notional verb.
In the interrogative form have stands before the subject; in the
negative form the particle not is placed after have:

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 Affirmative Interrogative Negative
I have worked Have I worked? I have not worked
singular

He has worked Has he worked? He has not worked

She has worked Has she worked? She has not worked
It has worked Has it worked? It has not worked

We have worked Have we worked? We have not worked

You have Have you
plural

You have not worked

worked worked?
They have Have they They have not
worked worked? worked

The Present Perfect is used

1) to denote an action completed recently. It is used with
adverbs such as just, already, yet, etc.:
They have just left.
I have already translated the article.
2) to denote an action whose time is not definite:
Have you ever been to Rome?
I have read a few books by Hemingway.
Has your sister heard the opera “Aida”?
I have never played cricket.
3) actions whose results are relevant in the present:
The car has broken down. (We can’t use it any longer.)
He has injured his leg. (He can’t go out.)
Compare with the Past Indefinite:
The car broke down. (It’s probably working now.)
He injured his leg. (He may be all right now.)
The Present Perfect is used with the adverbs today or this
morning (afternoon, evening, week, month, year, etc.). Compare
with the Past Indefinite.

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 Have you seen her today? (The speaker means any time
during the day.)
Did you see Mary today? (The speaker means the definite
time when it was possible for the hearer to see Mary.)
Have you played tennis this afternoon? (implying the time
up to one o’clock.)
Did you play tennis this afternoon? (implying the time after
one o’clock.)
The Present Perfect can be used to indicate that the action can
still be repeated; there is no such implication in the case with the
Past Indefinite:
Henry has designed a number of journals. (Henry is alive
and expected to continue his work.)
Henry designed a number of journals. (Henry is not
expected to continue designing journals either because
he is dead or for some other reasons.)
Lately, recently used with the Present Perfect indicate an
incomplete period of time, the first adverb being more usual for the
negative form:
She has written an interesting article recently/lately.
I haven’t seen her lately.
When used with the Past Indefinite recently means ‘a short time
ago’:
They moved here recently.
The Present Perfect is used to indicate an action which began
in the past, and is still continuing (the Present Perfect Inclusive) or
has just finished (the Present Perfect Exclusive). It is used with the
prepositions for and since. The latter may be used as a
conjunction introducing an adverbial clause. For is used to denote
a period of time extending into the present:
They have lived here for ten years.
If for denotes a completed period of time, the Past Indefinite is
used:
They lived here for ten years and then moved to Belfast.

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 Since implies ‘from a certain moment in the past to the moment
of speaking’:
I have known her since 2005.
I have worked at school since I graduated from college.
Since is used in the construction ‘It is….’, in which case both
The Present Perfect and the Past Indefinite can be used.
It is two years since I have seen Michael.
Or: It is two years since I last saw Michael.
It is four months since Mike has played football.
Or: It is four months since Mike played football.

The Past Perfect

The Past Perfect is formed with the Past Indefinite of the

auxiliary verb to have and the Past Participle of the notional verb. It
has the same form (had) for all the persons singular and plural. In
the interrogative form the auxiliary verb stands before the subject;
in the negative form the particle not follows the auxiliary verb:
Affirmative: I (he, she, it, we, you, they) had worked
Interrogative: Had I (he, she, it, we, you, they) worked?
Negative: I (he, she, it, we, you, they) had not worked
The affirmative contracted form is: I had – I’d; the negative
contracted form is: had not – hadn’t.
The Past Perfect is used to indicate
1) an action completed before a certain moment in the past.
This past moment is expressed by an adverbial phrase or another
action in the Past Indefinite:
He had faxed the letters by the afternoon.
She had looked through her notes before the exam began.
2) an action which began before a certain moment in the past,
went up to that moment and sometimes continued into it. The
starting point of the action is specified by the conjunction (or
preposition) since; duration of the action is denoted by the
preposition for:

87
 Larry had lived in the country for twenty years and had no
wish to move to a town or city.
She had known Mary since they were small children and
had never quarreled.
He had gone in for swimming since his school years.
3) with a when-clause to emphasize that the first action was
completed before the second one started:
When he had opened the window, the sunlight flooded
into the room.
When they had painted half the fence, they decided to
have a break.
As different from the Past Perfect the Past Indefinite shows that
the two actions follow each other very closely, one being the cause
of the other.
When he opened the window, the sunlight flooded into the
room. (The two actions immediately follow each other.)
When they painted half the fence, they decided to have a
break.
4) with till/until-clauses to emphasize the completion of the
action:
He refused to say anything until he had consulted his
lawyer.
He waited till everybody had spoken and then took the
floor.
In before-clauses the incompletion of the expected action is
emphasized:
Before they had worked for two hours, one of the girls felt
dizzy and was taken to hospital.
Before he had finished his speech, there was a great
burst of applause.
With an after-clause the Past Perfect can easily be replaced by
the Past Indefinite, since the meaning of after implies the meaning
of completion:

88
 He had called her after he spoke (had spoken) to his
mother.
5) in constructions with ‘hardly… when’, ‘scarcely…when’, ‘no
sooner … than’. These constructions may have an inverted word
order:
He had hardly opened the cage door when the bird flew
out./ Hardly had he opened …
She had scarcely locked the door when she felt
somebody standing behind her. / Scarcely had she
locked…
She had no sooner said it than she burst into tears. / No
sooner had she said it…

The Future Perfect

The Future Perfect is formed with the Future Indefinite of the

auxiliary verb have and the Past Participle of the notional verb. In
the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb stands before the
subject; in the negative form the negative particle not follows the
first auxiliary verb:

Affirmative Interrogative
I shall/will have worked Shall/will I have worked?
Singular

He will have worked Will he have worked?

She will have worked Will she have worked?
It will have worked Will it have worked?

Shall/will we have
We shall/will have worked
worked?
Plural

You will have worked Will you have worked?

They will have worked Will they have worked?

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 The Future Negative Perfect is
used to I shall/will not have worked denote an
action He will not have worked completed by
a given future time. This time
She will not have worked
may be indicated by
It will not have worked
an adverbial phrase or by
another action in the Present
Indefinite: We shall/will not have worked
I shall have You will not have worked translated the
article by They will not have worked Monday.
They will have left for
London when you arrive.

The Future Perfect in the Past

The Future Perfect in the Past is formed with the Future

Indefinite in the Past of the auxiliary verb have and the Past
Participle of the notional verb. In the interrogative form the auxiliary
verb should/would stands before the subject; in the negative form
the particle not is placed after the first auxiliary verb:

Affirmative Interrogative
I should/would have worked Should/would I have worked?
Singular

He would have worked Would he have worked?

She would have worked Would she have worked?
It would have worked Would it have worked?

We should/would have Should/would we have

worked worked?
Plural

You would have worked Would you have worked?

They would have worked Would they have worked?

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 Negative
The I should/would not have worked Future

Singular
Perfect in He would not have worked the Past is
used to She would not have worked denote an
action completed
It would not have worked
before a given
future time viewed
We should/would not have
from the past:
worked
Plural
I was sure they
You would not have worked
would have arrived by
6 o’clock. They would not have worked
I wondered if he would have fixed the car by Friday.

THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORM

The Present Perfect Continuous

The Present Perfect Continuous is formed with the Present

Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and the Present Participle of the
notional verb. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary verb
stands before the subject; in the negative form the particle not is
placed after the first auxiliary verb:
Affirmative Interrogative
I have been working Have I been working?
Singular

He has been working Has he been working?

She has been working Has she been working?
It has been working Has it been working?
We have been working Have we been working?
Plural

You have been working Have you been working?

They have been working Have they been working?

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 Negative
I have not been working

Singular
He has not been working
She has not been working
It has not been working
We have not been working
Plural

You have not been working

They have not been
working

The Present Perfect Continuous is used to indicate an action

which began in the past and is still going on (Present Perfect
Continuous Inclusive):
I have been doing the sums since 2 o’clock and I have not
finished them yet.
The child has been playing for almost an hour. I think he
must stop it.
The Present Perfect Continuous is also used to denote an
action which began in the past and continued up to the moment of
speaking or completed just before it (the Present Perfect
Continuous Exclusive). The words for and since can be used in
this case:
Your eyes are red. Have you been crying?
Here you are at last. We have been waiting for you since
afternoon.
I have been practising for my piano exam for two hours.
Now I am going to have a break.
Unlike the Present Perfect, in which case the action could be
repeated several times, the Present Perfect Continuous indicates
an uninterrupted action:

92
 He has been using my car. (He may continue using the
car).
He has used my car many times.
They have been discussing the problem. (They may still
continue discussing the problem)
They have discussed the problem several times but
haven’t found any solution yet.
In some cases there is not any obvious difference between the
Present Perfect Continuous and the Present Perfect, especially
with verbs such as live, work, rain, snow, sleep, learn, study,
teach, wait, wait, etc.:
I have been working at school for ten tears.
I have worked at school for ten years.
He has been living in Paris since his childhood.
He has lived in Paris since his childhood.
The Present Perfect Continuous is normally not used with verbs
of physical or mental perception as well as verbs expressing
feelings and emotions. Instead, the Present Perfect is used:
We have known her for many years.
I haven’t seen Lucy recently.
She has always wanted to see the wonders of the world,
at least some of them.

The Past Perfect Continuous

The Past Perfect Continuous is formed with the Past Perfect of

the auxiliary verb to be and the Present Participle of the notional
verb. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary stands before the
subject; in the negative form the particle not is placed after the first
auxiliary verb. It has the same form for all the persons singular and
plural:

Affirmative: I (he, she, it, we, you, they) had been working.
Interrogative: Had I (he, she, it, we, you, they) been working?

93
 Negative: I (he, she, it, we, you, they) had not been working.

The Past Perfect Continuous is used to indicate an action which

began
1) before a definite past time, continued up to that time and was
still in progress at that time (Past Perfect Continuous Inclusive):
She had been practising for her piano exam without a
break for three hours.
They had been looking for the lost papers since
morning.
2) before a definite past time, continued up to that time but was
no longer in progress then (the Past Perfect Continuous
Exclusive):
She had been practising for her piano exam since
morning and now she was having a break.
He had been working at his book report for three hours
and when I came he asked me to check it over.
The Past Perfect Continuous differs from the Past Perfect in
that the action occurs shortly before the time of speaking whereas
with the Past Perfect there could be a longer interval between
them:
I could see she had been crying. (She was wiping her
tears)
I knew she had cried in her room, but now she seemed
content and even smiled when she saw me.

The Future Perfect Continuous

The Future Perfect Continuous is formed with the Future

Perfect of the auxiliary verb to be and the Present Participle of the
notional verb. In the interrogative form the first auxiliary stands
before the subject; in the negative form the negative particle not is
placed after the first auxiliary verb:

94
 Affirmative Interrogative
I shall/will have been working Shall/will I have been working?
Singular

He will have been working Will he have been working?

She will have been working Will she have been working?
It will have been working Will it have been working?

We shall/will have been Shall/will we have been

working working?
Plural

You will have been working Will you have been working?
They will have been working Will they have been working?

Negative
I shall/will not have been working
Singular

He will not have been working

She will not have been working
It will not have been working

We shall/will not have been

Plural

working
You will not have been working
They will not have been working

The Future Perfect Continuous is usually used with a time

expression beginning with by and is similar to the Future Perfect
except for cases when the idea of continuity of the action is
emphasized:
By the end of this year he will have been training athletes
for the Olympics for ten years. (an uninterrupted action is
implied)

95
 By the end of this year he will have trained about twenty
athletes for the Olympics. (implying actions at different
periods of the mentioned time)
The Future Perfect Continuous in the Past like the Future
Perfect Continuous has a very restricted usage, which may be
counted for by the complexity of its form:
They said he would have been working at school for
twenty years by the end of this month.

THE PASSIVE VOICE

The passive voice is formed with the auxiliary verb to be in the

required form and the Past Participle of the notional verb. All the
tense forms can be used in the passive voice, except for the
Perfect Continuous tenses and the Future Continuous.
The Present, Past and Future Indefinite Passive are formed by
means of the Present, Past and Future Indefinite of the auxiliary
verb to be and the Past Participle of the notional verb:

Present
Past Indefinite Future Indefinite
Indefinite
Passive Passive
Passive
I am invited I was invited I shall/will be invited
Singular

He is invited He was invited He will be invited

She is invited She was invited She will be invited

We are invited We were invited We shall/will be invited

You were
Plural

You are invited You will be invited

invited
They were
They are invited They will be invited
invited

96
 The Present Continuous and the Past Continuous Passive are
formed by means of the Present Continuous and the Past
Continuous of the auxiliary verb to be and the Past Participle of the
notional verb:

Present Continuous
Past Continuous Passive
Passive
I am being invited I was being invited
Singular

He is being invited He was being invited

She is being invited She was being invited

We are being invited We were being invited

Plural

You are being invited You were being invited

They are being invited They were being invited

The Present, Past and Future Perfect Passive are formed by

means of the Present, Past and Future Perfect of the auxiliary verb
to be and the Past Participle of the notional verb:

Present Perfect Passive Past Perfect Passive

I have been invited I had been invited
Singular

He has been invited He had been invited

She has been invited She had been invited

We have been invited We had been invited

Plural

You have been invited You had been invited

They have been invited They had been invited

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 Future Perfect Passive
I shall/will have been invited

Singular
He will have been invited
She will have been invited
Plural We shall/will have been
invited
You will have been invited
They will have been invited

The passive voice is used with

1) monotransitive verbs:
Nick dislikes Mike. – Mike is disliked by Nick.
He has done it. – It has been done by him.
2) ditransitive verbs which have both a direct and indirect
object. Here belong: ask, answer, lend, allow, grant, teach, tell,
offer, etc. Accordingly, there may be two passive constructions:
They gave the reward to Barbara. (active)
The reward was given to Barbara. (direct passive)
Barbara was given the reward. (indirect passive)
With some ditransitive verbs the indirect passive is not used:
buy, sell, explain, announce, dictate, describe, suggest, etc.:
The rules of the game will be explained to them.
His car was sold to Mary’s brother.
3) prepositional objects:
The old man was well looked after.
They will be taken good care of.
The boy has been looked for since morning.
The old shoes were thrown away.
4) with names of places used as the subject of the passive
construction:
This cottage has never been lived in. – ²Ûë ³Ù³é³ÝáóáõÙ
»ñµ»ù ã»Ý ³åñ»É:

98
 This bed hasn’t been slept in. – ²Ûë Ù³Ñ׳ϳÉáõÙ ã»Ý ùÝ»É:
The Passive voice is used
1) when it is not necessary to mention the doer of the action:
The room hasn’t been cleaned today.
2) when the doer of the action is unknown:
My watch was stolen.
3) when the focus is on the action itself, not on the person who
did it:
A new apparatus for the deaf was invented.
4) for psychological reasons: statements implying positive
reactions are preferably used in the active voice; on the contrary,
statements implying a negative effect are usually found in the
passive voice:
The social grants will be reduced by next year.
But: The government will increase the social grants next year.
5) for politeness’ sake:
The chair has been broken. (said by one who knows who
exactly did it, but does not wish to name him)

The Get-Passive

Passive meaning may be expressed also by the construction

get + Past Participle, in which get is functionally equivalent to the
passive auxiliary be. Unlike be + Past Participle construction, it has
a narrower range of tense forms, occurring mainly in the Past
Indefinite, the Present Perfect and the Present Continuous tenses.
Though get functions as an auxiliary verb, its interrogative and
negative forms are built up by other auxiliary required by the tense
form of the verb. As different from be + Past Participle, get + Past
Participle is often used without a mention of the doer of the action.
Get+ Past Participle construction is used
1) when physical assault is implied:
He got crushed in the accident.
Did he get crushed in the accident or in a clash?

99
 They got killed in the earthquake.
He got wounded in the war.
He didn’t get wounded in the war; it was just a mere
accident.
2) when the action is unexpected:
When he was coming home, he got attacked by unknown
men.
Reaching the town they got raided by the police.
They are getting fined for breaching safety regulations.
3) when some effort or difficulty is implied in realizing the action:
He finally got enrolled in a management training course.
I’ve got invited to the university ball.
The get-passive is common in informal, conversational English.

The Passive Voice vs the Compound Nominal Predicate

Certain -ed forms can be used both as Past Participle and as

adjective. When the idea of an action is implied, a passive
construction is used, in which be is a passive auxiliary combined
with the Past Participle of a notional verb. In this case the verb is
usually modified by an adverbial modifier; the presence of the doer
of the action (by-phrase) or the use of the continuous form can
also be indicators of a passive construction. If a state is implied,
we have a compound nominal predicate: be/get + adjective, in
which be/get is a link-verb:
The windows were closed. (compound nominal
predicate)
The windows were closed as soon as I left. (passive)
The book is richly illustrated. (compound nominal
predicate)
The book is illustrated by a well know designer. (passive
construction)
They are getting followed by the police. (passive
construction)

100
 He got sick at the sight. (compound nominal predicate)
With some verbs we usually have a compound nominal
predicate:
The number of tickets is limited.
When they get married, they will go to live in Canada.
I am much obliged to you for helping me.
The cottage is situated on a hill.
My ankle is sprained.
I was surprised at how quickly she agreed.
He was genuinely interested.

MODAL VERBS

Modal verbs do not denote actions or states themselves, but

only show the attitude of the speaker towards the action or state
expressed by the infinitive. These are: can, may, must, should,
ought, shall, will, would, dare, need, to be, to have. Except for the
last two verbs they are called defective or anomalous as they lack
some features characteristic of ordinary verbs. These features are
as follows:
1) They do not take -s inflexion in the 3rd person singular
2) They are followed (except for ought, be, have) by a bare
infinitive (the infinitive without the particle to)
3) They have (except for can and may) only one form for all the
tenses
4) They have no analytical forms
5) They have no verbals
6) They do not take auxiliary verbs in the interrogative and
negative forms.
Short answers to questions containing modal verbs are
composed of the same modals (instead of the auxiliary verbs).

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 Can

The modal verb can has two tense forms: can for the present
and could for the past:
I can speak Spanish.
I could speak Spanish when I lived in Spain.
Can is used to express various meanings:
1. physical and mental ability. In this meaning can is
synonymous with to be able:
He can lift this heavy box = He is able to lift this heavy box.
He could lift this heavy box. = He was able to lift this heavy
box.
To be able may sometimes combine the meaning of ability with
that of achievement, in this case it means manage or succeed:
Though he felt dizzy, he was able (managed) to swim up
to the shore.
To be able is used
a) to express a future action alongside with the present and
past actions:
He is able to help you today.
He was able to help you yesterday.
He will be able to help you only in a few days.
b) in the perfect forms:
He hasn’t been able to run his business since the
accident.
2. possibility
a) due to circumstances:
You can swim in this river even in late autumn. (The water
is warm enough)
Can you hit the ball over the fence? (Is it possible for you
to hit the ball over the fence?)
b) due to the existing laws or rules:
You can sue him for damages.
He can make a claim against them in a court of law.

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 3. permission:
Can I take your book?
You can stay with us as long as you want.
May is a more polite and formal way to ask for/give permission:
May I borrow your book?
You may come if you wish.
4. prohibition. In this meaning can is used in the negative form
(cannot or can’t):
We cannot wear jeans at work.
You cannot park your car here.
5. request:
Can you help me with this task?
Can you feed the cat please?
Could is a more polite form of expressing request:
Could you help me take the box upstairs?
Could I use your car for a few days?
Answers to this kind of requests will normally be:
Yes, you can. / Of course you can.
No, you can’t.
6. strong doubt, incredulity, improbability. In this meaning can
and could differ only in the degree of expressing doubt or
incredulity, could expressing a greater degree of doubt or
incredulity The time reference is denoted by the form of the
infinitive: the simple or continuous infinitive indicates a present or
future action, the perfect infinitive implies a past action:
He cannot/could not be sleeping through all that noise.
He cannot/could not have slept through all that noise.
He can’t be so unreasonable.
7. surprise:
What can they be doing there?
Can /could she have lied to me?
The verb can expressing surprise is not used in the negative
form. There are other ways of expressing it:
a) by complex sentences:

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 Can it be that he has not arrived yet?
b) by means of lexical items implying negation:
Can/could he have failed to e-mail the letter?
Can/could nobody have warned him?
8. reproach. In this meaning could is more common and is
normally followed by the perfect infinitive. It shows that the action
which was considered desirable was not carried out:
You could have booked the tickets in advance.
Could in this sense is interchangeable with might:
You might have booked the tickets in advance.
But used in the negative form, could and might differ in
meaning:
Mike and Bill might not have met yesterday. (Maybe they
failed to meet.)
Mike and Bill could not have met yesterday. (Perhaps one
of the boys was out of town yesterday and it was
impossible for them to meet.)

May

The modal verb may has two forms: may for the present and
might for the past.
When may is followed by the simple infinitive, it has the
following meanings:
1. permission. In this meaning it is synonymous with to be
allowed, to be permitted which can be used for the future as well:
You may attend a lecture given by Professor Dunnet. =
You are allowed (are permitted) to attend a lecture given
by professor Dunnet.
May I use your car? – Yes, you may.
No, you may not (mayn’t is hardly ever used).
No, you must not / cannot (mustn’t / can’t).
2. possibility:
You may come across such words only in old texts.

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 He may be seen in the library at these hours.
May and might can be used synonymously for the present
tense, might expressing a slighter degree of possibility:
It may (might) rain by the afternoon.
In this meaning may/might is usually used in the affirmative
form. The same idea in the interrogative form can be expressed in
another way:
Is it likely to rain by the afternoon?
Do you think it will rain by the afternoon?
When expressing possibility may/might is synonymous with
can/could. However, there is a slight difference between them.
Can is used when a more general or less specific kind of possibility
is implied; may indicates more certainty that something will actually
happen:
You can fly to Australia by air.
I may fly to Australia this summer.
There is a difference between their negative forms:
It may not be true. (It is possible that it is not true)
It can’t be true. (It is not possible that it is true)
3. supposition. When the action refers to the present or future
may/might is followed by the simple or continuous infinitive:
They may leave tonight or tomorrow morning.
They may/might be playing tennis now.
When may/might is followed by the perfect infinitive, it indicates
a past action:
They may/might have arrived. Let’s call them.
4. reproach. Might in this sense is usually followed both by the
simple and perfect infinitive. In the first case it implies an unfulfilled
action; in the second case it expresses irritation, annoyance about
something that has not been done:
You might at least tell him about your intentions. (But
you didn’t tell.)
He might have warned me about the coming danger.
(But he didn’t warn.)

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 He might have called me at least. (But he didn’t call.)
In some cases might expresses regret or no surprise about
what has taken place:
I might have guessed that it was John who has sent me
these wonderful flowers.

Must

The modal verb must has only one form used for the present
tense. It expresses
1. obligation or necessity, which in some cases sounds as
command:
You must fax it right now.
They must be home by 10 o’clock.
Payments must be made in cash.
Must in this sense is synonymous with have (got) to which can
be used for future and past tenses as well. Have (got) to is more
common in AmE, especially in conversational English:
I must xerox the text. = I have (got) to xerox the text.
I’ll have to xerox the text. I had to xerox the text.
In answers to questions containing must the modal needn’t is
more common than mustn’t, which sounds as prohibition:
Must we do it right now? – No, you needn’t.
No, you mustn’t.
2. prohibition. Must in this sense is normally used in the
negative form:
You must not (mustn’t) tell her about it.
Children mustn’t watch TV for hours.
3. invitation:
You must come and see my new paintings.
You must come and get acquainted with my niece.
4. probability. When followed by the simple or continuous
infinitive, must refers the action to the present or future:
She must feel unhappy after her husband’s death.

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 He must be playing tennis now.
When followed by the perfect infinitive, must refers the action to
the past:
They must have arrived. You may call them.
She must have been working at her thesis for many
months. It is faultless.
Must is not used in the negative and interrogative forms when
expressing probability. There are other ways of indicating
probability in such sentences:
She must have failed to carry out your assignment.
Must she have failed to recognize him?
They must have misunderstood you.
He must be unaware of the whole affair.
He must have trusted nobody to take care of his
business.
Must may be used emphatically meaning something that takes
place quite unexpectedly and undesirably:
At a time when we were setting out for a picnic it must
rain and we had to stay in.
Just when he was finishing the last elements of his trick,
all the lights must go out.

Have to

The modal verb have to differs from the other modals in that its
interrogative and negative forms take the auxiliary verb do for the
present and past, as well as shall/will for the future. Also, it is
followed by the infinitive with the particle to:
We have to repair the roof of the cottage.
Do we have to repair the roof of the cottage?
We do not have to repair the roof of the cottage

We had to repair the roof of the cottage.

Did we have to repair the roof of the cottage?

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 We did not have to repair the roof of the cottage.

We’ll have to repair the roof of the cottage.

Shall we have to repair the roof of the cottage?
We won’t have to repair the roof of the cottage.

Have got to differs from have to in that it usually refers to a

particular action, while have to refers to a habitual action.
Do your children have to wear a uniform at school?
Have you got to wear a suit and a tie at the coming party?
Have (got) to is used to express obligation or necessity due to
circumstances:
They have to save for a new car.
He has to work double to support his family.
As different from must, have (got) to in the negative form is
used to denote the absence of obligation and necessity and does
not combine with the perfect or continuous infinitive:
You don’t have to work at weekends.
You don’t have to make payments in cash.
Must we do it right now?– No, you don’t have to do it right
now. I can wait.
Another difference between must and have to is that the former
is used when the obligation comes from the speaker himself; have
(got) to is more common when the obligation is imposed from the
outside:
I must leave now. Alex is waiting for me.
We have (got) to complete the project within a year.

To Be to

The modal verb to be to has two tense forms: the Present

Indefinite to indicate a present or future action, and the Past
Indefinite indicating a past action. The interrogative and negative
forms of to be to do not take an auxiliary verb.

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 To be to is used to express
1. orders and instructions:
You are to learn English if you want to work at this office.
Are we to stay here?
He was to stay home until mother came back.
2. obligation due to an arrangement or plan:
They are to get married in April.
The professor is to speak about the results of his research
tomorrow morning.
3. possibility/impossibility. In this case the modal verb to be to is
commonly used in the negative and interrogative sentences:
He is not to be relied on.
They are not to be found anywhere.
How am I to speak to him if he can’t speak English?
4. something thought of as unavoidable:
We are to live together till the end our lives.
If we are to share this flat, you must learn more about me.
If to be to is used in the Past Indefinite, it may render the action
different meanings depending on the form of the infinitive. When
the modal verb to be to is followed by the simple infinitive, it is
uncertain whether the action took place or not; the perfect infinitive
indicates an unfulfilled action:
He was to arrive on Sunday. (It is not clear whether he
arrived on Sunday or not.)
He was to have arrived on Sunday. (It is clear that he did
not arrive on Sunday.)

Should

Historically should was developed as the past form of shall, but

in present-day English these verbs function separately having
different modal meanings. Should is used to refer actions to the
present and future and remains unchanged in indirect speech.
Should is used to express

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 1. moral obligation or duty:
You should take care of the elders.
He should submit his paper by Monday.
He said they should all go there.
In the negative form should expresses a weakened prohibition:
You shouldn’t be so unkind to him.
He shouldn’t smoke. He has heart problems.
When should is followed by the perfect infinitive, it indicates that
the action considered desirable has not been carried out. In this
case the modal verb is in the affirmative form:
He should have warned her about it. (But he didn’t.)
You should have invited Ann to the party too. (But you
didn’t.)
Should in the negative form shows that the action has been
carried out but it is not considered desirable:
You should not have invited Nick. You know I dislike
him.
She shouldn’t have lied to me.
2. advice:
You should be more careful.
They should really go and see the exhibition.
Should I call and apologize to her?
3. possibility:
They should accept our proposal. At least I hope so.
She should take part in the discussion. She is interested
in the subject.
Compare with must:
I should study better. (It is less certain the action will be
carried out.)
I must study better. (It is more certain that the action will
take place.)

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 Ought to

The modal verb ought to has only one form for all tenses. It is
synonymous with should almost in all meanings. Ought to is used
to express
1. moral obligation or duty:
You ought to look after the elders.
He ought to take care of his children after the divorce.
When ought to is followed by the perfect infinitive, the
affirmative form indicates that the action didn’t take place. On the
contrary, the negative form indicates that the action took place
though its realization is not desirable:
You ought to have helped them. They need it so much.
He ought to have studied better. Not surprisingly, he has
failed his exams.
She ought not to have gone there without her mother’s
permission.
He ought not to have driven so fast. He is badly injured and
in hospital now.
2. advice:
You ought to see an oculist.
You ought to see the film. You’ll enjoy it immensely.
3. probability:
That ought to be beneficial for you.
They ought to come within an hour.

Shall

The modal verb shall is used for all the persons singular and
plural. Its meaning is always associated with the meaning of the
auxiliary shall used for the future tense. It is usually used with the
simple infinitive.
Shall is used to express
1. threat and warning:

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 You shall tell the truth or I shall never forgive you.
You shall deeply regret what you have said.
He shall be punished for that.
2. promise:
He shall succeed if he continues to work hard.
You shall have a wonderful time if you come.
3. suggestion, offer. Shall in this meaning is used in questions
and is meant for the first person singular and plural:
Shall we have some more wine? – Yes, please. (No, don’t
please).
ØÇ ùÇã ¿É ·ÇÝÇ ËÙ»±Ýù: – ²Ûá:
Shall I open the window? – Yes, please. (Please don’t).
´³ó»±Ù å³ïáõѳÝÁ: – ²Ûá:
4. instruction:
You shall stay in your seats until the lights are on.
They shall not go out until they are told to do so.

Will/ Would

The modal verb will/would like modal shall is also associated

with the meaning of futurity. It is used with the simple infinitive
only.
Will/would is used to express
1. willingness, intention. Would in this meaning refers the action
to the past:
I can and will do it though you don’t trust me.
He was in such a predicament that he would do any
work he was offered.
In the negative form will/would expresses a refusal to perform
the action:
I won’t go there without you.
I asked him twice but he wouldn’t answer.

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 2. a polite request or an offer. In this meaning will and would
are synonymous. Would expresses a greater degree of politeness
and often combines with the verb like:
Will you fax this document for me, please?
Will you do me a favour?
Would you take the glasses away, please?
Would you like to have a cup of coffee?
3. a command:
You will apologize this minute.
Will you stop talking?
Will is used in tags, after imperative sentences. Will you in the
tag after the negative imperative softens the command and is
pronounced with the falling tone:
Don’t smoke in the room, will you?
Don’t tease the kid, will you?
After a positive imperative will you is used with the rising
intonation and expresses impatience, annoyance:
Be quiet, will you?
Take your things off my table, will you?
4. insistence, resistance. Will/would in this meaning is often
used with inanimate objects to show that they fail to perform their
functions, therefore these verbs are usually used in the negative
sentences:
The door won’t open. ¸áõéÁ ãÇ µ³óíáõÙ:
My car wouldn’t start this morning.²Ûë ³é³íáï
Ù»ù»Ý³ë ã³ß˳ï»ó:
5. inevitability, prediction:
What will be will be. ÆÝã ÉÇÝ»Éáõ ¿, ÏÉÇÝÇ:
Boys will be boys.
You will succeed if you work harder.
6. repeated actions in the past (would):
When my mother was away, I would take care of my
little sister.
When he was young, he would take part in rodeos.

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 Need

The modal verb need functions both as a defective and a

regular verb. As a defective verb need has only one form for all the
persons singular and plural and is followed by a bare infinitive. It is
used in the present tense, without an auxiliary verb in the
interrogative and negative forms.
Need expresses necessity (in the affirmative and interrogative
forms), but more common is the negative form (needn’t), which
indicates the absence of necessity:
You needn’t copy the text. I can do it myself.
He needn’t buy the book. I can give him mine to read.
I knew he needn’t call her, but he did.
The affirmative form of need may be used after negative
sentences or sentences implying some kind of doubt or
uncertainty:
I don’t think he need take his passport with him.
I wonder if we need go there at such a late hour.
The interrogative form is used without an auxiliary verb:
Need I pay in cash?– No, you needn’t. You can pay by
cheque.
Need she go there by car?– No, she needn’t. The
museum is quite nearby.
But the interrogative form of the defective need is not so
common. Instead, the regular need is used, which can also occur
in the past and future tenses:
Do we need to go there just now? – No, you don’t.
Does she need to pay the whole amount now? – No,
she doesn’t. She can pay by credit.
He needs to get a new computer.
I needed to get some rest. I was too tired.
Will we need to register our hand baggage?

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 When needn’t is followed by the perfect infinitive, it indicates
that the action though performed was not necessary:
He needn’t have gone to hospital. (It was not necessary,
but he went just to make sure everything is OK with
him.)
Compare with:
He didn’t need to go to hospital. (It was not necessary as
the wound was not serious.)
Need should not be confused with an ordinary verb followed by
a direct object.
Do you need a new coat?– Yes, I do.
No, I don’t. I hope my old one will serve me another
year.

Dare

The modal verb dare may be used as a defective and a regular

verb. As a defective verb it has two forms: dare for the present and
dared for the past. It means ‘to be brave enough to do something’.
It is chiefly used in the interrogative and negative sentences. It is
followed by the infinitive with or without the particle to:
Dare you (to) go there alone?
He dared not (to) ask for her address.
Dare may have an additional meaning – indignation,
annoyance:
How dare you talk to me like that?
How dare she think I am lying to her?
As a regular verb, dare is used in all the tenses:
She does not dare (to) answer her mother back.
I didn’t dare (to) look at him.
She didn’t dare (to) say what she thought of the whole
matter.
He won’t dare (to) take Father’s car without permission.

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 Dare as a regular verb may also mean ‘to persuade smb to do
smth, usually dangerous, difficult or embarrassing’:
They dared him (to) accept the proposition though it
didn’t seem very attractive.
A friend of his had dared him (to) take the risk of
climbing that high tree.

THE CATEGORY OF MOOD

Mood shows the attitude of the speaker towards the action from
the point of its being real / unreal, desirable / undesirable,
necessary / unnecessary, possible / impossible, etc. Different
linguists mention different numbers of moods ranging from three to
sixteen moods. But most linguists acknowledge the presence of
three moods in English. These are: the Indicative mood, the
Imperative mood and the Subjunctive mood.

The Indicative Mood

The Indicative mood denotes an action as statement of a fact.

The action may be expressed by different tense and aspect forms.
Therefore the Indicative mood has a wide range of grammatical
forms used both in the active and passive voice. These forms have
been presented above as the finite forms of the verbs.

The Imperative Mood

The Imperative mood expresses an order or a request that the

speaker expects the hearer to perform. The Imperative is formed
with the infinitive of the notional verb without the particle to. The
negative form is formed by the auxiliary verb do in the negative
form (don’t). The subject of the of the action is you (both for
singular and plural), but normally it is not explicitly expressed in the

116
sentence. The negative form of the imperative mood usually
expresses prohibition:
Leave the room at once! ²ÝÙÇç³å»ë ¹áõñë ³ñÇ° (
»Ï»°ù):
Don’t read aloud. ´³ñÓñ³Ó³ÛÝ ÙÇ° ϳñ¹³
(ϳñ¹³ó»ù):
Take the broken chair out of the room please.Îáïñí³Í
³ÃáéÁ ë»ÝÛ³ÏÇó ¹áõñë ï³ñ»ù, ËݹñáõÙ »Ù:
Don’t talk to the child in such a tone.ºñ»Ë³ÛÇ Ñ»ï ³Û¹
ïáÝáí ÙÇ° Ëáë»ù:
Do may be used in commands and requests to make the
utterance more emphatic:
Do call us as soon as you arrive. ²Ýå³ÛÙ³Ý
½³Ý·³Ñ³ñÇ° (½³Ý·³Ñ³ñ»°ù), Ñ»Ýó áñ ųٳݻë
(ųٳݻù):
When the subject you is expressed explicitly, it implies some
kind of intimacy or annoyance:
You open the door! I am getting dressed.
You stop talking!
You get out!
Imperative sentences may include vocative nouns, which
should not be confused with the imperative subject:
Laura, open the door please.
Have some more cake, Lucy.
A third person subject (expressed by a pronoun) is also
possible:
Somebody switch on the light.
Everybody leave the room.
When commands, requests or offers are addressed to a first or
third person (singular and plural), the construction let + me (us,
her, him, them or any noun) is used:
Let him speak out. Âá°Õ ݳ ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïíÇ:
Let me help you. ÂáõÛÉ ïí»°ù û·Ý»É Ó»½:

117
 Let each person decide for himself/herself. Âá°Õ
³Ù»Ý Ù»ÏÝ Çñ ѳٳñ áñáßÇ:
Let us (Let’s) is used to express a suggestion or a decision that
hearers are expected to accept or reject:
Let’s mark the day. ºÏ»°ù Ýß»Ýù ³Ûë ûñÁ:
Let’s go there at once. ºÏ»°ù ³ÝÙÇç³å»ë ·Ý³Ýù
³ÛÝï»Õ:
In the negative form let is followed by not (the form with don’t is
also possible):
Let’s not worry about it. ºÏ»°ù ã³Ýѳݷëï³Ý³Ýù
³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ:
Don’t let’s worry about it. (used informally)
To make the imperative sentence sound more polite or
softening, tags are used:
Open the door, will you?
Give me the book, won’t you?
Get me some chalk, can you?
Calm down, can’t you?
Let’s dine in the restaurant, shall we?

The Subjunctive Mood

The Subjunctive mood presents an action as possible /

impossible, desirable / undesirable, necessary unnecessary, etc.
In Old English the Subjunctive mood had a wide range of forms,
but in Modern English the distinctions between them have
disappeared. The terms Present Subjunctive and Past Subjunctive
preserve their names, though their meaning and uses have
changed considerably.

The Present Subjunctive

The Present Subjunctive is formed with the infinitive without the

particle to. It has the same form for all the persons singular and

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plural and is not affected by the tense form of the verb in the main
clause.
The Present Subjunctive is used
1) in certain exclamations to express a wish, hope:
God bless you!
God save the queen!
Heaven help us!
2) in oaths:
Manners be hanged!
God forbid!
3) in poetry:
If this be error, and upon me proved … (Shakespeare)
Though the heart be still as loving … (Byron)
4) in subject clauses introduced by the constructions it is
necessary… (important, desirable, obligatory, requested,
recommended, etc.):
It is necessary that everybody attend the meeting.
It is recommended that the machines be checked every
year.
5) in object clauses after the main clause containing the verbs
suggest, demand, request, recommend, order, insist, etc.:
They demand (demanded) that all troops be withdrawn.
She has suggested that bright children be enrolled without
exams.

The Past Subjunctive

The Past Subjunctive is formed with the past tense of the

notional verb, the verb be having the form were for all the persons
singular and plural. It is used to express unreal actions. The term
Past Subjunctive is merely traditional as it does not necessarily
denote a past action. If the Past Subjunctive coincides in form with
the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous it expresses a present

119
or future action. The Past Perfect can be used to indicate the
priority of the action as compared with that of the main clause.
The Past Subjunctive is used
1) in attributive clauses after the construction It is (high) time…:
It is time they started work. ijٳݳÏÝ ¿ ëÏë»É
³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ:
It is high time the children went to bed. ì³Õáõó
ųٳݳÏÝ ¿, áñ »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ å³éÏ»Ý ùÝ»Éáõ:
It is time we were leaving. ijٳݳÏÝ ¿, áñ Ù»ÏÝ»Ýù:
2) in object clauses:
I wish they stayed with us a little longer. ²÷ëáë, áñ
Ýñ³Ýù ÙÇ ÷áùñ ³í»ÉÇ »ñϳñ ã»Ý ÙÝáõÙ Ù»½ Ùáï:
I wish they had stayed with us a little longer. ²÷ëáë,
Ýñ³Ýù ÙÇ ÷áùñ ³í»ÉÇ »ñϳñ ãÙݳóÇÝ Ù»½ Ùáï:
I wished they had stayed with us a little longer. ºë
³÷ëáë³óÇ, áñ Ýñ³Ýù ÙÇ ÷áùñ ³í»ÉÇ »ñϳñ ãÙݳóÇÝ
Ù»½ Ùáï:
3) in adverbial clauses of comparison or manner:
It sounds as though you liked his suggestion.
They greeted him as if he were a hero.
4) In conditional clauses (both in complex and simple
sentences):
If he were not so absent-minded, he would get better
grades at school.ºÃ» ݳ ³Û¹ù³Ý óñí³Í ãÉÇÝ»ñ, ³í»ÉÇ
É³í ·Ý³Ñ³ï³Ï³ÝÝ»ñ Ïëï³Ý³ñ ¹åñáóáõÙ:
If only he were here now. ºñ³ÝÇ Ý³ ÑÇÙ³ ³Ûëï»Õ
ÉÇÝ»ñ:
The Past Subjunctive has analytical forms with such mood
auxiliaries as should, would, could, might. When the action refers
to the present or future, these verbs are followed by the simple
form of the infinitive; the perfect form of the infinitive is used when
the action refers to the past.

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 The analytic form of the Past Subjunctive is used in various
clauses: the choice of the modal verb depends on the type of the
clause used in the Past Subjunctive.
1. Should is used
a) in subject clauses introduced by It is (was) important
(necessary, reasonable, essential…, etc.):
It is (was) important that every student should attend all
the lectures.
It is (was) reasonable that you should contact them.
b) in object clauses after the verbs demand, order, suggest,
insist, command, request, recommend, etc. used in the main
clause:
He insisted that she should come with her sister.
She ordered that all should sit down and be quiet.
c) in attributive and predicative clauses referring to the nouns
suggestion, demand, advice, order, etc. in the main clause:
Their suggestion that we should stop experimenting
seemed very suspicious. (attributive clause)
His advice is that she should consult the best doctor
before undertaking the operation. (predicative clause)
d)) in conditional clauses introduced by the conjunctions if, in
case, lest (the latter requires a verb in the affirmative form):
If he should come, tell him to wait for me.
Take the umbrella in case it should rain.
He wrote down the names lest he should forget
them.ܳ ·ñÇ ³é³í ³ÝáõÝÝ»ñÁ, áñå»ë½Ç ãÙáé³Ý³:
2. Would is used in object clauses after the main clause
expressed by I wish:
I wish he would come with us. ºñ³ÝÇ Ý³ ·³ñ Ù»½ Ñ»ï:
I wish they would agree with our suggestion. ºñ³ÝÇ
Ýñ³Ýù ѳٳӳÛÝí»ÇÝ Ù»ñ ³é³ç³ñÏÇÝ:
3. Should/would, could, might can be used in the principal
clause correlated with the conditional clause:
If I had an extra copy I should/would give it to you.

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 If I had time I could babysit for your child.
If you took the medicine it might help you.
Should/would is used in simple sentences with implied
condition:
I should/would be glad to get a ticket for the Bolshoy
Theatre.
The man would be an extra burden to you.
If the action refers to the past the perfect form of the infinitive is
used after the auxiliary in the main clause; the verb in the
conditional clause is in the Past Perfect:
If he had come earlier he would have seen Pete.
If you had taken the medicine it might have helped you.
If you had asked for I could have given you the book to
read.
The actions in the conditional clause and the main clause, i.e.
condition and consequence may have different time-reference:
If I hadn’t told him the truth I would feel very miserable
now.
4. Might (may) is used
a) in adverbial clauses of purpose introduced by the
conjunctions that, so that, in order that:
I left the door open in order that the child might not be
afraid.
I gave him my notes that he might make use of when
getting ready for the exam.
We must save up so that our children may/might have a
decent education.
b) in adverbial clauses of concession:
No matter when he may come, tell him to wait for me.
Though they might be late, let them in.
Whoever he may be, he has to have his luggage
registered.
We try to be helpful, whenever she may need it.

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 When a concessive clause is joined to the main clause
asyndetically, inversion takes place:
Come what may, we won’t keep it secret from him.
Difficult as the problem might seem to be, we’ll find
some kind of solution.

Ways of Rendering the Subjunctive Mood in Armenian.

The Subjunctive Mood is rendered in Armenian in different

ways. If the action refers to the present or future, it is commonly
rendered in Armenian by
1) ÁÕÓ³Ï³Ý ³ÝóÛ³ÉÇ ³å³éÝÇ:
It is time they had a break. – ųٳݳÏÝ ¿, áñ Ýñ³Ýù
ÁݹÙÇçáõÙ ³Ý»Ý:
It is high time we started work. – ì³Õáõó ųٳݳÏÝ ¿,
áñ ëÏë»Ýù ³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ:
He proposed that we should postpone our trip. – ܳ
³é³ç³ñÏ»ó, áñ Ù»Ýù Ñ»ï³Ó·»Ýù Ù»ñ
׳ݳå³ñÑáñ¹áõÃÛáõÝÁ:
They ordered that the prisoner should be released. –
Üñ³Ýù ϳñ·³¹ñ»óÇÝ, áñ µ³Ýï³ñÏÛ³ÉÝ ³½³ïíÇ:
I wish it were summer now. – ºñ³ÝÇ (Ïáõ½»Ý³ÛÇ) ³Ù³é
ÉÇÝ»ñ ÑÇÙ³:
I wish he were admitted to the university. – ºñ³ÝÇ
(Ïáõ½»Ý³ÛÇ) ݳ ÁݹáõÝí»ñ ѳٳÉë³ñ³Ý:
2) »Ýó¹ñ³Ï³Ý ³ÝóÛ³É:
I should/would like to come with you. – ºë Ïó³ÝϳݳÛÇ
·³É Ó»½ Ñ»ï:
They would be very glad to see you. – Üñ³Ýù áõñ³Ë
ÏÉÇÝ»ÇÝ Ó»½ ï»ëÝ»É:
3) »Ýó¹ñ³Ï³Ý ³ÝóÛ³É Ï³Ù »Ýó¹ñ³Ï³Ý ³ÝóÛ³ÉÇ
ѳñ³Ï³ï³ñ in the main clause and ÁÕÓ³Ï³Ý ³ÝóÛ³É Ï³Ù
ÁÕÓ³Ï³Ý ³ÝóÛ³ÉÇ Ñ³ñ³Ï³ï³ñ in the conditional clause:

123
 If I had known about your arrival, I would have met you
at the airport. – ºÃ» ÇٳݳÛÇ (ÇÙ³ó³Í ÉÇÝ»Ç) Ó»ñ
ųٳÝÙ³Ý Ù³ëÇÝ, ϹÇÙ³íáñ»Ç (¹ÇÙ³íáñ³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ç)
Ó»½ û¹³Ý³í³Ï³Û³ÝáõÙ:
If Mary had invited him, he would have accepted the
invitation. – ºÃ» Ø»ñÇÝ Ññ³íÇñ»ñ (Ññ³íÇñ³Í ÉÇÝ»ñ)
Ýñ³Ý, ݳ ÏÁݹáõÝ»ñ (ÁݹáõÝ³Í ÏÉÇÝ»ñ) Ññ³í»ñÁ:
4) ë³ÑÙ³Ý³Ï³Ý »Õ³Ý³Ï:
I wish he spoke English. – ²÷ëáë ݳ ãÇ ËáëáõÙ
³Ý·É»ñ»Ý:
I wish he had accepted my invitation. – ²÷ëáë ݳ
ãÁݹáõÝ»ó ÇÙ Ññ³í»ñÁ:

THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

Non-finite forms of the English verb (or verbals) comprise four

types: the infinitive, the Present Participle, the Past Participle and
the Gerund. They have some verbal and non-verbal features,
having no categories of person, number, tense and mood.
Lexically they do not differ from other verbs, but grammatically
they express an action or process related to that of the finite or
main verb. Therefore they do not form the predicate itself,
functioning mainly as part of a compound verbal predicate.

THE INFINITIVE

The infinitive is a basic form of the verb and as such it

represents the verb in dictionaries. It names an action in a most
general way.
It may be used with the particle to (full infinitive) or without it
(bare infinitive) depending on the nature of the verb it combines
with. The infinitive has both morphological and syntactic features.

124
 Morphological Features

The morphological features of the infinitive include the

categories of aspect, correlation and voice. The category of aspect
is reflected in the opposition of the non-continuous form with that
of the continuous form of the infinitive: to spend – to be spending.
The continuous form shows that the action expressed by the
infinitive is simultaneous with that of the main verb, which may
occur in the present, past and future tenses. The non-continuous
form indicates an action of a more general character:
I like to play tennis.
I see you like to be playing with Mike. He is such a
wonderful partner.
The category of correlation is reflected in the opposition of the
non-perfect and the perfect form of the infinitive: to spend – to
have spent. The perfect form indicates the priority of the action
expressed by the infinitive over that of the main verb. The infinitive
may occur in the perfect continuous form as well:
I am glad to visit my old school friend.
I am glad to have visited my old school friend.
He regrets to have been spending his time and money on
that absurd experiment.
The category of voice is reflected in the opposition of the active
and the passive form of the infinitive: to bring – to be brought, to
have brought – to have been brought. The active form indicates
that the action expressed by the infinitive refers to the subject of
the sentence. The passive form indicates that the action expressed
by the infinitive refers to another person (expressed explicitly or
implicitly):
He likes to criticize. (He criticizes other people.)
He doesn’t like to be criticized. (Other people criticize him.)

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 Syntactic Functions of the Infinitive

The infinitive can perform almost all the syntactic functions

which are characteristic of the noun. It can be used as
1. subject:
To forgive means to forget the unpleasant thing that has
been done to you.
Sometimes the infinitive is placed after the predicate when the
sentence begins with “It is…”:
It is impossible to imagine how he could have done all that
alone.
2. object:
I decided to forgive him for what he had done to me.
3. predicative:
My intention was only to warn him against the coming
danger.
4. part of a compound verbal predicate
a) after modal verbs:
They may go there.
He ought to have seen them before leaving the country.
b) after the verbs showing the beginning, duration or end of the
action:
He started to read but then stopped.
She continued to write despite the darkness.
He finished to read.
5. attribute:
I have no intention to take part in that affair.
She was the first to be informed about it.
6. the adverbial modifier of
a) purpose:
I have come to talk to you.
He stopped to greet them.
b) result or consequence (with the words too and enough):
He was too bored to continue the conversation.

126
 They know English well enough to understand the lecture
given by the Oxford professor.
c) attendant circumstances:
He left the town never to come back.
I am sorry to have spoken about it only to disappoint you.
d) comparison:
He knew better than to trust them.
Is to love more important for you than to be loved?
e) condition:
To look at her you would imagine that she is an angel.
To see Paris you could think it is the best place in the
world.
f) exception:
I had nothing to do but tell the truth.
Nothing was left to me except agree to their proposal.
7. parenthesis:
To tell the truth, I didn’t like the performance either.
To put it bluntly, I can’t accept your proposal.

Infinitive Predicative Constructions

Infinitive predicative constructions in English are of three types:

1. The Infinitive Construction with a Complex Object
2. The Infinitive Construction with a Complex Subject
3. The Infinitive Constructions with the Preposition for

1. The Infinitive Construction with a Complex Object

The infinitive in this construction is in predicate relation to a

noun in the Common case or a pronoun in the Objective case, thus
forming a complex object to the finite (main) verb of the sentence.
The infinitive is used with the particle to, except for point 1 and
partly point 4.
The Infinitive with a Complex Object is used

127
 1) after verbs of sense perception:
I saw her enter the kitchen.
We felt the ground give way under our feet.
2) after verbs of mental perception. In this case the infinitive
may occur in any form:
I know him to be a perfect father.
We think them to have arrived already.
I believe her to be practising music now.
3) after verbs expressing desire, intention, liking (disliking):
I want her to accompany me to the museum.
He likes her to wear evening dresses at the party.
She hates him to ignore his duties.
4) after verbs of inducement: to cause, to get, to order, to
persuade, to make, to have, to let, etc. The last three verbs are
used with a bare infinitive. When used in the passive, to make
takes the full infinitive:
I ordered them to leave immediately.
He let me go.
They made us believe we were wrong.
We were made to believe we were wrong.
5) after verbs requiring a prepositional object:
He counts on me to keep his secret.
They rely on us to conduct the experiment properly.

2. The Infinitive Construction with a Complex Subject

In this construction the infinitive is in predicative relation with

the subject of the sentence expressed by a noun in the Common
case or a pronoun in the Nominative case, thus forming a Complex
Subject.
The Infinitive with a Complex Subject is used
1) with verbs of sense perception used in the passive voice:
They were heard to dispute over human rights.
The plane was seen to disappear from view.

128
 2) with verbs of mental perception used in the passive voice:
They were believed to submit their papers by next Monday.
The paper is supposed to have been written in haste.
3) with word groups such as to be likely, to be sure, to be
certain:
They are sure to get married next month.
She is likely to get a divorce.
4) with verbs such as to seem, to appear, to happen, to prove,
to turn out, etc., used in the active voice:
They happened to be out when the fire broke out.
He seemed to have completely forgotten about his debt.
This job proved to be a turning point in his career.
Infinitive Constructions with a Complex Subject are usually
rendered in Armenian by
1) a complex sentence in which the principal clause is an
indefinite personal clause (³Ýáñáß ¹ÇÙ³íáñ ݳ˳¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝ);
the parts of the Infinitive Construction – the nominal part and the
infinitive – functioning as the subject and predicate:
They were heard to be singing in the next room.
Èë»óÇÝ, û ÇÝãå»ë Ýñ³Ýù »ñ·áõÙ ¿ÇÝ Ñ³ñ¨³Ý
ë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ:
2) a complex sentence in which the principal clause is an
impersonal clause (³Ý¹»Ù ݳ˳¹³ëáõÃÛáõÝ), while the parts of
the construction itself function as the subject and predicate of the
subordinate clause:
He turned out to be an old friend of David.
ä³ñ½í»ó, áñ ݳ ¸³íÇÃÇ ÑÇÝ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇó ¿:
The castle is believed to have been built in the 16th century.
γñÍáõÙ »Ý, áñ ³ÙñáóÁ ϳéáõóí»É ¿ 16-ñ¹ ¹³ñáõÙ;
3) by a simple sentence with a modal word:
He is sure to come with us.
ܳ ³Ýßáõßï Ï·³ Ù»½ Ñ»ï:
They are likely to accept our invitation.
Üñ³Ýù ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ ÏÁݹáõÝ»Ý Ù»ñ Ññ³í»ñÁ:

129
 3. The Infinitive Constructions with the Preposition for

In this construction the infinitive is in predicative relation with a

noun in the Common case or pronoun in the Objective case
preceded by the preposition for. The construction has different
functions in the sentence:
1) subject:
For him to phone her was more than embarrassing.
2) predicative:
The best thing is for Dan to leave now.
3) object:
We were glad for him to have won the game.
4) attribute:
There was no need for the Simons to buy a new house.
5) adverbial modifier of purpose:
She paused for him to answer her question.
6) adverbial modifier of consequence:
The task was too difficult for him to fulfill.
The Infinitive Construction with the preposition for may be
rendered in Armenian by means of a subordinate clause:
We were sorry for him to have lost the game.
Ø»Ýù ³÷ëáë»óÇÝù, áñ ݳ ï³ÝáõÉ ïí»ó ˳ÕÁ:
The question was too sudden for him to respond
immediately.
гñóÁ ã³÷³½³Ýó ³Ýëå³ë»ÉÇ ¿ñ, áñå»ë½Ç ݳ
³ÝÙÇç³å»ë å³ï³ë˳ݻñ:
Other ways of rendering this construction in Armenian are also
possible:
For her to marry John was out of the question.
æáÝÇ Ñ»ï Ýñ³ ³ÙáõëÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ³ÝÑݳñÇÝ ¿ñ:
For me to tell him the truth would be rather difficult.
ÆÝÓ Ñ³Ù³ñ µ³í³Ï³Ý ¹Åí³ñ ÏÉÇÝ»ñ Ýñ³Ý
×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ë»É:

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 The Gerund

Like the Present Participle, the gerund is formed by adding -ing

to the stem of the verb. It has both nominal and verbal properties.
The nominal properties of the gerund are as follows:
1. It may be preceded by a preposition:
Before going out he closed all the windows.
He finds some relief in writing his memoirs.
2. It can have an attribute expressed by a possessive pronoun
or a noun in the Genitive case:
He insisted on my coming with him.
We enjoy Ann’s dancing.
The verbal properties of the gerund are varied:
1. It can take an object:
She hates talking politics.
She enjoys staying with her family.
2. It can be modified by an adverb:
Nothing would prevent him from criticizing them severely.
They rebuke him for not working hard.
3. It has the categories of correlation and voice.
The category of correlation is expressed in the opposition of the
non-perfect and the perfect forms of the gerund, the perfect form
showing the priority of the action over that of the finite verb. The
non- perfect form shows the simultaneity of the actions expressed
by a gerund and a finite verb:
I regret saying such things to you. (usual action)
I regret having said this to you. (completed past action)
The non-perfect form of the gerund may also denote priority,
especially after such verbs as recollect, reward, thank, forget,
remember, etc. This meaning of priority may be rendered also by
the prepositions after and on:
On coming home he aired all the rooms.

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 After talking to him she felt more optimistic about the
matter.
I remember faxing the letter. (I think I did it.)
Compare with the infinitive:
I remembered to fax the letter. (I didn’t forget to do it.)
He forgot telling me about it. (He told me about it, but he
did not remember it.)
He forgot to tell me about it. (He didn’t tell me about it.)
The category of voice is expressed by the opposition of active
and passive forms of the gerund. The active form indicates that the
action expressed by the gerund is directed to the object; the
passive form indicates that the action is directed to the subject:
I hate laughing at people.
I hate being laughed at.
The active form of the gerund may sometimes have passive
meaning. It is possible with such verbs as need, want, deserve,
require:
The flat needs cleaning.
These plants want watering daily.
The gerund has the following syntactic functions:
1) subject:
Growing roses is her hobby.
2) predicative:
His hobby is collecting postage stamps.
3) part of a compound verbal aspect predicate:
They stopped playing when they saw me.
She kept on smiling though she felt desperate.
4) object (direct and prepositional):
I like growing tulips in my garden.
She is afraid of walking at late hours.
5) attribute. The gerund in this function is preceded by the
preposition of:
I disliked the idea of going on a picnic in such weather.

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 6) adverbial modifier. The gerund in this function is preceded by
various prepositions:
a) time (after, before, on, in, since):
After considering the proposal they decided to accept it.
On coming home he took a shower and lay down to rest
a little.
b) manner (with. by, without, in):
You can succeed by working hard.
c) condition (without):
He can’t go to her birthday party without being invited.
d) purpose (for):
This instrument is used for cutting through metal.
e) reason (because of, owing to, for fear of):
We spoke quietly for fear of waking mother.
I refused to join them because of being ill.
f) concession (despite, in spite of):
Despite (In spite of) applying for a number of jobs he is
still out of work.

Predicative Constructions with the Gerund

In these constructions the action expressed by the gerund is in

predicate relation to the nominal part expressed by a noun or a
pronoun. The nominal part is expressed in different ways.
1. If it denotes a living being, it may be expressed
a) by a noun in the Genitive case or a possessive pronoun:
I find Mary’s accepting the invitation unreasonable.
I object to his putting off the trip.
b) by a noun in the Common case:
I like Henry taking up golf. (The emphasis is on the nominal
part.)
Compare with: I like Henry’s taking up golf. (The emphasis is on
the action.)

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 2. If the nominal part of the construction denotes a lifeless thing,
it is expressed by a noun in the Common case or a possessive
pronoun:
I object to the house being sold at this price.
I won’t talk of the present state of affairs, especially of its
being absolutely hopeless.
3. The nominal part may be expressed by such pronouns as all,
both, each, something, etc.:
I insisted on both of them being invited to the party.
I felt something happening to Daniel.
The gerund is rendered in Armenian in the following ways:
1) by the infinitive:
My aim is mastering English. ÆÙ Ýå³ï³ÏÝ ¿
ïÇñ³å³ï»É ³Ý·É»ñ»ÝÇÝ:
2) the inflected form of the infinitive:
She left the room without saying a word. ܳ ¹áõñë
»Ï³í ë»ÝÛ³ÏÇó` ³é³Ýó ÙÇ µ³é ³ë»Éáõ:
After staying in the country for almost a month he felt
much better. ¶ñ»Ã» Ù»Ï ³ÙÇë ·ÛáõÕáõÙ ÙݳÉáõó Ñ»ïá,
ݳ Çñ»Ý ß³ï ³í»ÉÇ É³í ½·³ó:
On seeing Ann at that place he was very surprised.
²ÝݳÛÇÝ ³Û¹ í³ÛñáõÙ ï»ëÝ»Éáí, ݳ ß³ï ½³ñÙ³ó³í:
3) by a noun:
His coming back home was quite sudden. îáõÝ Ýñ³
í»ñ³¹³ñÓÁ µáÉáñáíÇÝ ³Ýëå³ë»ÉÇ ¿ñ:
4) by the finite form of the verb:
I remember seeing that performance. ºë ÑÇßáõÙ »Ù, áñ
ï»ë»É »Ù ³Û¹ Ý»ñϳ۳óáõÙÁ:
I regret promising him to come. ºë ³÷ëáëáõÙ »Ù, áñ
Ëáëï³ó³ Ýñ³Ý ·³É:

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 The Gerund and the Infinitive Compared

The gerund and the infinitive have much in common; however

there are some differences as well. The gerund denotes actions of
more general character, whereas actions denoted by the infinitive
are of more specific character.
1. The infinitive expresses a purpose, intention, and the gerund
permanent characteristics:
We use a thermometer to take the temperature.
The thermometer is used for taking the temperature.
2. The infinitive shows an intention, the gerund a necessary
action:
If you mean to tell the truth, you must recall all the
events of the past.
If you mention her name, it will mean telling her the
whole truth.
3. The infinitive is an intended action, the gerund a casual,
sudden action.
He was afraid to cross the river in this place.
He was afraid of crossing the river in this place.
4. The infinitive shows a future or present action, gerund a past
action.
Sorry to disturb you. Could I speak to Maria?
Sorry for disturbing you. It was so urgent.
I didn’t like to complain. (Because it’s not a good idea.)
I didn’t like complaining. (I complained, but I didn’t like
it.)
5. The infinitive is a purpose, the gerund a current action:
She stopped to talk to me.
She stopped talking to me when she looked at her
watch.
6. The infinitive shows a present action, the gerund shows a
future action:
I am interested to know your opinion about it.

135
 I am interested in learning Japanese. Do you know
anybody who could help me?
7. The infinitive shows an attempt, the gerund shows something
that might solve the problem:
I am trying to light a fire, but the wood won’t burn.
Why don’t you try pouring petrol on it?
8. The infinitive shows a succeeding action, gerund the
continuation of the action:
After reading the poem several times she went on to
learn it by heart.
The child went on watching TV, though his mummy told
him not to.
9. The infinitive shows the beginning of the action, the gerund
shows that the action was in process for some time:
He started to smoke, then stopped. (He lighted the
cigarette.)
He started smoking, then stopped. (He smoked for some
time, then stopped.)
10. The gerund is used if there is no indirect object after the
finite verb; the infinitive is used if there is one:
Doctors advise reducing fats in one’s diet. They urge
giving up fried foods.
The doctor advised me to reduce my fat intake. He
urged me to give up fried foods.
The gerund is preferably used with the following verbs: dislike,
enjoy, anticipate, consider, delay, deny, excuse, miss, tolerate,
understand, resent, postpone, imagine, etc.:
He resents being treated like a kid.
He delayed telling her the sad news, waiting for the right
moment.
The infinitive is used with the following verbs: ask, afford, agree,
appear, seem, refuse, remind, expect, arrange, etc.:
She refused to accept there was a problem.
Remind me to phone Larry in the evening.

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 Where have you arranged to meet?

The Gerund and the Verbal Noun Compared

A gerund should not be confused with a verbal noun which has

the same ending in -ing. Unlike a gerund, a verbal noun has the
following characteristics.
1) It can take an article:
We heard a crying.
The crying was heard not only by us, everybody in the
garden heard it.
2) It is used in the plural. In this case it can be preceded by a
numeral:
He is always pleased with his doings.
Only two drawings were worth considering.
3) It can take a prepositional object with of:
The engineering of the tower was performed by Eiffel.
They finished the building of the cottage last month.
4) It can be modified by an adjective:
He decided to take the offer after a careful examining
of the terms.
Sometimes it is difficult to discriminate between a gerund and a
verbal noun, especially in cases when they occur in the form of a
single word, without modifiers characteristic of this or that form. In
such cases the concrete meaning of the form should be taken into
consideration. If the form expresses a process, it should be
perceived as gerund; a verbal noun is used when the form denotes
some kind of occupation, activity associated with art or a branch of
science.
Hunting is illegal in these places. (verbal noun)
Sometimes hunting may take too much time and
energy to enjoy the process. (gerund)

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 The Present Participle

Like the gerund, the Present Participle is formed by adding the

suffix -ing to the stem of the verb. It has both verbal and adjectival
properties. The verbal properties of the Present Participle are
manifested in the categories of correlation and voice.
The category of correlation is expressed in the opposition of the
perfect and the non-perfect forms of the Present Participle
(sending – having sent). The non-perfect form of the Present
Participle indicates that the action is simultaneous with that of the
finite verb. The perfect form of the Present Participle indicates that
the action is prior to that of the finite verb:
Explaining the rule, he gave a number of good
illustrations.
Having explained the rule, he asked the students to
illustrate it with their own examples.
The meaning of priority may also be expressed by the active
form of the Present Participle with such verbs (mainly terminative)
as come, arrive, turn, leave, take off, seize, open, etc.), or verbs of
sense perception. With these verbs the non-perfect form of the
Present Participle denotes immediate priority and an
instantaneous action:
Hearing sounds of music he stopped to listen.
Arriving at the airport they found their plane taken off.
Seizing him by the arm she tried to keep her balance on
her skates.
Leaving the house she made sure that all the windows
were closed.
The category of voice is realized through the opposition of its
active and passive forms (sending – being sent):
Taking her by the arm he walked out into the street.
Being taken aback by his rudeness, she hurried out of the
room.

138
 He read his report mentioning the name of the scientist
several times.
I didn’t hear her name being mentioned in the list of the
guests.
The Present Participle has various functions in the sentence:
1. attribute. When the attribute is expressed by a single
participle, it stands before the noun it modifies; when the participle
has accompanying words, it stands after the noun, forming a
participial phrase:
I enjoy looking at playing children.
We went slowly up the path leading to the huntsman’s
cottage.
I heard a noise coming from outside.
2. predicative:
His question sounds provoking.
3. adverbial modifier. The Present Participle in this function may
be placed at the beginning or the end of the sentence:
a) time:
Living in Moscow he used to attend various exhibitions.
They enjoyed themselves, staying at a beautiful cottage
near the small lake.
The conjunctions when and while are in common use with the
Present Participle in this function:
When (while) travelling in Africa he came across very
unusual plants and flowers.
b) reason:
Being interrupted by his question she got confused and
stopped talking at all.
Not being invited to the party he felt deeply offended.
c) purpose:
Wishing to update my computer skills I decided to take
that course.
He hurried to her house, hoping to see her before leaving.

139
 d) manner and comparison. The Present Participle in this
function may be used with the conjunctions as if, as though:
She looked at the child smiling all the time.
He looked at me as if not recognizing me.
e) condition and concession (though):
Going at this speed we hope to get to the place in time.
Though going at this speed we did not hope to get to the
place in time.
4. parenthesis:
Frankly speaking, I am not surprised he failed.
Judging by appearances, Mr. Simon was well-off and
rather a conceited man.

Predicative Constructions with the Present Participle

The Present Participle makes up part of the following

predicative constructions:
1. The Participial Construction with a Complex Object
2. The Participial Construction with a Complex Subject
3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
4. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction

1. The Participial Construction with a Complex Object

This construction consists of a noun in the Common case or a

pronoun in the Objective case and the Present Participle of the
verb, thus forming a complex object to the main verb. As different
from the respective Infinitive Construction with a Complex Object,
the Participial Construction indicates an action in progress:
I saw a stranger entering our garden. ºë ï»ë³ ÙÇ
³ÝͳÝáà ٳñ¹áõ Ù»ñ ³Û·Ç ÙïÝ»ÉÇë:
But: I saw a stranger enter our garden. ºë ï»ë³, û
ÇÝãå»ë ÙÇ ³ÝͳÝáà ٳñ¹ Ùï³í Ù»ñ ³Û·ÇÝ:
The Participial Construction with a Complex Object is used

140
 1) after verbs of sense perception:
I heard him saying something unpleasant to the girl.
They watched the children playing with sand.
2) after verbs having causative meaning:
I won’t have you talking to your sister like that.
She kept me waiting for almost an hour.
He couldn’t get the car starting.
3) after verbs expressing liking/disliking:
She likes me talking of her children.
They dislike their son making friends with those boys.

2. The Participial Construction with a Complex Subject

The Participial Construction with a Complex Subject is a

construction in which the participle is in predicative relation to a
noun in the Common case or a pronoun in the Nominative case. It
differs from the Infinitive Construction with a Complex Subject in
that the action expressed by the Present Participle is seen as in
progress. This construction is usually found with verbs of sense
perception (to see, to hear) or some other verbs. In rendering this
construction in Armenian a complex sentence is used in which the
main clause is expressed by the so-called indefinite personal
(³Ýáñáß ¹ÇÙ³íáñ) clause or an impersonal (³Ý¹»Ù) clause:
They were seen quarrelling with each other. î»ë³Ý, û
ÇÝãå»ë ¿ÇÝ Ýñ³Ýù íÇ×áõÙ Çñ³ñ Ñ»ï:
She was heard speaking rudely to her maid. ÈëíáõÙ ¿ñ, û
ÇÝãå»ë ¿ñ ݳ Ïáåïáñ»Ý ËáëáõÙ ëå³ëáõÑáõ Ñ»ï:

3. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction

This construction consists of two parts: nominal and verbal

which are in predicative relationship. The nominal part is presented
by a noun in the Common case or a pronoun in the Nominative
case. Both the parts make up a syntactic complex functioning as a

141
detached adverbial, not depending on the main verb. The
nominative participial construction functions as adverbial modifier
of
1) attendant circumstances:
He went out into the street, the dog following him.
2) reason:
The weather being cold and windy, they had to go back
home.
3) time:
The matter having been discussed at great length, we
decided to stop thinking about it at least for a while.
The Nominative Absolute Construction with the Present
Participle is usually rendered in Armenian by a secondary clause:
The breakfast being over the children rushed out into the
garden to play. ºñµ ݳ˳׳ßÝ ³í³ñïí»ó,
»ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ ¹áõñë í³½»óÇÝ å³ñ﻽áõ٠˳ճÉáõ:
Weather permitting, we’ll go on a picnic tomorrow. ºÃ»
»Õ³Ý³ÏÁ ɳí ÉÇÝÇ, Ù»Ýù í³ÕÁ ϷݳÝù
½µáë³ËÝçáõÛùÇ:

4. The Prepositional Absolute Construction

with the Present Participle

This construction differs from the Nominative Absolute

Construction with the Present Participle in that it is introduced by
the preposition with. Its nominal part is usually expressed by a
noun in the Common case or (occasionally) by a personal pronoun
in the Objective case. It may or may not be set off by a comma:
I looked into the dark room, with my teeth chattering.
There would be no strain, with him asking no more
questions about my parents.
The main syntactic function of the Prepositional Absolute
Construction with the Present Participle is an adverbial modifier of
attendant circumstances (with causal or temporal meaning):

142
 He could hear nothing, with the noise coming through
the open door.
We passed the reception desk with no one looking at us.
This construction normally occurs in fiction or scientific
literature. It is usually rendered in Armenian by means of a
secondary clause:
We sat on the veranda, with Mary playing the piano in
the drawing-room.
Ø»Ýù Ýëï³Í ¿ÇÝù å³ïß·³ÙµáõÙ, ÇëÏ Ø»ñÇÝ
¹³ßݳÙáõñ ¿ñ Ýí³·áõÙ ÑÛáõñ³ë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ:

The Present Participle and the Gerund Compared

The Present Participle and the gerund have similar

morphological categories, i.e. the categories of correlation and
voice as well as similar verbal combinability. The difference is
related to their syntactic functions. The Present Participle is not
used as subject, object or part of a compound verbal predicate. In
other identical functions they differ in that the gerund like a noun is
usually preceded by a preposition.

Gerund Present Participle

1. Subject ______________
Smoking is forbidden in public
places.
2. Object
He likes talking politics. ______________
They are fond of
experimenting
3. Part of a compound verbal
aspect predicate ______________
She started learning Chinese.
4. Attribute
I like her manner of singing I like to look at her smiling face.

143
Armenian folk songs.
5. Adverbial modifier of time
In reading the letter she cried Walking up Fifth Avenue he ran
a lot. across an old friend of his.
6. Adverbial modifier of
manner He walked out, limping painfully.
He tried to prove his
innocence by giving new
evidence.
7. Adverbial modifier of reason
I can’t help you because of I could not help them, being
being unaware of the whole ignorant of the state of things.
affair.
8. Adverbial modifier of
purpose Wishing to tell her the news I
I’ve come here for helping you. phoned her immediately.
9. Adverbial modifier of
attendant circumstances
He went on listening to her He went out slamming the door.
without interrupting.

The Past Participle

The Past Participle has both verbal and adjectival properties. It

has no distinct morphological categories. However, the meanings
of voice, aspect and correlation are implicitly present in the Past
Participle. This is in direct dependence on the lexical meaning of
the verb that the participle is derived from.
The passive meaning of the Past Participle may be observed in
the following verbs:
1) durative transitive verbs (to follow, to watch, to teach, to
laugh, to carry, etc.):
The only foreign language taught at this school is
German.

144
 A watched pot is never hot.
The devil is not so black as he is painted.
2) terminative transitive verbs, denoting a state as a result of an
action (to bring, to build, to catch, to solve, to open, to close, to
find, etc.):
The man caught by the police turned out to be innocent.
Make sure the door is shut.
The shop is closed at this time of the day.
3) verbs denoting psychological states or emotions (to love, to
hate, to annoy, to amuse, to please, to offend, to insult, etc.):
There was an amused look on his face.
He got annoyed with me about my carelessness.
The perfect and aspective meanings of the Past Participle are
reflected in their indicating either priority or simultaneity of the
action in reference to that of the finite verb:
We admired the beauty of the castle built in the last century.
(priority)
I felt annoyed talking to him. (simultaneity)
The Past Participle has a number of syntactic functions in the
sentence:
1) attribute, close and detached. When the attribute is
expressed by a single past participle, it is called close. It stands
before the word it modifies and may itself be modified by an
adverb:
She threw away the broken glass.
It was a beautifully designed piece of art.
When the Past Participle has accompanying words, it is called
detached and forms a participial phrase. A detached participle
stands after the word it modifies and may occupy the initial, middle
and final position in the sentence:
I never heard the name mentioned before.
Mr. Grand entered the hall accompanied by his charming
wife.

145
 Discouraged by the first failure he nevertheless did not give
up.
The mother, worried about the possible spread of the
disease, immediately isolated Mary from the other children.
2) predicative:
Her decision remained unaltered.
All her valuable things were locked in the safe.
3) adverbial modifier often preceded by the conjunctions when,
while, though, if, as if, as though, etc.:
a) time:
When broken, he never gave himself away.
b) condition:
If asked she would not tell anything.
c) concession:
Though disillusioned by the lack of spiritual values in the
modern world, he is optimistic about the future.
d) comparison:
Henry felt happy as if given the best actor award.
e) reason:
Torn with inner conflict, he could not feel at peace with his
conscience.

Predicative Constructions with the Past Participle

The Past Participle makes up part of the following predicative

constructions:
1. The Predicative Construction with a Complex Object
2. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction
3. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction
4. The Absolute (Prepositional and Non-Prepositional)
Construction

146
 1. The Predicative Participial Construction
with a Complex Object

This construction consists of a noun in the Common case or a

pronoun in the Objective case and the Past Participle which are in
a predicative relationship. It is usually used after verbs expressing
a) causative meaning (to have, to get, to make):
I have my rooms cleaned every week.
He has his car repaired here.
b) physical perception (to see, to feel, to hear, to find):
We never heard this book mentioned among bestsellers.
She prefers clothes made in France.
c) desire (to wish, to want, to like/dislike, to prefer):
I want my hair cut short.
How would you like your steak done?

2. The Nominative Absolute Participial Construction

This construction consists of the nominal part expressed by a

noun in the Common case or a pronoun in the Nominative case
and the Past Participle which are in a predicative relationship. It
functions as adverbial modifier of
a) attendant circumstances:
We sat in the drawing-room, the candles lit and the
wood burning brightly in the fire-place.
b) manner:
He looked at the man, his face horribly convulsed.
c) time:
The explanation given, they dropped the subject and
never returned to it during the whole evening.
d) reason:
The letter mailed, he felt somewhat relieved.
e) concession:

147
 The windows widely opened, the rooms aired, he still felt
hot and uncomfortable.

3. The Prepositional Absolute Participial Construction

with the Past Participle

The Prepositional Absolute Construction with the Past Participle

functions just the same way as the Nominative Absolute
Construction with the Past Participle, except for being preceded by
the preposition with. It is used as adverbial modifier in various
meanings:
With the date of my marriage fixed, I felt some anxiety. (time)
With the windows shut and the doors closed he felt almost
suffocated. (reason)
He sat on the veranda, with his eyes fixed on his favourite
cherry-tree in the garden. (attendant circumstances)
Even with the central heating turned on to the full she felt
cold and miserable. (concession)

4. The Absolute (Prepositional and Non-Prepositional)

Construction

This construction is used without the Past Participle and like the
previous types usually functions as adverbial modifier of attendant
circumstances:
She sat in the arm-chair, (with) the letter by her side.
He entered the room, (with) his hands in his pockets.
The boys were waiting for him, (with) sticks in their hands.
She left the room, (with) despair and sorrow in her heart.

148
 EXERCISES

THE NOUN

Ex.1. In each group underline the noun that is usually uncountable:

1. holiday, journey, flight, luggage, suitcase
2. cheque, coin, cash, salary, bonus
3. job, employee, boss, unemployment, profession
4. motorway, traffic, traffic jam, hold-up, rush hour
5. message, information, stamp, letter, parcel
6. bread, bun, cake, cookie, pie
7. money, dollar, pound, coin, wallet
8. bed, armchair, furniture, sofa, stool
9. university, education, school, college, faculty

Ex.2. In each group underline the noun that is usually countable:

1. luck, happiness, opportunity, fun, help
2. ingredient, cutlery, fruit, meat, food
3. air, sleep, fluid, health, energy
4. flour, doughnut, sugar, milk, butter
5. love, hatred, friendship, affection, kiss
6. coffee, cocoa, bottle, milk, beer
7. reputation, fame, name, glory, respect
8. advice, information, fact, knowledge, evidence,
9. unemployment, poverty, wealth, pleasure, trouble

Ex.3. Circle the abstract nouns:

love, man, woman, friendship, reading-lamp, mankind,
computer, dress, memory, notebook, age, monument, fear, statue,
gold, fame, suitcase, glory, life, beauty, reputation, name,
wardrobe, handbag.

149
Ex.4. Circle the derivative nouns:
conclusion, examination, garden, maiden, standard-lamp,
dining-room, painter, writer, supper, friendship, majority, honesty,
artist, agreement, instrument, darkness, actress, dress, dictation,
childhood, football, heroism, scientist, fist, Indian, popularity,
territory, library, librarian, duty, timetable, freedom, movement.

Ex.5. Fill in the blanks with abstract nouns formed from the nouns
in
brackets:
1. I had a very happy _____ (child). 2. I forgot to renew my
____ (member) in the sailing club. 3. We formed a deep and
lasting ____ (friend). 4. He hopes to take over the ____ (leader) of
the party. 5. There are lots of nice people in the ____ (neighbour).
6. In the ____ (king) of Thailand, the king commands the respect
of every citizen. 7. She seems to be enjoying ____ (mother). 8. He
had barely reached ____ (man) when he married.

Ex.6. Underline the compound nouns:

dishonesty, bookcase, cherry-tree, doorbell, hardship,
friendship, rubber, shipwreck, fatherland, sportsman, stabilization,
gravity, fisherman, policeman, qualification, rearrangement.

Ex.7. Fill in the blanks choosing the words given below to form
compound words:
god, grand, tooth, beauty, gold, fancy, born, sleep, telling
1. The art of story _____ is slowly dying. 2. Tom Sawyer told
Aunty Polly that he had a _____ ache. 3. Little Red-Riding Hood
went to visit her _____ mother. 4. The early explorers of America
dreamt of finding _____ mines. 5. I dressed up as a fairy _____
mother for the _____ dress competition. 6. Sleeping _____ was
woken up by the kiss of a handsome prince. 7. _____ walking is a
condition, not a disease. 8. Joseph and Mary were warned in a

150
dream to avoid King Herod who had planned to kill new_____
babies.

Ex.8. Combine the words given in Box A with those in Box B to

form
compound words and fill in the blanks appropriately:

A B
day, after, flash, dining, sun, back, light, man, reporter,
bed, earth, rain, hair, paper, side, fall, quake, cut, stains,
police, hand, mad, look, crime, shake, break, out, dream,
blood, lunch officer, room, rays, noon

My dream was to become a crime reporter. That day, during the

_____ I was reading the _____ edition of the ‘Adventures of
Sherlock Holmes’.
Suddenly I felt a tremor. I thought it was an _____. It was dark. I
searched for the _____ by my _____ but it was gone.
I slowly got up from the bed. I could hear the sound of _____ on
the roof. Suddenly, to my horror, I saw _____ on the floor. They
led to the _____. I found a candle lit and a man with a strange
_____ seated at the table. He greeted me with a _____ and gave
me a red rose. Then I heard a knock at the door. I went to open it.
It was a _____. He said he was on the _____ for a _____ who had
escaped from the mental asylum.
Suddenly I saw a bright light in the dining room. It came from
the _____ streaming in through the windows. So it wasn’t night, it
was _____! I realised it was all a _____.

Ex.9. Write the corresponding nouns of feminine gender:

earl ____________ tiger __________ man-doctor __________
husband ________ Tom-cat _______ nephew _____________
baron __________ lord __________ boy-friend ___________
host ___________ duke __________ grandfather __________

151
master _________ king ___________ hero _______________

Ex.10. Write the corresponding nouns of masculine gender:

countess ________ she-wolf _________ woman-driver ______
queen __________ princess __________ she-bear ___________
duchess _________ poetess __________ lioness ____________
lady __________ mother __________ stewardess _________
actress __________ sister ____________ aunt ______________

Ex.11. Underline the nouns referred to as feminine:

sun, moon, earth, car, ship, horse, couch, carriage, cat,
dog, horse, elephant, steamer, country, parrot, rabbit, hare, boat.

Ex.12. Underline the correct pronouns:

1. This is my new car. Isn’t he/she/it beautiful? 2. I showed
them my boat. I had just repaired him/her/it. 3. We noticed a ship
not far from the coast. He/she/it was shipwrecked. 4. Look at my
parrot. Isn’t he/she/it nice? 5. Scotland is proud of his/her/its poets.
6. Let’s buy this car. He/she/it is the latest model. 7. We saw a
boat. He/she/it was sailing to the coast. 8. China is the first most
populous country. Around 2030, his/her/its population is
anticipated to peak and then slowly start dropping.

Ex.13. Write the plural of the following nouns:

city _________ roof __________ man-doctor ______________
dress ________ baby __________ sister-in-law _____________
photo ________ key ___________ reading-lamp ____________
crisis ________ mouse _________ fisherman ______________
tomato _______ house _________ proof __________________
formula ______ child __________ woman-driver ___________
datum _______ wife ___________ passer-by ______________
foot _________ leaf ___________ dining-room ____________
scarf ________ ox _____________ box __________________
trout ________ deer ____________ phenomenon ___________

152
Ex.14. Use the correct plural form of the noun in brackets:
1. A group of (deer) walked out of the woods. 2. Jerry tells
silly (story). 3. The farmer needed food for all the new (calf). 4. He
divided each bale of hay into two (half). 5. She thought there were
some (thief) around. 6. Three (mouse) ran across the kitchen floor.
7. The children ran as fast as their (foot) would carry them. 8. A
herd of (ox) ate the grass. 9. The boys left (loaf) of bread for the
tiny animals. 10. The teacher told the pupils a fable about (wolf)
and (fox).

Ex.15. Underline the correct word:

1. Money is/are not everything, but sometimes it can be
something. 2. Tommy’s trousers is/are dirty. 3. The police
want/wants to interview Mr Jones about the accident. 4. Physics
is/are an exact science. 5. No news are/is good news. 6. My
mathematics is/are weak. 7. Linda, where is/are the scissors? 8.
The cattle is/are grazing by the river. 9. Our team is/are strong. 10.
Our family are/is early risers. 11. Mr Black’s politics is/are extreme.
12. Today our team is/are wearing blue and white uniforms. 13.
Angela’s hair is/are very beautiful. 14. Your sunglasses is/are on
the table. 15. The USA is/are a very large country. 16. Billiards
is/are my favourite game.

Ex.16. Underline the correct word:

1. Every week our teacher of French gives us a list of
vocabularies / vocabulary to learn. 2. Would you like some toasted
sandwich / sandwiches? 3. I have a lot of reading assignment /
assignments to complete before the end of the term. 4. I’ve sent off
for the detail / details of a job I saw advertised in the paper. 5. Do
you have any experience / experiences of working with children?
6. I forgot to put the rubbishes / rubbish out for collection this
morning. 7. There’s a shortage of cheap accomadations /
accommodation here in Cambridge. 8. It is sometimes difficult to

153
persuade farmers to wear the proper protective clothing / clothings.
9. The soldiers had to carry their equipment / equipments on their
backs for miles. 10. Five enemy aircrafts / aircraft have been shot
down over the coast.

Ex.17. Write the following phrases using the Genitive case:

a kitten belonging to Rita; a catch made by a ball player; a
card which is worth a dollar; a choice made by people; the journey
made by Moses; the pumpkin patch planted by my uncle; the party
given by Nancy; a drugstore owned by Mr. Brown; the toys
belonging to the children; a horse whose owner is Edward; the
puppies belonging to the collie; the baseball team of the girls; the
office of the lawyer; the coats of the men; the tickets belonging to
the passengers.

Ex.18. Use the nouns in brackets in the Genitive case:

1. I enjoy reading (Dickens) ____ books. 2. Let’s go to the
(Smiths) ____. 3. The (children) ____ room is upstairs. 4. My
(sister-in-law) ____ son is twelve years old. 5. (Susan - Steve)
____ and ____ bags have blue stickers. 6. (men) ____ shoes are
on the second floor. 7. My (parents) ____ car was not expensive.
8. (Charles) ____ CD player is new. 9. Have you read (Socrates)
____ works? 10. These are the (boys) ____ pencils.

Ex.19. Use the Genitive case of the following nouns or an of-

phrase :
(a glass) milk____ ___________________
(my friend) bike _____________________
(Mr Smith) car ______________________
(ten minutes) walk ___________________
(the director) office __________________
(the number) house __________________
(two days) work _____________________
(a mile) distance _____________________

154
(Britain) economy ___________________

Ex.20. Fill in the blanks with s, ’s or s’ where necessary.

1. This is a new edition of Byron___ poem___. 2. That man
was Linda___ and Nelly___ old teacher___ of music. 3. Those
were Nick___ and Kate___ parent___. 4. We spent a week___
holiday at the Barton___. 5. We spent a two week___ holiday with
the Barton___. 6. The book is neither John___ nor Mary___. 7. It
was neither John___ nor Mary___. 8. Byron___ life was short but
bright. 9. I haven’t touched a single book of John___. 10. Father
took some money from his pocket and put it into my younger bro-
ther___. 11. Father took some money from his pocket and gave it
to my younger brother___. 12. His eyes narrowed like a cat___.
13. He moved around softly like a cat___ .

Ex.21. Put in the apostrophe (’ ) or ’s correctly:

1. The men cars are parked there. 2. The grocer shop is
round the corner. 3. The boys bicycles are over there. 4. Ladies
handbags are sold here. 5. The soldiers helmets are of the same
colour. 6. The children playground is across the road. 7. This girl
hair is the longest in class. 8. The carpenters tools are in the box.
9. We have two weeks holiday in September. 10. It is John last
year as president of the club. 11. Mosquitoes wings move
incredibly fast. 12. It is important to be sensitive to other people
feelings. 13. Did you add Chris name to the invitation list ? 14. The
earth surface is about seventy percent water. 15. We have lessons
in this building, but all the teachers offices are in another building.
16. The soldiers fought to the death on the muddy river bank. At
the end, the victor could not help but admire his enemy courage.
17. It is important to make sure your baby toys are safe for babies
to play with. 18. A receptionist job is to write down callers names
and take messages. 19. Each flight has at least two pilots. The
pilots seats are in a small area called the cockpit.

155
Ex.22. Replace the prepositional groups by the Genitive case
where
possible:
1. The teacher drew the attention of the students to the
peculiarity of the style of the author. 2. Before I could say a word,
the sound of a motorbike was heard. 3. The river was at a distance
of a mile and a half from the camp. 4. He did not want to hurt the
feelings of the girl. 5. There was a spot of ink on the table cloth. 6.
I spent a fortnight in the house of my friend. 7. The pursuit of the
enemy stopped only at nightfall. 8. There was a great variety of
books for children on display. 9. We visited the city of Memphis
where Elvis Presley lived for many years. 10. The interest of
Jessica, the youngest daughter of the Jacksons, in mathematics
was unpredictable. 11. I shall never forget those words of my
father. 12. We could not tear our eyes off the hands of the pianist.

Ex.23. Replace the word-combinations in bold type by the

Absolute
Genitive:
1. I was invited to a party in the house of the Johnsons. 2.
The professor was one of Papa’s particular friends. 3. The actor
caught Max’s attention simply because he had caught the attention
of Laura. 4. I promised to call for my wife at the place of her
parents. 5. We heard the news from one of the Smiths’ relations.
6. When the aunt’s eyes met the eyes of Tom she understood that
he was lying. 7. Fanny’s costume was the nicest costume at the
fancy ball. 8. There is no music I like better than the music by
Mozart. 9. His hands were shaped like the hands of a woman. 10.
The mother took the ring off her finger and put it on the finger of
her daughter. 11. The dog did not respond to the voice. It was not
the voice of his master. 12. He was sure that it was one of Peter’s
tricks.

Ex.24. Translate into English:

156
 1.Üñ³Ýó ÁÝï³ÝÇùÁ ÑÇÙ³ ³ñï³ë³ÑÙ³ÝáõÙ ¿ ¨
å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ ¿ ßáõïáí í»ñ³¹³éÝ³É Ñ³Ûñ»ÝÇù: 2.Ò»ñ
ËáñÑáõñ¹Ý»ñÝ ÇÝÓ ÙÇßï û·ÝáõÙ »Ý: ÐÇÙ³ ¿É ÇÝÓ ÙÇ ËáñÑáõñ¹
ïí»ù ³Ûë ѳñóáõÙ: 3.´áÉáñ ³Û¹ ï»Õ»ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ ß³ï
ϳñ¨áñ »Ý ×Çßï áñáßáõ٠ϳ۳óÝ»Éáõ ѳٳñ: 4.²Û¹
µÝ³·³í³éáõÙ ³Ûë ˻ɳóÇ »ñÇï³ë³ñ¹Ç ·Çï»ÉÇùÝ»ñÁ Ù»½
³åß»óÝáõÙ »Ý: 5.ʳÝáõÃÇ í³é Éáõë³íáñí³Í óáõó³÷»ÕÏÁ
·ñ³íáõÙ ¿ñ µáÉáñ ³Ýóáñ¹Ý»ñÇ áõß³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ: 6.²Ûë ·ñù»ñÁ
ÝáõÛÝ Ñ»ÕÇݳÏÇÝÝ »Ý ¨ ³ñï³ëáíáñ »ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ »Ý: 7.àã
áù ãϳñáÕ³ó³í µ³ó³ïñ»É ³ÕçÇÏÝ»ñÇ í³ñù³·ÇÍÁ »ñ»Ïí³
»ñ»ÏáõÛÃÇ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï: 8.²Ûë ÷áÕÝ ÇÙÁ ã¿, ¨ »ë ã»Ù ϳñáÕ ³ë»É,
û áõÙÝ ¿: 9.²Ù»Ý áõëáõóÇã Ñå³ñï ¿ Çñ ³ß³Ï»ñïÝ»ñÇ
ѳçáÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí: 10.îÕ³Ý ß³ï Ñå³ñï ¿ñ, »ñµ ëï³ó³í Çñ
³é³çÇÝ ³Ùëí³ ³ß˳ï³í³ñÓÁ: 11.ܳ ³ñ³· ׳ÙåñáõÏÇ Ù»ç
¹ñ»ó »ñÏáõ ï³µ³ï, »ñ»ù í»ñݳ߳åÇÏ, »ñÏáõ ëñµÇã,
·áõÉå³Ý»ñ áõ óßÏÇݳÏÝ»ñ ¨ ¹áõñë »Ï³í ï³ÝÇó:
12.¶»ñÙ³ÝÇ³Ý Ñ³ÛïÝÇ ¿ Çñ ³íïáÙ»ù»Ý³Ý»ñÇ
³ñï³¹ñáõÃÛ³Ùµ, ÇëÏ Ø»Í ´ñÇï³ÝdzÝ` ݳí³ßÇÝáõÃÛ³Ùµ:
13.ܳ ÇÝÓ óáõÛó ïí»ó Çñ ÍÝáÕÝ»ñÇ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ÑÇÝ Éáõë³Ýϳñ:
14.²ÝóÛ³É ï³ñÇ ÙÇ ß³ï ï³ñûñÇÝ³Ï »ñ¨áõÛà Ýϳïí»ó
³ëïÕ³·»ïÝ»ñÇ ÏáÕÙÇó: 15.ØÇ° ³Ýѳݷëï³óÇñ:
àëïÇϳÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ³Ûëï»Õ ¿: 16.ÆÙ ³ÏÝáóÁ Ïáïñí³Í ¿:
ºë å»ïù ¿ ÝáñÁ ·Ý»Ù: 17.ø³Õ³ù³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ »ñµ»ù ãÇ
Ñ»ï³ùñùñ»É ÇÝÓ: 18.²Ûëûñí³ Ã»ñûñáõÙ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ
ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝ Ï³: 19.Üñ³ ù³Õ³ù³Ï³Ý ѳ۳óùÝ»ñÁ ËÇëï
ͳÛñ³Ñ»Õ »Ý: 20.ÆÙ ï³µ³ïÁ ß³ï »ñϳñ ¿: àõ½áõÙ »Ù ³ÛÝ
ï³Ý»É ¹»ñÓ³ÏÇ Ùáï: 21.ÂáÙÇ Ù³½»ñÁ ã³÷³½³Ýó »ñϳñ »Ý:
ÆÝãáõ± ãÇ ·ÝáõÙ í³ñë³íÇñ³Ýáó:

THE ARTICLE

Ex.1. Say what article is used with the following proper names, if
any:

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1. _____ Earth 11. _____ North Pole
2. _____ Oxford University 12. _____ Sahara Desert
3. _____ Crimea 13. _____ High Street
4. _____ Hague 14. _____ Pacific Ocean
5. _____ Everest 15. _____ Russian language
6. _____ North Sea 16. _____ Lake Sevan
7. _____ Mediterranean 17. _____ Europe
8. _____ United States 18. _____ Mars
9. _____ Niagara Falls 19. _____ Netherlands
10. _____ Thames 20. _____ United Kingdom

Ex.2. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:

1. He left ____ home unnoticed. 2. Our friends ____ Millers
moved to ____ Florida ____ last August. 3. He has ____ cut on his
leg and ____ bruise on ____ chin. 4. ____ Mt. Everest is ____
highest mountain in ____ world. 5. Switch off ____ air-conditioner
please. I have ____ cold. 6. We reached ____ top of ____ hill
during ____ afternoon. 7. Do you like ____ weather here? Isn’t it
too hot during ____ day but very cold at ____ night? 8. My sister
often stays at ____ Uncle Tim’s in ____ Hague. 9. Don’t be late for
____ school. Go by ____ bus. 10. Listen! Dennis is playing ____
trumpet. 11. We often see our cousins over ____ Easter. 12. What
about going to ____ Australia in ____ February? 13. Last year we
visited ____ St. Paul’s Cathedral and ____ Tower. 14. ____ Loch
Ness is ____ famous lake in ____ Scotland. 15. ____ most
children like ____ sweets. 16. ____ Plaza Hotel is on the corner of
____ 59th Street and ____ 5th Avenue. 17. ____ echo of her
footsteps died away. 18. The car stopped at ____ corner of ____
Fifth Avenue and ____ 112th Street. 19. I want you to choose ____
right road, ____ road your father and grandfather had chosen. 20.
When I begin to feel sleepy, I change ____ heavy book I am
reading for ____ lighter one. 21. ____ chorus of young voices
singing came from the class-room. 22. We want ____ place where

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we can live in peace and freedom. 23. ____ room 215 is on ____
fifth floor. 24. Across ____ yard walked ____ young men in ____
black robes and ____ four-cornered hats. 25. The yacht, ____
large and luxurious craft, lay at anchor in ____ bay. 26. ____ man
standing by ____ entrance opened ____ door. 27. He was ____
man who had never in his life had ____ slightest doubt as to his
abilities. 28. I was very thirsty and took ____ second cup of tea,
then ____ third one and only after ____ fourth I felt that I had had
enough.

Ex.3. Insert the appropriate articles paying particular attention to

the use
of the uncountable nouns:
1. a) The airplane we were travelling in ran into ____ heavy
weather. b) ____ weather was sunny and mild in London. 2. a) Are
you satisfied with ____ progress you have made? b) The patient is
making ____ noticeable progress and we hope he will soon
recover. 3. a) I am grateful to you for ____ advice you gave me. b)
He wondered what ____ advice the old man would give him. c) I
think I can give you ____ piece of a good advice. 4. a) I am
satisfied with ____ news I managed to get. b) Don’t tell him about
the disaster. Such ____ fatal news can kill him. 5. a) Where have
you got such ____ important information from? b) He tried to put
together ____ information he had got from different sources. c)
How did you manage to get such ____ fine piece of ____
information? 6. a) His request for ____ work was turned down. b)
He put away ____ work, ready to listen to me. c) I intended to do
____ little work before going to bed. d) Look at the necklace. What
____ fine piece of ____ work! 7. a) ____ water is precious in this
area and must be paid for. b) Don’t drink from this bottle, ____
water is stale. 8. a) Prometheus stole ____ fire from Olympus to
give it to men. b) They built ____ fire to mark the place for the
plane to land. 9. a)____ air was filled with the odour of flowers. b)
____ fresh air was circulating through all the rooms of the grand

159
house. c) There was ____ air of importance about him. 10. a) This
is ____ tea I am particularly fond of. I don’t think there is ____
better tea than this. b) ____ tea was first cultivated in China.

Ex.4. Insert the appropriate articles:

A. 1. ____ morning began with good news. 2. It all happened
on ____ bright and sunny morning. 3. When ____ morning came
we were already far out in the sea. 4. It was ____ early morning;
the sun had just risen. 5. It was early in ____ morning that a loud
knock at the door took me out of bed. 6. We returned late in ____
afternoon. 7. It was ____ late afternoon when we returned. 8. Now
and then, a bird’s cry broke ____ night. 9. The elevator was closed
for ____ night and she had to climb up the stairs. 10. We are
expecting them towards ____ evening. 11. He spent ____ restless
night, thinking of what he should do. 12. I will never forget____
winter of 1988.
B. 1. We usually have ____ dinner at four. 2. What shall we
buy for ____ supper? 3. They had ____ breakfast of bread and -
butter and an omelet. 4. ____ dinner is served. 5. After the heated
discussion they sat down to ____ supper. 6. They had ____ filling
and delicious breakfast. 7. They decided upon ____ light supper.
8. ____ supper was cakes and tea. 9. At last ____ dinner came to
an end, and the men went out to smoke. 10. I first met him at ____
official dinner.

Ex.5. Fill in the blanks with the appropriate articles paying

particular
attention to the proper nouns:
1. ____ Roy I met in Chicago was different from ____ Roy I
had seen three years before. 2. He has the humour of ____
Chaplin. 3. I know as much about him as you do – he is ____ Mr.
Dalton. 4. One of the police officers handed ____ Lewis a paper
and asked, “Are you ____ Lewis who wrote this?” 5. ____ Queen
Mary was launched by ____ Queen Mary in 1938. 6. He got ____

160
Picasso at a high price. 7. In those days he used to drive ____
Ford. 8. ____ Lake Baikal is the deepest lake in the world. 9. ____
Hague, a city in ____ Netherlands near ____ North Sea, is the
seat of the Dutch government. 10. ____ Ruhr is an important
mining and industrial district in ____ Ruhr river valley. 11. ____
Sahara is a great desert in ____ North Africa, extending from ____
Atlantic Ocean to ____ Nile. 12. ____ Philippines is an archipelago
which consists of thousands of islands. 13. ____ West Indies is a
chain of islands between ____ North and ____ South America. 14.
____ London of only fifteen years ago! How different from ____
London of today. There is ____ new London which is just as
interesting to its new citizens as ____ old London was to me. 15.
The people who live in ____ Netherlands are called ____ Dutch.
16. ____ Columbus, who discovered ____ America, was a native
of ____ Genoa. 17. ____ Amsterdam is the capital of ____
Netherlands. 18. ____ Ireland, ____ Scotland and ____ Wales are
parts of ____ United Kingdom. 19. “What is the name of the ocean
between ____ America and ____ Asia?” “ ____ Pacific.” 20. Last
summer I visited ____ Switzerland and ____ Germany.

Ex.6. Complete the text inserting the appropriate articles:

Hi John,
I arrived in ____ USA last Monday. We left ____ Rome, flew
over ____ Alps and made ____ quick stop in ____ London. There
we went shopping in ____ Harrods, visited ____ Tower and
enjoyed a sunny afternoon in ____ Hyde Park. On ____ following
day we left for ____ New York. ____ time on board ____ plane
wasn’t boring as there were two films to watch on ____ monitor.
____ people on ____ plane were all ____ Italian. Before we landed
at ____ JFK airport, we saw ____ Statue of Liberty, ____ Ellis
Island and ____ Empire State Building. ____ hotel I stayed in was
on ____ corner of ____ 42nd Street and ____ 5th Avenue. I don’t
like ____ hotels very much, but I didn’t have ____ time to rent
____ apartment.

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Please say hello to ____ Peter and Mandy.
Yours,
Peter

Ex.7. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:

A. ____ Channel Islands are ____ group of ____ islands in
____ English Channel near ____ north-western coast of ____
France. They have belonged to ____ Britain since ____ Normans
arrived in ____ 11th century, although they are not part of ____
United Kingdom.
B. ____ Charlie Chaplin was ____ English film actor. He was
also ____ director. He did most of his ____ work in ____ USA.
Many people consider him ____ greatest comic actor of ____
silent cinema. He appeared in many films as ____ poor man with
____ small round hat, ____ small moustache and ____ trousers
and ____ shoes that were too big for him, ____ causing him to
walk in ____ funny way.
C. There’s ____ giant tortoise in ____ Galapagos Islands
nicknamed ____ Lonesome George who has never found ____
mate. Recent studies by scientists suggest that ____ lonely
tortoise, now living on ____ Pinto Island, actually belongs to ____
species from ____ island of ____ Espanola. ____ scientists plan to
bring ____ female from ____ Espanola to see if ____ George will
become interested in mating.

Ex.8. Which is correct or more likely: a/an or one? If both are

possible,
write them both:
1. Somewhere in the distance, ___ bell rang. 2. Politics differ
from ___ state to another. 3. The best way to learn ___ musical
instrument is to find ___ enthusiastic teacher. 4. She left home late
___ morning and hasn’t been seen since. 5. All of the competitors
completed the race, with just ___ exception. 6. Less than three
quarters of ___ hour later, she was home. 7. ___ sandwich isn’t

162
enough. I usually eat two or three. 8. I’ve always wanted to own
___ silver-coloured car. 9. It only took us ___ week to drive to
Greece. 10. I wouldn’t allow ___ child of mine to be treated in that
way. 11. I only asked for ___ pizza. I didn’t want three of them. 12.
It weighs over ___ hundred kilos.

Ex.9. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:

1. Mr Smith went to ____ prison to give ____ lecture. 2. ____
injured were taken to ____ hospital. 3. My grandmother went to
____ church every morning. 4. ____ thief was arrested and sent to
____ prison. 5. They put ____ children to ____ bed and began to
talk in ____ whisper. 6. Shall we meet after ____ school? I’ll wait
for you in front of ____ school. 7. ____ Easter is ____ Christian
holiday. 8. Is that ____ present Bill gave you for ____ Christmas?
9. That was ____ Christmas before you were born. 10. ___ prison
is a huge red building on the left. 11. After you pass ____ school
you’ll see ____ church.

Ex.10. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:

1. I know ____ place where we can go for ____ lunch. 2.
This is ____ place which I told you about. 3. I have never seen
____ place more beautiful in my life. 4. Most people don’t like ____
steak which has been overcooked. 5. I gave ____ steak which I
overcooked to the dog. 6. I know ____ bookstore where you can
find the sequel Gone with the Wind. 7. This is ____ bookstore I
highly recommend you. 8. Is this ____ interesting book? Is this
____ very interesting book? 9. Is this ____ very interesting book
you have spoken about? Is it ____ same book you have
recommended to us? 10. There is ____ word in ____ text which I
cannot understand. There is ____ very difficult word, too, which I
cannot pronounce. Here is ____ word I was looking up in ____
dictionary. This word is ____ adverb.

Ex.11. Fill in the blanks with articles or possessive pronouns:

163
 One day, when Beethoven was taking ____ walk with ____
poet Goethe near ____ Teplitz, ____ Archduke and ____ wife
were seen to be approaching. Goethe at once stood aside and
removed ____ hat, at ____ same time plucking ____ friend by
____ sleeve, to remind him that they were in ____ presence of
royalty. Beethoven, however, seemed to regard it as ____ fitting
opportunity for illustrating ____ views on ____ independence of
____ art, and shaking off ____ hand that detained him, he
buttoned up ____ coat in ____ determined manner, planted ____
hat firmly on ____ head, and, folding ____ arms behind him,
marched straight into the ranks of ____ imperial family. If Goethe
felt dismayed at ____ friend’s lack of ____ respect, he must have
been astonished to note ____ result; for ____ Archduke not only
made way for Beethoven to pass, but removed ____ hat, while
____ wife was ____ first to bow to him.

Ex.12. Insert the correct articles where necessary:

Swift, ____ famous English writer, was travelling one day
on ____ horseback with his servant. ____ weather was bad, it was
raining, and ____ roads were muddy. In ____ evening the two men
came to ____ inn. Before going to ____ bed Swift told his servant
to clean his boots. But ____ servant was lazy and did not do it. In
____ morning Swift asked ____ servant why he had not cleaned
____ boots. “What’s ____ use cleaning ____ boots now?” said
____ servant. “____ roads are muddy and ____ boots will soon be
dirty again.” “All right,” said ____ writer. “Let’s go. We must
continue ____ journey.” “But I haven’t had ____ breakfast,” said
____ displeased servant. “Well, what’s ____ use giving you ____
breakfast now?” said Swift: “You will soon be hungry again.”

Ex.13. Fill in the blanks with the correct articles to complete the
text:
____ guide was once showing ____ group of ____ rich
American tourists ____ places of ____ interest in ____ little town in

164
____ south of ____ Italy. He took ____ tourists from ____ place to
____ place, but as ____ town was small, after ____ while ____
guide could not think of anything that might be of ____ interest to
____ Americans. “Tell us something unusual about ____ weather
or ____ climate of this place,” said ____ American lady to ____
guide. “What can I tell her about our climate?” thought ____ guide.
Then he had ____ idea. “Well,” he said, “there is one unusual thing
about our climate. One can easily notice that the wind here always
blows from ____ west.” “Really?” said ____ lady in ____ surprised
tone: “What ____ interesting thing!” But ____ other tourist said:
“You must be wrong. Look! ____ wind is blowing from ____ east
now!” At ____ first moment ____ guide did not know what to say.
But he was ____ clever man and soon found ____ way out. “Oh,”
he said, “is that so? Well, then it must be ____ west wind coming
back.”

Ex.14. Insert articles where necessary:

In ____ fifteenth century ____ people knew only three
continents: Europe, ____ Asia and ____ Africa. They knew nothing
about such ____ big continent as ____ America. ____ man who
discovered ____ America was born in 1451 in ____ Italy. His name
was Christopher Columbus. He became ____ sailor at ____ early
age. Knowing that____ Earth was round, he decided to reach ____
India sailing to ____ west. He tried to arrange ____ expedition, but
did not have ____ money, and nobody wanted to help him. At last
____ king of ____ Spain gave him ____ money for ____
expedition. He set ____ sail in 1492. ____ voyage was very
dangerous and difficult. On ____ 12th of ____ October his ship
reached ____ land. When they landed, they saw ____ strange
trees and ____ flowers. ____ men and ____ women with ____
olive-coloured skins gathered around ____ sailors and looked at
them with ____ great surprise. Columbus was sure that he had
discovered ____ new way to ____ India. Some time later ____

165
other sailor reached ____ America. ____ name of ____ sailor was
Amerigo Vespucci. He understood that it was ____ new continent.

Ex.15. Complete the texts inserting articles where necessary:

Robert Burns, ____ son of ____ small farmer in Ayrshire,
was born on ____ 25th of ____ January, 1759. His parents were
poor, so that Burns could not get a good education. He worked
hard as ____ ploughboy. He was fond of reading and always had
____ ballad book before him at ____ dinner. After ____ death of
his father Robert and his brother and sisters took over ____ farm
together. Working in ____ fields Burns wrote many wonderful
songs. However, things became so bad on ____ farm, that ____
poet decided to go to ____ Jamaica hoping to get ____ job on
____ plantation there. Luckily some friends helped Burns to
publish ____ book of poems. ____ book was noticed and praised
highly. In 1786 Burns went to ____ Edinburgh, and his book of
poems unlocked ____ doors of ____ rich Edinburgh houses to a
peasant with such a wonderful talent. In 1788 he married Jean
Armour and spent ____ peaceful and happy year. ____ rest of his
life story is ____ tale of ____ poet’s hardships. ____ hard life
ruined ____ poet’s health, and on ____ 21st of ____ July, 1796 he
died at ____ age of thirty-seven.

Ex.16. Complete the texts inserting articles where necessary:

William Shakespeare, ____ greatest English playwright,
was born in 1564 in ____ Stratford-upon-Avon in ____ England.
____ Stratford is ____ small country town in ____ farming district
near ____ centre of ____ England. ____ Avon, which is ____
pretty river with ____ grass and ____ trees all along its banks,
runs through ____ Stratford. Not much is known of ____
Shakespeare’s father. He was ____ farmer who, at ____ different
times of his life, sold ____ meat and bought and sold ____ wool.
He was poor and was often in ____ money difficulties. Very little is
known about ____ life of his only son William also. ____ little

166
house in which____ great writer was born still stands. It is now
____ museum. William went to ____ school in ____ Stratford. In
1586 he went to ____ London. Probably ____ first work he did
there was at one of the two theatres that there were in ____
London at that time. Then he became ____ actor and soon began
to write ____ plays for ____ company of асtors to which he
belonged. Shakespeare bought ____ largest house in his home
town in 1597, but he did not spend much time there till 1610. He
spent ____ last years of his life mostly in ____ Stratford, but he
often visited ____ London. He died in 1616.

Ex.17. Insert the appropriate articles:

Who decorated ____ first Christmas tree? No one knows
for ____ sure. ____ custom of bringing ____ evergreen tree
indoors and decorating it at ____ Christmas started in ____
Germany. One legend says that Martin Luther started ____
practice. Luther was ____ important Christian leader. According to
____ story, he noticed ____ starlit sky as he walked home one
Christmas Eve about ____ year 1513. He thought ____ stars
looked as if they were shining on ____ branches. When Martin
Luther arrived home, he placed ____ small fir tree inside his
house. He decorated it with ____ lighted candles.

Ex.18. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:

What should you do when you meet ____ American for
____ first time? Some people suggest that you smile and say “Hi!”
in ____ informal situation or “How do you do?” in ____ formal
situation. ____ others recommend ____ firm handshake. Everyone
agrees that ____ kiss is not appropriate, even on ____ cheek. It is
common to make ____ small talk when you first meet ____
person. You can talk about ____ weather, ____ recent sporting
event, or better yet, ask ____ other person ____ question about
his or her life. In any case, don’t remain silent when you meet ____

167
people for ____ first time because if you do, ____ American might
think you are ____ snob.

Ex.19. Complete the text with articles where necessary:

Once there was ____ man who was very fond of ____ gold.
He used to say. “While I have my gold I am ____ happiest man in
____ world.” And all his life he saved ____ money. One day he
was travelling in ____ desert in ____ North Africa. He lost his way.
He had no food or ____ water and he was almost dying of ____
hunger. He was so weak that he could not walk. He could only
crawl. ____ heat was terrible. There were only ____ stones and
____ sand around. Just then, he saw ____ bag lying on the sand.
He hoped that he would find ____ food and water in it. He crawled
to ____ bag but when he opened it, he saw that it was full of ____
gold. What is ____ use of gold to ____ hungry man in ____
desert? He left ____ bag on ____ hot sand and cried, “I am ____
most unhappy man in ____ world.”

Ex.20. Fill in the blanks with articles. Comment on the use of the
articles
in the quotations below:
1. All life is ____ experiment. ____ more experiments you
make ____ better. 2. ____ man believes that he chooses ____
woman, but it is almost always ____ other way round. It is ____
woman that chooses ____ man who will choose her. 3. Happiness
is nothing more than ____ good health and ____ bad memory. 4.
Walking with ____ friend in ____ dark is better than walking alone
in ____ light. 5. ____ unfaithful friend is like ____ shadow which
follows you while ____ sun shines. 6. ____ wise are wise only
because they love. ____ fools are fools only because they think
they can understand love. 7. Love is like playing ____ piano: first
you must learn to play by ____ rules, and then you must forget
____ rules and play from your heart. 8. ____ diplomat is ____ man
who always remembers ____ woman’s birthday, but never

168
remembers her age. 9. ____ old theory was: “Marry ____ older
man, because they are more mature.” But ____ new theory is:
“Men don’t mature. Marry ____ younger one.” 10. ____
archaeologist is ____ best husband ____ woman can have: ____
older she gets, ____ more interested he is in her. 11. ____ woman
can make ____ millionaire of any man only if he is ____ billionaire.

Ex.21. Fill in the blanks with articles where necessary:

___ Christmas tree is ___ evergreen or artificial tree
decorated with ___ lights and ___ coloured ornaments in ___
people’s homes at ___ Christmas.
___ Easter egg is ___ egg made of ___ chocolate or ___ hen’s
egg with ___ painted shell, given as ___ present to ___ children at
___ Easter.
___ Passover is ___ Jewish religious festival in ___ memory of
___ freeing of ___ Jews from ___ slavery in ___ Egypt.
___ Ramadan is ___ ninth month of ___ Muslim year, when ___
Muslims do not eat or drink anything between ___ sunrise and ___
sunset.
___ Thanksgiving (Day) is ___ public holiday in ___ USA, on ___
fourth Thursday in ___ November, and in ___ Canada, on ___
second Monday in ___ October.

Ex.22. Rewrite these headlines as sentences with appropriate

articles and
other necessary changes:
1. Masked Man Robs Woman Outside Post Office
Yesterday,____________________________________________
.
2. Bank of England Raising Interest Rates by 1,5 %
In business news, ______________________________________
.
3. Murder of Priest in Kent Shocks Community

169
Yesterday’s news of ____________________________________
.
4. New Account of Scottish History by English Writer Criticized
Reviewers have criticized________________________________ .

Ex.23. Translate the sentences, paying particular attention to the

use of
the articles in set expressions.
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Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ¹³¹³ñ ï³Éáí: 3.Üñ³Ýù ׳ݳå³ñÑ ÁÝϳÝ
³ñ¨³Í³·ÇÝ, ¨ Ù³Ûñ³ÙáõïÇÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ö³ñǽáõÙ ¿ÇÝ: 4.ºñµ
÷áùñÇÏ Â»¹Á ïáõÝ »Ï³í, áïùÇó ·ÉáõË Ã³ó ¿ñ£ ܳ ³ÝÓñ¨Ç
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6.ÆÝãáõ± »ë ³Û¹ù³Ý µ³ñÓñ Ó³ÛÝáí ËáëáõÙ: Øáé³ó»±É »ë, áñ
Ù»Ýù ÁÝûñó³ëñ³ÑáõÙ »Ýù: 7.ÆÙ µ³é³ñ³ÝÁ ÙÇßï Ó»éùÇ ï³Ï
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æáñçÇÝ: ºë ã·Çï»Ç, áñ ݳ áñáᯐ ¿ ݳí³ëïÇ ¹³éݳÉ:
19.ò³í³ÉÇ ¿, áñ ³Ûë »ñÏáõ ÁÝï³ÝÇùÝ»ñÁ ÙÇßï å³ï»ñ³½ÙÇ
Ù»ç »Ý: ÖÇßï ųٳݳÏÝ ¿, áñ Ýñ³Ýù ëÏë»Ý ³åñ»É ѳßï áõ
˳ճÕ:

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 THE PRONOUN

Ex.1. Underline the correct pronoun:

1. I would rather ask you than (he, him). 2. The teacher
praised (he, him) and (I, me). 3. Can you speak French as well as
(he, him)? 4. Mr. Page let (us, we) use his canoe. 5. Mom taught
Ronnie and (I, me) how to drive. 6. It is necessary for (he, him) and
(I, me) to reduce our expenses. 7. Did they arrive earlier than (we,
us)? 8. We are just as excited as (they, them).

Ex.2. Fill in the blanks with personal pronouns:

1. Australia is not rich in oil, and ____ mainly imports it. The
USA is selling it to ____ in large quantities. 2. Australia is one of
the five continents, but ____ is much smaller than the other four. 3.
“Do you like your car?” “Oh, ____ has never let me down yet.” 4.
Look at the yacht! ____ is almost touching the waves with the
sails. Look at ____! 5. I hear a child has been born to you. Is ____
a boy or a girl? 6. When Kinuli had become a big lioness, ____
had to be returned to the Zoo, as it was dangerous to keep ____ at
home any longer. 7. “What is the name of your dog?” “____ is
called Spot.” 8. You can take the horse to the water, but you
cannot make ____ drink. 9. Do you hear a baby crying? Something
must have hurt ____.

Ex.3. Rewrite the sentences in a more informal style, using you, we

and they:
Model: It is said that one cannot teach an old dog new tricks.
They say that you can’t teach an old dog new tricks.
1. A person should not use a phone while he is driving.
You know that_________________________________________.
2. This old factory is going to be demolished so that a new school
can be built.

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I heard that
____________________________________________.
3. People who are self-indulgent allow themselves to do or have
too much of what they like.
If ___________________________________________________.
4. One should not criticize when one is not sure of one’s facts.
I think that
____________________________________________.

Ex.4. Fill in the blanks with possessive pronouns:

1. We borrowed some books for _____ homework. 2. He has
waited a long time for _____ turn. 3. I have _____ reason for not
going to the party. 4. _____ sister and mine are doing the same
degree at the university. 5. The cat is licking _____ paw. 6. Don’t
they know they have to bring _____ calculators? 7. She is eating
_____ lunch. 8. It is important that we preserve _____ natural
resources. 9. Everyone is entitled to _____ own opinion. 10. I am
sure you don’t want to listen to all _____ problems.

Ex.5. Use the absolute form of the possessive pronouns in

brackets:
1. His essay is much more interesting than (your) or (my). 2.
It was through no fault of (her). 3. You can very well do without my
help, but not without (their). 4. “This computer of (his) is always out
of order.” “But so is (your)!” 5. (Our) was the last turn. 6. The
pleasure was all (my).

Ex.6. Underline the correct pronouns:

1. Would you like to see some of (her, hers) latest sketches?
2. He has not read a line of (your, yours), how can he criticize
(your, yours) poems? 3. If this book is neither (her, hers) nor (his,
his), it should be (my, mine). 4. (Their, theirs) knowledge of the
subject is not much superior to (our, ours). 5. I’m afraid they will
take (your, yours) words against (her, hers). 6. Fruit should be a

172
part of (your, yours) daily diet. (Theirs, they) are good for you. 7.
Will you help me to sort out the things? I cannot tell which are
(your, yours) and which are (our, ours). 8. (Their, theirs) boat was
faster than (our, ours). 9. Jessie had to drive my car to work.
(Hers, her) had a flat tyre. 10. (Our, Ours) house is very big. It’s as
big as (their, theirs). 11. (Your, Yours) teacher is very strict, but
(our, ours) is much stricter. 12. Here is (your, yours) coat. Where is
(my, mine)? 13. I have left (my, mine) cell phone at home. Could I
use (yours, your)?

Ex.7. Insert the correct reflexive pronouns:

1. I tried to make ____ agreeable. 2. He thinks too much of
____ 3. Sit down and make ____ at home. 4. I am sure they will
succeed in the aim they put before ____. 5. How can one advise
another how to act unless one knows that other as well as one
knows ____? 6. She was beside ____ with anger. 7. My brother
and I bought ____ some apples. 8. She looked in the mirror and
could not recognize ____. 9. Well, Jimmy, all you have to do is
hide ____ behind the door and shout ‘Surprise!’ when she walks
in. 10. Everybody had too much work to permit ____ a rest. 11. He
rewarded ____ with an ice-cream. 12. They agreed amongst ____
that they would not tell anyone. 13. Where have you been keeping
____ all the time? 14. You must express ____more clearly. 15. He
has a bad temper so he must learn to control ____. 16. We
thoroughly enjoyed ____ at the party on Sunday. 17. That monkey
is scratching ____. 18. One must defend ____ against bullies. 19.
Nobody touched the bottle. It burst ____.

Ex.8. Complete the sentences with reflexive pronouns:

1. It is important for all of us to have confidence in our own
abilities. We need to believe in ____. 2. David, don’t blame ____
for the accident. It wasn’t your fault. 3. A newborn puppy can’t take
care of ____. 4. There’s plenty of food on the table. Would all of
you please simply help ____ to the food? 5. He is loyalty ____. 6.

173
Lily was only three when she started to wash and dress ____. 7. I
haven’t tried it ____, but I’m told that karate is very good exercise.
8. The ring ____ was not valuable, but she was eager to buy it. 9.
Why do you think we can’t do the work ____? 10. Good girls! Have
you done this tremendous work ____? 11. Mr and Mrs Smith
wanted to repair the house ____. 12. People should try to see
____ as others see them. 13. Students should be encouraged to
think for ____. 14. After that incident we were ashamed of ____.
15. We wouldn’t let ____ believe this rumor. 16. Robert’s mother
didn’t want him to take the job on the oil rig. In fact, Robert didn’t
feel very happy about it ____. 17. There’s no need for you to
come, I can carry the shopping ____. 18. Young people ____ need
to get more involved in politics. 19. That’s a beautiful sweater,
Susan. Did you knit it ____?

Ex.9. Transform the sentences, using reflexive pronouns:

1. He was quite alone in the room. 2. We saw it with our own
eyes. 3. I kept it secret. 4. She recovered consciousness. 5. They
live on their own. 6. You needn’t come in person. 7. He looks
another man today. 8. We are proud of our achievements. 9. Do
you cook your own meals? 10. They left us alone. 11. He imagined
he was a genius. 12. Did you study the language without a
teacher? 13. When I came there I was met by none other than the
chief of the laboratory. 14. They divided it among one another. 15.
You may have it all at your disposal.

Ex.10. Put in it, they, we and you plus appropriate reflexives:

They say that if you want something done right, ___ have
to do it ___. And we all know that if something is broken, ___
certainly won’t fix ___. As a result, there are many more DIY (‘Do It
Yourself’) shops in Britain these days. It seems that ___ have all
suddenly decided to do our home repairs ___. So, are all the real
builders and plumbers out of work now? Apparently not. They’re
even busier now, trying to fix the mess left by those who

174
discovered that ___ really couldn’t do it ___ and had to call for
professional help.

Ex.11. Write the prepositions about, by, for, near, with, plus
appropriate
pronouns:
1. Erica York was a self-taught mathematician who liked to
spend hours ____ in the library. 2. The man seemed very self-
centred and only wanted to talk ____. 3. People who are self-
employed work ____, not a company. 4. I took a small knife ____,
hoping I would only have to use it in self-defence. 5. Test your self-
restraint by placing something you really like to eat ____, but don’t
eat it.

Ex.12. Complete the sentences with reflexive or reciprocal

pronouns:
1. All students are required to give a presentation on their
projects and to express ___as clearly as possible. 2. The boy said
that his sister had slipped on the wet floor and hurt ___. 3. Both
drivers said it wasn’t their fault. They blamed ___ for the accident.
4. My aunt and uncle always seem to have different opinions about
things and they almost never agree with ___. 5. Before they got
married, Kevin and Diana visited his parents in England and then
her parents in California, so they could meet ___ families.

Ex.13. Translate into English, using reflexive pronouns:

1.Ø»Í ³ñí»ëï³·»ïÁ »ñµ»ù áãÇÝã ã¿ñ å³ïÙáõÙ Çñ
Ù³ëÇÝ: 2.ºë ÇÝùë Ïϳñ¹³Ù ³Û¹ Ñá¹í³ÍÁ: γñÇù ãϳ ³ÛÝ
å³ïÙ»É: 3.²ÝóÛ³É ÏÇñ³ÏÇ Ù»Ýù ɳí Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³ÝóϳóñÇÝù
ù³Õ³ùÇó ¹áõñë: 4.Þáõïáí ½µáë³ßñçÇÏÝ»ñÁ ѳÛïÝí»óÇÝ ÙÇ
Ù»Í ½µáë³Û·áõÙ: 5.ºë ϳñÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ ¹áõù å»ïù ¿ ³í»ÉÇ
ù³Õ³ù³í³ñÇ ÉÇÝ»ù ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó Ýϳïٳٵ£ 6.²Ûë ïÕ³Ý ß³ï Ù»Í
ϳñÍÇù áõÝÇ Çñ Ù³ëÇÝ: 7.ÐÛáõñ³ëÇñí»ù, ïáñÃÁ ß³ï Ñ³Ù»Õ ¿:
ºñ»Ë³Ý»ñë Çñ»Ýù »Ý ³ÛÝ å³ïñ³ëï»É: 8.§Ò»½ ϳñ·ÇÝ

175
å³Ñ»°ù¦,– ³ë³ó áõëáõóãáõÑÇÝ ïճݻñÇÝ: 9.²ÕçÇÏÝ»ñ, ¹áõù
ÇÝùÝáõñáõÛÝ Ï³ñáÕ »ù ϳï³ñ»É ³Ûë ³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ: ²ÛÝ ³Û¹ù³Ý
¿É ¹Åí³ñ ã¿: 10.Üñ³Ýù µ³Å³Ý»óÇÝ ³Û¹ ÷áÕÁ ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó ÙÇç¨:
11.¸áõ ³ÝÓ³Ùµ Çñ` ïÝûñ»ÝÇ Ñ»ï Ëáë»óDZñ: 12.Ø»ñÇÝ áõ ùáõÛñÁ
ß³ï Ùï»ñÇÙ »Ý Çñ³ñ Ñ»ï ¨ Çñ»Ýó ·³ÕïÝÇùÝ»ñÁ íëï³ÑáõÙ
»Ý ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó: 13.Üñ³Ýù Çñ»Ýù »Ý ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ ÷áË»É Ý³Ë³·ÇÍÁ£
14.ºñ»Ï »ë ÇÝùë ã·Çï»Ç ³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ£ 15.ØÇ° Ù»Õ³¹ñ»ù á°ã
ÇÝùÝ»ñ¹ Ó»½, á°ã ¿É ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó: γï³ñí³ÍÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ ÇÝùë »Ù
Ù»Õ³íáñ:

Ex.14. Substitute that or those for the repeated noun:

1. The pictures painted by Rembrandt and the pictures
painted by Rubens have very little in common. 2. The language in
plays is usually easier and simpler than the language in novels. 3.
Natural rubber is of higher quality than rubber produced artificially.
4. The stories written by O. Henry are as full of life as the stories
written by Mark Twain.

Ex.15. Fill in the blanks with any, anyone, anything, some,

someone,
something:
1. Can ___ here cook spaghetti? 2. He bought ___ flowers
for ___ special to him. 3. I wouldn’t work for them again for ___. 4.
She does not want ___ to eat, only ___ she likes to eat. 5. Has
___ seen the headmistress? There’s ___ asking for her. 6.
Employers often look for ___ with ___ work experience. 7. Would
you like ___ else to eat? 8. Have you ever bought ___ online? 9.
Do ___ of you have a degree in Chemistry? 10. I do not like to
read ___ of the online newspapers. 11. ___ people believe in life
after death. 12. Sometimes I feel lazy to do ___ work.

Ex.16. Put in a, some or any where necessary:

1. ___ soldier can make ___ phone call without having to
pay for it. 2. ___ drug-store in the USA and Canada is ___ shop

176
where one can get not only ___ medicines but also ___ drinks and
snacks. 3. ___ days passed, but there weren’t ___ signs of ___
change coming. 4. There remained ___ toasts, ___ rolls, and___
bun on the plate. 5. “Shall I treat you to ___ apple or ___ pear?” “I
always prefer ___ apples to ___ pears.” 6. There must be ___
reason for her to behave like that. 7. The other day I spoke to ___
geologists who told me that ___new deposit of diamonds has been
found in our country. 8.___ man’s jacket usually has ___ breast
pocket. 9. I didn’t pay ___ attention to what he said. 10. You must
have ___ idea of where they went.

Ex.17. Fill in the blanks with some, any:

1. “What book shall I bring you?” “ __ you like.” 2. Is there
___ other choice? 3. He can answer ___ question on the subject.
4. I can answer now only ___ questions on the subject. 5. Shall I
help you to ___ fruit? 6. “What material do you need?” “___ that is
available.” 7. Would you like me to give you ___ additional proof?
8. Is ___ additional proof necessary? 9. Why are ___ people so
boring? 10. Will you have ___ more tea? You’ve had only one cup.

Ex.18. Complete the sentences, using some, any, no, none, or

their
compounds:
1. If you have ___ against me, speak out. 2. There is ___
familiar in his voice. 3. The scientist was in ___ need of an
interpreter. 4. Why the crowd? Has ___ happened? 5. Get off at
the next stop and there ___ will show you the way (ask ___ to
show you the way). 6. If you need ___ money, you must get ___
out of the savings bank; there is hardly ___ in the house. 7. We
looked for the man, but there was ___ around. 8. We looked for a
taxi, but there was ___ around. 9. If ___ interesting should turn up
we shall go to the movie for want of ___ better. 10. Should ___
interesting turn up, give me a ring at once. 11. “Do you have ___
idea of what it is going to be?” “___ whatsoever.” 12. You are

177
expecting ___ to call, aren’t you? 13. You are expecting ___ to
call, are you?

Ex.19. Complete the sentences with any, no or some:

Did you know that ___ thirty percent of students have to
leave university, not because they can’t cope with their studies, but
because they simply can’t afford it? In one survey, researchers
found that students cited ‘___ money’ more often than ___ other
reason such as ‘courses too difficult’ for ending their studies.
During interviews with the researchers, ___ of these former
students said that they had tried to do part-time jobs after classes,
but they had discovered that they didn’t have ___ time or they had
___ energy left for study when they finished their jobs at night.
When the researchers asked these students if they had received
financial support from their parents, ___ said they had, but the
majority said they hadn’t received ___.
Most of those interviewed said they had ___ plans to return to
university ___ time soon.

Ex.20. Fill in the blanks with any, some, no, none:

1. I went to get those empty boxes from the back of the
bookshop, but someone else had taken the whole stack. There
were ___ left. 2. Morgan Island is uninhabited now. At one time
there were ___ twenty fishing families who lived on the rocky
island during the summer months, but nowadays there are ___. 3.
There may still be ___ red squirrels in the forests of Scotland, but
there aren’t ___ left in England. 4. The last England-Sweden game
had a lot of great football, but ___ goals, ending in a scoreless
draw. 5. Latin is considered a dead language in the sense that
there is ___ population of speakers who learn it as their first
language.

Ex.21. Complete the sentences with each or every, whichever is

correct

178
 or more likely. If both are possible, write them both.
1. I try to visit my relatives in Spain ___ year. 2. ___ day we
went to work by train. 3. There were tears streaming down ___
side of her face. 4. Mike has to go overseas on business ___ six
weeks or so. 5. In a football match, ___ team has eleven players.
6. This year I have visited virtually ___ European country. 7. From
next year, ___ baby in the country will be vaccinated against
measles. 8. The airplanes were taking off ___ few minutes. 9. She
pronounced ___ name slowly and carefully as I wrote them down.
10. Rain is likely to reach ___ part of the country by morning. 11. I
visited him in hospital nearly ___ day. 12. We have ___ reason to
believe that the operation has been a success.

Ex.22. Fill in the blanks with the following pronouns. Add of where
necessary: all, both, no, none, one
Nowadays, ___ young girls can play football if they want to.
When I was young, I really wanted to play football, but ___ girls
were allowed to in my school. In fact, ___ the girls was allowed to
play any ‘boys’ sports’. It was just ___ the rules. I learned about
the game from my father and my uncle. ___ them had been
football players and they often watched games on TV. I knew that
___ teams in a match started with eleven players and ___ them
had special positions. I learned that that there was a break after
forty-five minutes, when half the game was over and that ‘full time’
meant the whole game was finished. It was fun to watch, but I
would rather have been ___ the players.

179
Ex.23. Complete the sentences with one set of words (not
necessarily in
this order):
another/each/one/the other another’s/each /one/other’s
each /other/you/yourself
1. Mutual respect is a feeling of admiration that people have for
___ ___ equally, and self-respect is a feeling of pride in ___ and
the belief that what ___ do or say is right and good.
2. An exchange is an arrangement through which two people or
groups from different countries visit ___ ___ homes or do ___ ___
jobs for a short time.
3. Wrestling is a sport in which two people fight by holding onto
___ ___while ___ tries to throw or force ___ to the ground.

Ex.24. Fill in any, every or their compounds:

1. He comes here ___ day. You can find him in ___ time
between 9 and 6. 2. I told you ___ I had to tell. There is hardly ___
to add. 3. I would give ___ to know ___ that is worth knowing. 4. I
would give ___ I have in exchange for ___ that might save his life.
5. This was a small town, where ___ could tell you ___ about ___.
6. Don’t bother about the colour. You can buy her a jersey of ___
colour. She has a perfect complexion and ___ colour becomes
her. 7 ___ driver should strictly observe traffic regulations; ___
driver who violates the regulations in the slightest degree is sure to
get into trouble.

Ex.25. Fill in the pronouns either, every, each or their compounds:

1. ___ day he comes here and ___ time he asks me the
same questions. 2. ___ side of the cube is equal to ___ other. 3.
There was a huge building on ___ side of the square, ___ having a
massive arched gate. 4. There were huge buildings on ___ side of
the street and ___ had rows of balconies as its only decoration. 5.
“Which would you prefer, the Webster or the Oxford dictionary?”
“___ will do. Thank you.” 6. We shall get books for ___ and give a

180
copy to ___. 7. He shook hands and had a few minutes’ talk with
___ of us. 8. The men and women were coming from the vineyard,
___ two of them carrying a basket of grapes. 9. The sisters were
coming from the vineyard, ___ of the two carrying a basket of
grapes.

Ex.26. Use the pronouns other(s), the other(s), another to

complete the
sentences:
1. I read the novels of George Meredith one after ___. 2. I
made few friends in those days, for I was occupied with ___ things.
3. Why are you alone? Where are ___? 4. I would like to read
more about this subject. Do you have any ___ books that you
could lend me? 5. There are many means of transportation. The
airplane is one. ___ are the horse, the train, the automobile. 6.
One of the countries I would like to visit is Sweden. ___ is Mexico.
Of course, besides these two countries, there are many ___ places
I would like to see. 7. They were going to get what they wanted,
one way or ___. 8. I am almost finished; I just need ___ five
minutes. 9. When his alarm went off this morning, he shut it off,
rolled over and slept for ___ twenty minutes. 10. I have been in
only three cities since I arrived in Britain. One is London, and ___
are Oxford and York. 11. He was always somewhat indifferent to
the feelings of ___. 12. The houses on ___ side of the river were
built out of grey stone.

Ex.27. Fill in the pronouns each, every or all:

1. He tried to speak three times and ___ time he failed. 2.
___ the people were cheering loudly. 3. He has ___ chance to win.
4. He looked at ___ of us in turn. 5. The two little girls held his
hands, one on ___ side. 6. His mother taught him that ___
pleasure must be paid for. 7. That’s the sort of job ___ boys like
doing. 8. She had ___ opportunity to continue her scientific
research. 9. ___ few hours a fishing village came in to sight. 10.

181
___ of us had to make a speech at the conference. 11. They did
not talk much about what ___ feared most. 12. He had no doubt
that she meant ___ word she said. 13. ___ who visited him that
night were friends from the time they were children.

Ex.28. Fill in the blanks with each, every or all:

It’s difficult to describe a typical school system, as ___
countries are different. In some countries, ___ school chooses its
own curriculum, or programme of study. In others, the government
decides___ detail of the educational programme. Class sizes vary
as well, and in some places there are more than 40 pupils in ___
class. In other places, classes are small, and the teacher has more
time to spend with ___ individual pupil. In some countries the
government provides ___ textbooks completely free of charge. In
other countries, however, ___ schoolbook for the different subjects
has to be bought from the school, or from a bookshop. In some
school systems ___ pupils eat their midday meal at school. In
other places, however ___ pupil makes his or her own
arrangements, some going home and returning, and others
bringing a packed lunch. ___ we can be certain about is that no
two countries are exactly the same where education is concerned.

Ex.29. Complete the following sentences with both, neither or

either.
1. She can play with the tennis racket in ___ hand. 2. Nick
and Tom are ___ my brothers. But ___ is in town now; they are
___ in the army. 3. “What are you going to have, orange juice or
Coke?” “___, I am not thirsty.” 4. I can hear you ___, but I can see
___ of you. 5. There were oaks growing on ___ side of the road. 6.
She expected them to talk about football and races, but John knew
nothing of ___. 7. He invited us ___, but I knew he did not want
___ of us at a family gathering. 8. “Would you like The Times or
The Morning Post?” “Oh, ___ will do.” 9. She had wonderful golden
hair which hung down on ___ side of her face. 10. ___ were

182
present, but ___ was helpful. 11. As ___ his hands were busy, he
greeted me with a nod. 12. “You may take ___ of the two, but not
___.” “I will take ___ or ___.”

Ex.30. Translate into English:

1.²Ûë ïáõ÷Ç Ù»ç áãÇÝã ãϳ: – ´³ó ³ñ³ ÙÛáõë ïáõ÷Á,
³ÛÝ, áñ Ó³Ë ÏáÕÙáõÙ ¿: 2.´áÉáñ ³Ûë ѳñó»ñÁ µ³ñÓñ³óí»É »Ý
µ³½ÙÇóë, ë³Ï³ÛÝ Ýñ³ÝóÇó áã Ù»ÏÁ ÉáõÍáõÙ ãÇ ·ï»É: 3.²Û¹ »ñÏáõ
ýÇÉÙ»ñÇó á±ñÁ Ó»½ ³í»ÉÇ ß³ï ¹áõñ »Ï³í: – ò³íáù, ¹ñ³ÝóÇó
áã Ù»ÏÁ ã»Ù ¹Çï»É: 4.²Ûë ³Ù»ÝÁ µ³í³Ï³Ý ï³ñûñÇÝ³Ï ¿ ÃíáõÙ:
5.îáõñ ÇÝÓ ¨ë Ï»ë ųÙ, ¨ »ë ù»½ ѳٳñ Ïå³ïñ³ëï»Ù ÙÇ ß³ï
Ñ³Ù»Õ ïáñÃ: 6.Ø»½³ÝÇó áÙ³Ýù ݳËÁÝïñáõÙ »Ý ÇÝùݳÃÇéáí
·Ý³É, ÙÛáõëÝ»ñÁ` ·Ý³óùáí: 7.ºñµ Ýñ³Ýù ѳݹÇå»óÇÝ,
ß÷áÃí³Í ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó ݳۻóÇÝ: 8.Ðݳñ³íáñ ¿, áñ Ó»ñ ³ë³ÍÇ Ù»ç
áñáß ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝ Ï³: 9.Üñ³Ý ÃíáõÙ ¿ñ, û ¹³ÑÉÇ×áõÙ µáÉáñÁ
Çñ»Ý ¿ÇÝ Ý³ÛáõÙ: 10.Úáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ áõë³ÝáÕ å³ñï³íáñ ¿
ÇÙ³Ý³É Çñ Çñ³íáõÝùÝ»ñÁ ¨ å³ñï³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ: 11.»¨
³Û¹ ë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ áã áù ã¿ñ ³åñáõÙ, ³ÛÝ Ù³ùáõñ áõ ÏáÏÇÏ ¿ñ:
12.¸áõù ûÛ, û±ëáõñ× Ïó³ÝϳݳÛÇù: – àã Ù»ÏÁ: ºë
ݳËÁÝïñáõÙ »Ù ÑÛáõÃ: 13.¶Çï³ÅáÕáíÇ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï
Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñÇÝ Ñݳñ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝ ïñí»ó ³ñï³Ñ³Ûï»É Çñ
ï»ë³Ï»ïÁ: 14.ºñµ ¹³ë³ËáëáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³í³ñïí»ó, åñáý»ëáñÁ
Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ áõë³ÝáÕÇÝ ïí»ó ³Ýѳï³Ï³Ý
ѳÓݳñ³ñáõÃÛáõÝ: 15.²Ûë ÷áÕáóáõ٠ϳ±Ý ·ñ³Ë³ÝáõÃÝ»ñ:
àñù³Ý ÇÝÓ Ñ³ÛïÝÇ ¿, ãϳÝ: 16.Üñ³Ýù »ñÏáõëÝ ¿É Éáõé ¿ÇÝ ¨
ݳËÁÝïñáõÙ ¿ÇÝ ãËáë»É ³ÛÝ Ù³ëÇÝ, ÇÝãÝ ³Ýѳݷëï³óÝáõÙ ¿ñ
Çñ»ÝóÇó Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñÇÝ: 17.ÎÇÝÁ ¹áõñë »Ï³í ˳ÝáõÃÇó`
Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ Ó»éùáõÙ ÙÇ å³Ûáõë³Ï: 18.²ÛÝ ³Ù»ÝÁ, ÇÝã ݳ
³ë³ó, µ³ó³ñÓ³Ï ëáõï ¿: 19.Üñ³Ýù Ù»Õ³¹ñáõÙ »Ý ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó,
µ³Ûó ³Ýßáõßï »ñÏáõëÝ ¿É Ù»Õ³íáñ »Ý:

Ex.31. Choose the appropriate word out of those given in brackets:

1. Will you kindly give me (another, the other) number of
the magazine? 2. They have corresponded for a long time, but

183
neither of them has seen even a photo of (another, the other). 3.
The cub would lap milk, but refused all (other, the other) food. 4.
This one is the strongest and the most cunning of all (other, the
other) cubs in the litter 5. There were many people on the beach;
some were bathing, (others, the others) basking in the sun. 6. Two
of the company left, (others, the others) stayed for the night. 7. I
see only five copies here. Where are (the other, the others) ones?
8. I have lost my marker. I must buy (another, other). 9. I can give
you only this dictionary, I have got no (another, other).

Ex.32. Translate into English:

1.ÆÝã-áñ Ù»ÏÝ ³Ûë áõß Å³ÙÇÝ Ã³ÏáõÙ ¿ ¹áõéÁ:
лï³ùñùÇñ ¿, á±í ¿: 2. ÆÙ µáÉáñ ·áñÍÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÁ Ý»ñϳ ¿ÇÝ
·Çï³ÅáÕáíÇÝ: 3.ܳ áã áùÇ ãÇ íëï³ÑáõÙ: ܳ ÇÝùÝ ¿
ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ µ³ó³Ñ³Ûï»É ³é»ÕÍí³ÍÁ: 4.Ø»Ýù ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã å»ïù
¿ ³Ý»Ýù Ýñ³Ý û·Ý»Éáõ ѳٳñ: ²ÛëåÇëÇ Çñ³íÇ׳ÏáõÙ
ó³Ýϳó³Í û·ÝáõÃÛáõÝ Ýñ³ ѳٳñ ϳñ¨áñ ¿: 5.Üñ³Ýù µáÉáñÁ
ß³ï »ñç³ÝÇÏ ¿ÇÝ Çñ»Ýó Ýáñ ï³ÝÁ: 6.æ»ÛÝÝ ³Ù»Ý ûñ
ѳݹÇåáõÙ ¿ Çñ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇÝ, ¨ Ýñ³Ýù û·ÝáõÙ »Ý ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó
¹³ë»ñÁ å³ïñ³ëï»É: 7.²É»ùëÝ ³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ áñ¨¿ Ù»ÏÇ
û·ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ï³ñÇùÁ ãáõÝÇ: ܳ ÇÝùÁ ϳñáÕ ¿ ³Ý»É ³Û¹
³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ: 8.¸áõù å»ïù ¿ ³Ù»Ý ÙÇ Ñݳñ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝ
û·ï³·áñÍ»ù` ß³ñáõݳϻÉáõ Ó»ñ áõëáõÙÁ: 9.Ø»Ýù »ñÏáõëë ¿É
ß³ï Ñá·Ý³Í »Ýù: ºÏ ÙÇ ÷áùñ ѳݷëï³Ý³Ýù: 10.ºë áãÇÝã
ãϳñáÕ³ó³ ·Ý»É: ʳÝáõÃáõÙ Ç٠׳߳Ïáí áãÇÝã ãϳñ: 11.àõñÇß
DZÝ㠳ݷɻñ»Ý ·ñù»ñ »ë ϳñ¹³ó»É ³Ûë ÏÇë³Ù۳ϣ 12.àñ¨¿ Ù»ÏÁ
·ÇïDZ Ýáñ áõë³ÝáÕÇ Ñ³ëó»Ý£ 13.»¨ Ýñ³Ýù ³åñáõÙ ¿ÇÝ
ÙǨÝáõÛÝ ÷áÕáóáõÙ, ѳ½í³¹»å ¿ÇÝ ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó ï»ëÝáõÙ:
14.ì³×³éáÕáõÑÇÝ ÇÝÓ óáõÛó ïí»ó »ñÏáõ Ù³ï³ÝÇ, µ³Ûó »ë
¹ñ³ÝóÇó áã Ù»ÏÁ ãѳí³Ý»óÇ: 15.Üñ³Ýù ß³ï ɳí ÃÇÙ »Ý:
Üñ³ÝóÇó Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñÁ ß³ï É³í ·ÇïÇ Çñ
å³ñï³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ: 16.ܳ ·ñ»Ã» ³Ù»Ý ûñ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ï
·ÝáõÙ ¿ ÓÏÝáñëáõÃÛ³Ý, µ³Ûó ÇÝùÁ »ñµ»ù áã ÙÇ ÓáõÏ ãÇ µéÝ»É:

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Ex.33. Complete the sentences with relative pronouns:
1. The boy ___ father is a doctor, is my best friend. 2. This
is not something ___ we like to do. 3. The man ___ left leg was
amputated, suffers from diabetes. 4. The thief ___ they caught,
was sent to prison. 5. Our friends, ___ we invited to the party,
arrived rather early. 6. The girl ___ broke the mirror, was scolded
by her mother. 7. That is my uncle ___ car was stolen. 8. The
woman ___ you saw, was my auntie. 9. Kangaroos, ___ use their
pouch to carry their babies, are found in Australia. 10. The
policeman ___ caught the thief, is a very brave man.

Ex.34. Circle the right word:

1. I know that (your, you’re) joking. 2. (They’re, their) going
to raise the prices again. 3. The violin is in (its, it’s) case. 4.
(Whose, who’s) bike is on our sidewalk? 5. (Its, it’s) time to start. 6.
(Whose, who’s) ringing our doorbell? 7. Your heart beats faster
when (you’re, your) running. 8. (Its, it’s) color changes when (it’s,
its) ripe. 9. (Your, you’re) cat looks good when (its, it’s) cleaned up.
10. I can guess (whose, who’s) manners (you’re, your) discussing.
11. Where’s the man (whose, who’s) car was wrecked? 12. What
kind of bird is that? (Its, it’s) a crow. 13. Nick and Nancy live in an
apartment building. (Their, they’re, there) apartment is on the sixth
floor. 14. The bird cleaned (its, it’s) feathers with (its, it’s) beak. 15.
The Customers wanted (their, they’re) money back. 16. Tom wrote
a message to (his, he’s) friends in Paris.

Ex.35. Analyse the pronouns in bold type and state whether they
are
conjunctive, relative or interrogative:
1. Mrs Patrick turned from her work on the verandah to see
who was there. 2. He sighed impatiently. Nothing he had done that
morning was worth the time that he had spent on it. 3. Who could
have thought that he would walk out on us like that? 4. “What time
did she go off duty last night?” asked Lena. 5. Still it would be

185
better to have some idea what he was going back to. 6. Sean
stood facing a man whom he did not know and who did not know
him but who had hurt him. 7. I remember you mentioned
Wednesday and Friday. Which day shall we make then? 8. He felt
like one whose dream has come true but too late.

Ex.36. Translate into English:

1.лÝñÇÝ ÍËáõÙ ¿ ÙÇ Í˳ËáïÁ ÙÛáõëÇ »ï¨Çó: ܳ ÇÝùÁ
å»ïù ¿ ·Çï³ÏóÇ, áñ ¹³ íï³Ý·³íáñ ¿ ³éáÕçáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ:
2.ÈÛáõëÇÝ ÇÝùÝ ¿ñ ó³ÝϳÝáõ٠óñ·Ù³Ý»É Ñá¹í³ÍÁ ¨ ¹³ ³ñ»ó
³é³Ýó áñ¨¿ Ù»ÏÇ û·ÝáõÃÛ³Ý: 3.γñá±Õ »ë ³ë»É, û áõ٠ϳñ»ÉÇ
¿ íëï³Ñ»É ³Û¹ å³ï³ë˳ݳïáõ ·áñÍÁ: 4.ê³ ³ÛÝ áõë³ÝáÕÝ ¿,
áõÙ ß³ñ³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ѳٳñí»É ¿ É³í³·áõÛÝÁ£ 5.Ø»Ýù ã»Ýù
ѳëóÝÇ Ýáñ óñ·Ù³ÝÇã ·ïÝ»É: Ò»½³ÝÇó á±í ·ÇïÇ
Çëå³Ý»ñ»Ý£ 6.ÊݹñáõÙ »Ù, ïáõñ ÇÝÓ Ù»Ï áõñÇß ·ñÇã: ²Ûë Ù»ÏÁ
ãÇ ·ñáõÙ: 7.سñ¹ ϳñáÕ ¿ ³ÏÝÏ³É»É É³í ³ñ¹ÛáõÝù, »Ã» ãÇ
¹³¹³ñáõÙ ³ß˳ï»É: 8.ØÇ’ ï³ÝçÇñ ÇÝù¹ ù»½: ò³Ýϳó³Í
Íñ³·ñ³íáñáÕ Ï³ñáÕ ¿ ÉáõÍ»É ùá ѳٳϳñ·ãÇ ËݹÇñÁ:
9.سñ¹ÇÏ å»ïù ¿ ѳñ·»Ý ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó ϳñÍÇùÝ»ñÁ ¨ áñ
³Ù»Ý³Ï³ñ¨áñÝ ¿` ϳñáÕ³Ý³Ý Éë»É ÙÇÙÛ³Ýó: 10.ܳ »ñÏáõ
³Ý·³Ù ÷áñÓ»ó ѳÝÓÝ»É ùÝÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ ¨ Ûáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñ ³Ý·³Ù
Ó³ËáÕí»ó: 11.²Ûë »ñÏáõ ѳٳϳñ·ÇãÝ»ñÇó á±ñÝ ÇÝÓ ËáñÑáõñ¹
Ïï³ÛÇù ·Ý»É:– ò³Ýϳó³ÍÁ: ºñÏáõëÝ ¿É í»ñçÇÝ Ùá¹»ÉÝ»ñÝ »Ý:
12.ƱÝã »ù ÷ÝïñáõÙ: ¸áõù ÇÝã-áñ µ³Ý »±ù Ïáñóñ»É: 13.²Ñ³ ³ÛÝ
áõë³ÝáÕÁ, áõÙ Ñ»ï ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ ¿Çù ½ñáõó»É: 14.ÆÝã-áñ Ù»ÏÁ
¹³ñå³ëÁ µ³ó ¿ Ãáջɣ à±í ϳñáÕ ¿ ÷³Ï»É ³ÛÝ: 15.ºë ÝáõÛÝ
ѳñóÝ ³ñ¹»Ý »ññáñ¹ ³Ý·³Ù »Ù ï³ÉÇë: ƱÝã ¿ ù»½ å³ï³Ñ»É:
16.Ø»Ýù ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã ³ñ»óÇÝù Ýñ³Ý û·Ý»Éáõ ѳٳñ: â·Çï»Ù, û
áõñÇß ÇÝã ÷³ëï»ñ ϳñ»ÉÇ ¿ ·ïÝ»É ³Û¹ ѳñóÇ ßáõñç:

Ex.37. Find the pronouns in the sentences below and state their
type:
1. I love you, not for what you are, but for what I am when I
am with you. 2. In real love you want the other person’s good. In

186
romantic love you want the other person. 3. We don’t know what is
going to be next. Our task is to be happy today. 4. Love all, trust a
few. Do wrong to none. 5. Every man desires to live long, but no
man wishes to be old. 6. Life is what happens to you while you’re
busy making other plans. 7. There is only one way to happiness,
and that is to cease worrying about things which are beyond the
power of our will. 8. What is the meaning of life? To be happy and
useful. 9. Our life is what we think about it. 10. You can express
only the love, which you cannot feel. 11. Love those whom you
order without words. 12. Without knowing what I am and why I am
here, life is impossible. 13. Love one another, but let’s not try to
possess one another. 14. Girls we love for what they are; men for
what they promise to be. 15. Happiness is not having what you
wish; it is wishing what you have.

THE ADJECTIVE

Ex.1. Write the comparative and the superlative degrees of the

following
adjectives:
happy, thin, comfortable, dry, narrow, deep, easy, difficult,
fat, old, slender, expensive, good, bad, late, near, handsome, little,
far, noble, clever, simple, hot, interesting

Ex.2. Underline the word or phrase that would correctly complete

the
sentence:
1. Those are probably the (fancier/fanciest) curtains in the
store. 2. My cold is definitely (worse/worst) this morning. 3. In the
fall, the valleys tend to be (foggy/much foggier) than the hilltops. 4.
Everyone was home for the holidays. What could make for (the
merriest/a merrier) Christmas than that? 5. ‘Diehard’ is the (most
exciting/more exciting) movie I’ve ever seen. 6. Of all the

187
mechanics in the shop, Jersey is surely the (less competent/least
competent).

Ex.3. Use the adjectives in brackets in the correct form. Use the
article
where necessary:
1. It is (shameful) to distrust our friends than to be deceived
by them. 2. Cardiff is (large) city in Wales. 3. The Pacific is (large)
ocean in the world. 4. The Opera House is one of (beautiful)
buildings in our city. 5. This coffee is (good) I have ever tasted. 6.
The doctor was upset as the patient felt (bad) yesterday than two
days before. 7. He is (amusing) person I have ever met. 8. Mount
Everest is (high) mountain in the world. 9. Our auditorium is
(sunny) in this building. 10. You ought to be (respectful). I don’t
approve of your behaviour. 11. Brazil exports (much) coffee of all
countries. 12. It is (good) to be alone without friends than to be
alone among them. 13. My coat isn’t (warm) enough. I need a
(warm) one. 14. (Good) late than never. 15. A bird in hand is
(good) than two in the bush. 16. The students’ work became (hard)
and (hard) as the end of the term came nearer. 17. Yesterday the
manager arrived at the office (early) than usual. 18. The London
underground is (old) in the world. 19. China is a very (large)
country. It is the first (much) populous country. 20. Which is
(large), the United States or Canada? 21. Blood is (thick) than
water. 22. There is nothing (interesting) than the talk of two lovers
who keep silence. 23. The London underground is the (old) in the
world. 24. St. Petersburg is one of the (beautiful) cities in the
world.

Ex.4. Insert the appropriate form of the adjective given in brackets

and
supply the article where necessary:
1. The first draft of the poem was ..., the second one is still ...
(good). 2. At first I couldn’t say which songs in the album were ...;

188
they were all …, but now I see that the last is … ( touching). 3. That
step he took was ... act of the old man’s life (courageous). 4. This
is going to be your … act (kind). 5. The noise grew … and ...
(faint). 6. He was ... . He was ... than he had ever been (restless).
7. This problem is as ... as the others (serious). 8. Do you always
choose ... way (easy)? 9. The young aren’t very … to the old. They
ought to be ... (respectful). 10. Are there ... seats available
(cheap)? 11. I’d try on both blouses and see which is ...
(becoming). 12. David is the ... (talented) of the two brothers. 13.
The ... light in the room grew … (dim). 14. It’s impossible to
imagine ... situation (unpleasant). 15. The occasion was very ..., …
of all the occasions (solemn). 16. I think Spanish is... (easy) than
German.

Ex.5. Use the appropriate form of the adjectives in brackets:

1. What is the name of the (high) mountain in Asia? 2. He
was the (fat) man in the village. 3. As he went on, the box became
(heavy) and (heavy). 4. Your handwriting is now (good) than it was
last year. 5. He didn’t like the explanation, and as he listened to it,
he became (angry) and (angry). 6. Please be (careful) next time
and don’t spill the milk again. 7. Bobby was a (quiet) child. He was
(quiet) than his sister.

Ex.6. Write the correct form of the adjective in brackets:

1. I wonder what the examiner’s (near) question is going to
be. 2. In the (near) future this small town will be turned into a
modern city. 3. I have no one (near) than you. 4. Let’s get down to
our work without (far) delay. 5. In the (far) end of the exhibition hall
we saw a group of young artists arguing over a portrait. 6. Take
this road. It is no (far) and much more pleasant. 7. My (old) brother
is five years (old) than me. 8. Who are the (old) members of the
club? 9. I’ve got a still (old) issue of that journal. 10. Let’s take a
(late) train to Manchester. 11. It was the (late) thing I had expected
of him. 12. What is the (late) news?

189
Ex.7. Make up situations using the following word-combinations:
 as successful as I expected;
 not so useful as you imagine;
 more unpleasant than I had expected;
 the most complicated I had ever expected;
 harder than I could bear;
 the worst imaginable;
 more amusing than anywhere else;
 as curious as the rest of them.

Ex.8. Use the adjective in bold in the second sentence in its

correct form
(comparative or superlative):
1. This is a difficult exercise. But the exercise with an
asterisk (*) is the _____ exercise on the worksheet. 2. He has an
interesting hobby, but my sister has the _____ hobby in the world.
3. In the last holidays I read a good book, but father gave me an
even _____ one last weekend. 4. Skateboarding is a dangerous
hobby. Bungee jumping is _____ than skateboarding. 5. We live in
a small house, but my grandparents’ house is even _____ than
ours. 6. Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the
_____ joke I’ve ever heard. 7. The test in Geography was easy,
but the test in Biology was _____. 8. Florida is sunny. Do you
know the _____ place in the USA? 9. Stan is a successful
sportsman, but his sister is even _____ . 10. We have only a little
time for this exercise, but in the examination we’ll have even
_____ time. 11. Have you visited the old castle? It was the _____
castle we visited during our holidays.

Ex.9. Circle the right adjective in brackets:

1. Please, show me the (next, nearest) way to Trafalgar
Square. 2. My sister is six years (older, elder) than me. 3. Have
you nothing (farther, further) to say? 4. Who is that young lady in

190
the (farthest, furthest) corner of the room? 5. Eleven o’clock is the
(last, latest) time when my little brother and I are allowed to watch
TV. 6. Father is listening to the (last, latest) news. 7. When the
(last, latest) guest arrived Mother cut the birthday cake. 8. You can
find the answer key on the (next, nearest) page. 9. John and Mike
are my best friends. The (latter, later) is a jazz musician. 10. The
(oldest, eldest) edition of the book was sold out.

Ex.10. Translate the sentences into English:

1.16-ñ¹ ¹³ñáõÙ Æëå³ÝÇ³Ý ³Ù»Ý³Ñ½áñ »ñÏñÝ»ñÇó ¿ñ
³ß˳ñÑáõÙ: 2.²Ûë ͳÕÇÏÝ»ñÝ ³í»ÉÇ í³é áõ óñÙ »Ý: 3.ܳ
Ýëï³Í ¿ñ ¹³ÑÉÇ×Ç ³Ù»Ý³Ñ»éáõ ³ÝÏÛáõÝáõÙ ¨ ³ÛÝï»ÕÇó
¹ÇïáõÙ ¿ñ µáÉáñ Ý»ñë ÙïÝáÕÝ»ñÇÝ: 4.àñù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ ß³ï
½µáëÝ»ù, ³ÛÝù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ ³éáÕç ÏÉÇÝ»ù: 5.Üáñ µÝ³Ï³ñ³ÝÁ
»ñÏáõ ³Ý·³Ù ³í»ÉÇ Ù»Í ¿: âÝ³Û³Í ¹ñ³Ý, »ë ëáíáñ »Ù ÇÙ ÑÇÝ
µÝ³Ï³ñ³ÝÇÝ: 6.²Ûë Ýáñ³Ó¨ ϳÑáõÛùÁ »ñ»ù ³Ý·³Ù ³í»ÉÇ Ã³ÝÏ
¿, ù³Ý »ë ³ÏÝϳÉáõÙ ¿Ç: 7.àñù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ ¹Åí³ñ ¿ ËݹÇñÁ,
³ÛÝù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ¿ ³ÛÝ ÉáõÍ»ÉÁ: 8.ºë »ñµ»ù ã¿Ç
ѳݹÇå»É ³í»ÉÇ Ñ³Ùµ»ñ³ï³ñ ¨ ³í»ÉÇ µ³ñÇ ÙÇ ÏÝáç, ù³Ý ݳ
¿ñ: 9.²Ûëûñ Ù³Ûñë Çñ»Ý ÙÇ ùÇã ³í»ÉÇ É³í ¿ ½·áõÙ, ù³Ý »ñ»Ï:
10.²í»ÉÇ Ñ»ßï ¿ ÉáÕ³É ÍáíáõÙ, ù³Ý ·»ïáõÙ: 11.¸³ ѳñóÇ
É³í³·áõÛÝ ÉáõÍáõÙÝ ¿ñ, áñ ϳñ»ÉÇ ¿ñ å³ïÏ»ñ³óÝ»É:
12.²Ý·ÉdzÛÇ á±ñ ù³Õ³ùÝ ¿ ³Ù»Ý³Ñ»éáõ ÍáíÇ ³÷Çó:

Ex.11. Circle the correct word:

1. There is so (many, much) smoke coming out of the
chimney. 2. There are (plenty of, a large amount of) fish in the
pond. 3. (A little, A few) minutes is all it takes him to shave. 4. He
threw (a little, some) nuts to the monkeys. 5. She uses only (a few,
a little) cooking oil in her cooking. 6. He takes very (little, a little)
trouble with his work. 7. (A great deal of, A large number of) dust
has collected on the desk. 8. We saw (a large amount of, many)
cows grazing in the field. 9. The butcher sells (a large amount of, a
large number of) meat. 10. I have only (few, a few) things left

191
undone. 11. (Few, A few) are as capable at languages as he is.
12. Why do you eat so (little, a little)? Try (little, a little) of
everything. 13. It has given me not (little, a little) trouble.

Ex.12. Fill in a little, little, a few, few, much, many.

1. The hall was almost empty: there were very ____ people
in it. 2. There were ____ new words in the text, and Jack spent
____ time learning them. 3. ____ heard about the book, but ____
read it. 4. I’d like to say ____ words about my journey. 5. She gave
him ____ water to wash his hands and face. 6. Shall I bring ____
more chalk? – No, thank you. 7. There are very ____ old houses
left in our street. Most of them have already been pulled down. 8.
When we walked ____ farther down the road, we met another
group of tourists. 9. Would you like ____ salad? – Yes, thank you.

Ex.13. Fill in the blanks with much, many, (a) few, (a) little:
1. ____ is spoken about it, but ____ believe it. 2. There are
very ____ old houses left in our street. 3. Nancy reads ____, that’s
why she has a rich vocabulary. 4. Hurry up! We have very ____
time. 4. I’m sorry to say, I have read very ____ books by William
Shakespeare. 5. You can ask Brandon. He has ____ experience in
this matter. 6. In summer there are ____ people in the resort. 7.
There is too ____ sugar in my tea. Will you add some more,
please? 8. John didn’t like it at the college; he had very ____
friends there. 9. I’m afraid, ____ people understood what he said.
10. The hall is almost empty: there are very ____ people there. 11.
I hope you can spare me ____ time now. 12. Open the window!
There is so ____ air to breathe. 13. ____ was said but ____ done.
14. Very ____ people know about this discovery. 15. There isn’t
____ harm in it. 16. He is a man of ____ words.

192
Ex.14. Complete the following, using many, much, few or little in
the
required degree of comparison:
1. The scientists need no ____ than two months to
complete their research. 2. ____ were present at the meeting,
much ____ than you can imagine. 3. This apparatus is very
sensitive; the ____ noise affects its work. 4. The cake did not look
tasty, to say ____ of it. 5. There were ____ reviews of the film, but
____ of them were favourable. 6. Take this road, it has ____ turns.

Ex.15. Complete the sentences with one of the following words:

few, a few, fewer, the fewest, less, the least:
1. The exhibition was not very crowded. There were ____
people than I expected. 2. Meeting Bill Clinton was much ____
frightening than I had imagined. 3. I’ve not met him but I’ve heard
____ stories about him and he sounds interesting. 4. He’s ____
crazy than you first think. Some of his ideas make sense. 5. That
must be ____ frightening horror film I’ve ever seen. 6. It’s time
somebody told him ____ truths. 7. I strongly disapprove. I don’t like
what I’ve heard in ____. 8. He’s not liked. In fact he’s ____ liked
person in the office. 9. I’d like to go to Japan but I get so ____
opportunities to travel in my present job. 10. We mustn’t postpone
this meeting. We get to meet on too ____ occasions as it is. 11. If
you spent ____ time worrying, you’d get more done. 12. The
winner will be the person who makes ____ mistakes. 13. It’s not
important. It doesn’t matter in ____.

Ex.16. Translate into English using much, many, (a) few, (a) little:
1.Ø»Ýù ¹»é ÙÇ ùÇã Å³Ù³Ý³Ï áõÝ»Ýù, ³ÛÝå»ë áñ ϳñáÕ
»Ýù ³í³ñï»É ùÝݳñÏáõÙÁ: 2.î»ùëïáõÙ ß³ï Ýáñ µ³é»ñ ϳÛÇÝ,
¨ Ø»ñÇÝ ß³ï Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Í³Ëë»ó ³ÛÝ Ã³ñ·Ù³Ý»Éáõ ѳٳñ£
3.²Û¹ ·ñùáõÙ ¹áõù Ï·ïÝ»ù ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ å³ïÙí³ÍùÝ»ñ, áñáÝù ³Ûë
Ñ»ÕÇݳÏÇ ³Ù»Ý³Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ·áñÍ»ñÇó »Ý: 4.Ø»Ýù ³ÛÝù³Ý
ß³ï Ù³ñ¹ »Ýù Ññ³íÇñ»É »ñ»ÏáõÛÃÇÝ£ ºë ¹»é ã»Ù ѳëóñ»É ÙÇ

193
ù³ÝÇ Ññ³íÇñ³ïáÙë áõÕ³ñÏ»É: ´³Ûó áãÇÝã, ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ûñ ¹»é ϳ,
Ù»Ýù ß³ï Å³Ù³Ý³Ï áõÝ»Ýù: 5.îáñÃÁ å³ïñ³ëï»Éáõ ѳٳñ
Ù»½ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ ÙÇ ùÇã ß³ù³ñ³í³½, ÙÇ ùÇã ³ÉÛáõñ ¨ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ
Óáõ£ 6.¼³ñٳݳÉÇ ¿, µ³Ûó ·Ý³óùáõÙ ß³ï ³½³ï ï»Õ»ñ ϳÛÇÝ,
áõÕ¨áñÝ»ñÁ ùÇã ¿ÇÝ: 7.¸áõ ß³ï ÷áÕ »ë ͳËëáõÙ ½·»ëïÝ»ñÇ
íñ³£ ºÃ» ÙÇ ùÇã ·áõÙ³ñ ïÝï»ë»ë, Ïϳñáճݳë Ýáñ
ѳٳϳñ·Çã ·Ý»É: 8.²Ûë ³Ý·³Ù ¹áõù ùÇã ë˳ÉÝ»ñ »ù ³ñ»É
ûëïÇ Ù»ç ¨ ѳí³ù»É »ù ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ÙdzíáñÝ»ñÁ£ 9.ºñ»Ï ÙÇ
ùÇã óáõñï ¿ñ, ¨ ½µáë³Û·áõÙ ùÇã »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñ ϳÛÇÝ£ 10.²Ùé³ÝÁ
Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ ß³ï ÙÇñ· áõ µ³Ýç³ñ»Õ»Ý »Ý áõïáõÙ ¨ ß³ï Ñ»ÕáõÏ »Ý
û·ï³·áñÍáõÙ£

Ex.17. Complete the sentence about paintings in a gallery so that it

contains a word from the list:
afraid, alike, alive, alone, ashamed, asleep, awake.
Model: The boy in the painting doesn’t seem to have woken
up.
The boy in the painting seems to be asleep.
1. Both girls in this painting look the same. – The girls in
this painting ______. 2. I’m not sure that the person in this painting
is dead. – I think the person in this painting ______. 3. He isn’t
asleep, but looks as if he is in a dream. – He ______ but looks as
if he is in a dream. 4. Does this painting frighten you? – ______ of
this painting? 5. The girl in that painting is almost naked and looks
shy. – The girl in that painting ______. 6. I enjoy working when
there is nobody else in the room. – I enjoy working when I ______
in the room.

Ex.18. Make appropriate compound adjectives from each pair of

words
and add them to the sentences:
distance/long end/never grow/fast keep/peace
educate/well funny/look home/make wash/white

194
 Model: Ghana had to increase food imports to meet the
needs of
a fast-growing population.
1. Mrs Baxter offered us scones with cream and her ___ jam. 2.
Please don’t use this phone to make any ___ calls. 3. Soldiers
have to learn to talk rather than fight when they are sent on ___
missions. 4. The president’s wife seemed to have a ___ supply of
new shoes and handbags. 5. We have to invest more in schools
and teachers if we want to have a ___ population. 6. That ___
piece of cloth at the end of each sleeve is called a frill. 7. We
rented a small cottage in Devon, with a red-tiled roof and ___
walls.

Ex.19. Translate the sentences into Armenian paying particular

attention
to the substantivized adjectives:
1. The young should take care of the old. 2. During the war
he cured the wounded. 3. The rich should help the poor. 4. Every
year a lot of books are published for the young in our country. 5.
The accused told the police that he had acted alone. 6. I was the
happiest of the happy. 7. The old receive pensions. 8. Mrs Derrick
was nursing the sick in the asylum. 9. Television provides subtitles
for the deaf. 10. A special alphabet was invented for the blind. 11.
This is a favourite resort for the rich.

Ex.20. Translate into English:

1.ºÃ» í³ÕÁ »Õ³Ý³ÏÁ ÷áËíÇ ¹»åÇ í³ïÁ, Ù»Ýù
Ïí»ñ³¹³éݳÝù ù³Õ³ù: 2.àñù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ ß³ï áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñ
Ù³ëݳÏó»Ý µ³Ý³í»×ÇÝ, ³ÛÝù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ÏÉÇÝÇ ³ÛÝ:
3.ì³ïÇϳÝÁ ³Ù»Ý³÷áùñ å»ïáõÃÛáõÝÝ ¿ ³ß˳ñÑáõÙ: 4.²Ûëûñ
³ÛÝù³Ý ï³ù ã¿, áñù³Ý »ñ»Ï: ºÃ» »Õ³Ý³ÏÁ ÷áËíÇ ¹»åÇ
ɳíÁ, Ëáëï³ÝáõÙ »Ù Ó»½ ï³Ý»É Ù»ñ ù³Õ³ùÇ ³Ù»Ý³Ù»Í áõ
³Ù»Ý³·»Õ»óÇÏ ½µáë³Û·ÇÝ: 5.ê³ ³Û¹ Ñ»ÕÇݳÏÇ ³Ù»Ý³í»ñçÇÝ
·áñÍ»ñÇó ¿, ¨ ϳñÍáõÙ »Ù Ýñ³ ³Ù»Ý³É³í ëï»Õͳ·áñÍáõÃÛáõÝÝ

195
¿: 6.ì»ñçÇÝ ·Ý³óùÁ ųٳÝáõÙ ¿ ÜÛáõ Úáñù Ï»ë·Çß»ñÇÝ: 7.Ø»Ýù
Éë»óÇÝù í»ñçÇÝ Éáõñ»ñÁ, µ³Ûó áãÇÝã ã³ëí»ó ³Û¹ ÙÇç³¹»åÇ
Ù³ëÇÝ: ºÏ»ù ëå³ë»Ýù ѻﳷ³ ï»Õ»Ï³ïíáõÃÛ³Ý: 8.ܳ
Ýëï³Í ¿ñ ³Û·áõ ³Ù»Ý³Ñ»éáõ Ýëï³ñ³ÝÇÝ ¨ Éáõé ÍËáõÙ ¿ñ:
9.²Û¹ Ù»ù»Ý³Ý ß³ï ³í»ÉÇ Ã³ÝÏ ¿, ù³Ý »ë ³ÏÝϳÉáõÙ ¿Ç: ºë
³í»ÉÇ ¿Å³Ý Ù»ù»Ý³ »Ù áõ½áõÙ ·Ý»É: 10.ºë Ó»½ ËáñÑáõñ¹ »Ù
ï³ÉÇë ·Ý³É ³Ûë ׳ݳå³ñÑáí: ²ÛÝ ³í»ÉÇ Ï³ñ× ¿: 11.àñù³Ý
³í»ÉÇ ¿ Ùáï»Ýáõ٠ѳñë³ÝÇùÇ ûñÁ, ³ÛÝù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ ³Ýѳٵ»ñ ¿
¹³éÝáõÙ êÛáõÝ: 12.γñá±Õ »ù ÇÝÓ ³ë»É, û áñï»Õ ¿ ³íïáµáõëÇ
Ùáï³Ï³ ϳݷ³éÁ: 13.¼»ÏáõóáõÙÁ å»ïù ¿ áñù³Ý Ñݳñ³íáñ ¿
ϳñ× ÉÇÝÇ ¨ Áݹ·ñÏÇ ³Ù»Ý³Ï³ñ¨áñ ÷³ëï»ñÁ: 14.øá
³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ É³í³·áõÛÝÁ ã¿, ë³Ï³ÛÝ ·áí»ÉÇ ¿, áñ ³Ûë ³Ý·³Ù
³í»ÉÇ ùÇã ë˳ÉÝ»ñ »ë ³ñ»É: 15.ê³ Ù»ñ ù³Õ³ùÇ
³Ù»Ý³·»Õ»óÇÏ ¨ ³Ù»Ý³µ³ñÓñ ϳéáõÛóÝ ¿:

THE ADVERB

Ex.1. State whether the words in bold type are adjectives or

adverbs.
Translate the sentences into Armenian:
1. Schumacher is a fast driver. 2. The car took the corner
extremely fast. 3. Herbert telephoned late last night. 4. Late
arrivals are not allowed into the theatre until a suitable moment. 5.
Children find it hard to sit still for long. 6. The evening was very
still. 7. It was still raining when we arrived at the hotel. 8. Daily
delivery of newspapers is common in our country. 9. Milk is
delivered daily. 10. Look straight ahead! 11. You can’t expect a
straight answer from him. 12. He is playing worse than usual. 13.
The patient is worse today. 14. Caroline is an early riser. 15. I go
to bed early and get up early. 16. My formula for living is quite
simple. I get up early in the morning and I go to bed late at night.
17. Today we have less time and more work to do. 18. Love is not
blind – it sees more, not less. But because it sees more, it is willing

196
to see less. 19. A part of kindness consists in loving people more
than they deserve. 20. Love is a hard word to say, and one of the
easiest to hear. 21. You have to work hard to succeed in life.

Ex.2. State to what group the following adverbs belong (according

to
meaning and structure):
angrily, frequently, here, easily, always, now, often,
beautifully, forward, yesterday, fast, usually, there, sometimes,
today, late, away, quite, everywhere, seldom, carefully, very,
badly, once, early, much, lately, little, never, rarely, well

Ex.3. Write the corresponding adverbs from the following

adjectives:
good. fast, quick, bad, heavy, simple, easy, angry, sad, wonderful

Ex.4. Write the comparative and the superlative degrees of the

following
adverbs:
near, well, far, quickly, much, hard, fast, little, early, slowly.

Ex.5. Transform the sentences, using adverbs instead of the

adjectives:
Model: Fred is a quick runner. Fred runs quickly.
1. Your cousin is a hard worker. 2. Thomas is a careful
driver. 3. They say your sister is an excellent singer. 4. Lucy is a
beautiful dancer. 5. My grandmother is a slow walker. 6. Your
brother is a wonderful actor. 7. He is a sloppy painter. 8. I think
Sam is a fast driver. 9. Everybody thinks Miss Janet is a good
teacher. 10. We all think him to be a bad basketball player. 11.
Rita is a graceful dancer. 12. This student is a late comer.

Ex.6. Give the correct forms of the adverbs in brackets:

197
 1. The (much) you read the (soon) you enrich your vo-
cabulary. 2. Our sportsmen jump (high) of all, (far) of all, and run
(fast) of all. 3. I like Dali’s style (well) of all. 4. Yesterday he went to
work (late) than usual. 5. Little Oliver was treated (badly) than any
servant was ever treated. 6. I think Sandra plays this role far (well)
than Judy. 7. The children were rather far from the holiday house,
but Mary suggested going still (far), to see the beautiful places in
this neighbourhood. 8. I’d like to live (near) to my office. I wouldn’t
have to wait for the bus for ages every morning.

Ex.7. Choose the appropriate adverb:

1. The girl was (deep, deeply) moved by the sad film. 2. The
Tube (London Metro) is dug (deep, deeply) below the surface of
the earth. 3. The idea seemed (high, highly) improbable to
everybody. 4. The eagle soared so (high, highly) that we could
(hard, hardly) see it. 5. You have to work really (hard, hardly) to
succeed in life. 6. The expert (close, closely) studied the picture to
make sure it was genuine. 7. He came (closer, more closely) to
me, to look at my brooch (closer, more closely). 8. Oh, look out!
You were (near, nearly) run over by that car. 9. He lives quite
(near, nearly) the busy centre of the city. 10. I have seen very little
of you (late, lately). Where have you been hiding yourself? 11.
Dickens’s works are (wide, widely) known throughout the world.
12. Our teacher is always so (pretty, prettily) dressed! 13. It is
(pretty, prettily) difficult to speak to my manager. 14. Some young
men passed by laughing (loud, loudly). 15. Do I speak (loud,
loudly) enough? 16. You paid too (dear, dearly) for this mobile
phone. 17. The father loved his daughter (dear, dearly). 18.
Peeping through the trees I could see the house door (wide,
widely) open.

Ex.8. Translate the adverbs in brackets into English:.

1. The child looked at the shining fir tree with his eyes (ɳÛÝ)
open. 2. I am (Ëáñ³å»ë) concerned about the situation in this

198
office. 3. The film (³ñ¹³ñ³óÇáñ»Ý) deserves an Oscar. 4. The
doctor (áõß³¹Çñ) examined the injured. 5. Some willows grew
(ÙáïÇÏ) the river. 6. The fishermen kept pulling (áõÅ»Õ) at the net
full of big fish. 7. The wind was blowing so (áõÅ»Õ) that I could
(ѳ½Çí) stand on my feet. 8. (²í»ÉÇ Ñ»ßï) said than done. 9.
(Þáõïáí) after his marriage he was lucky enough to find a job. 10.
He shouted (µ³ñÓñ) and (»ñϳñ), but no one came to his help.

Ex.9. Choose the appropriate word and state whether it is an

adjective or
an adverb:
1. a) He still has those ... ideas he had in youth. b) Critics
speak ... of this young artist. c) We ... appreciate your help (high,
highly). 2. a) The profit was divided ... between the partners. b)
You ought to play ... . c) Why are you cheating? It isn’t ... (fair,
fairly). 3. a) She cut him ... saying she was unwilling to listen to
him. b) Sandra left for Hollywood ... after she finished school. c)
Speak ... (short, shortly). 4. a) They ... speak when working. b)
One shouldn’t take life very ... . e) Try again, try ... and you will
succeed (hard, hardly). 5. a) A good translator should keep as ... to
the text as possible. b) He felt he was being ... watched (close,
closely). 5. a) I found him ... in thought. Still waters run ... ( deep,
deeply). 7. a) The delegation were … welcomed. b) Put your
hands in your pockets to keep them ... . c) Don’t dress the child too
... (warm, warmly).

Ex.10. Circle the right word:

1. The boy was (near, nearly) run over by the car. 2. The
children are playing (quiet, quietly) in the nursery. 3. The girl looks
really (unhappy, unhappily). I wonder what’s wrong. 4. The room
was dark, but it didn’t look (gloomy, gloomily). 5. The cake smells
(wonderful, wonderfully). 6. Mother looked (happy, happily) at her
baby. 7. Lucy speaks (perfect, perfectly) Spanish. 8. Mary plays
the piano (good, well). 9. The little boy ran (quick, quickly) across

199
the street. 10. My brother’s English is (well, good). 11. David lives
quite (near, nearly). 12. You should work (hard, hardly) to pass the
exam. 13. We were so tired that we could (hard, hardly) walk. 14. I
have seen very little of him (late, lately). 15. I’m afraid you have
come too (late, lately). 16. Her heart was (deep, deeply) moved.
17. The tunnels of the Yerevan Metro are dug (deep, deeply). 18.
The woman looked (helpless, helplessly) around. 19. My boss
thinks (high, highly) of me. 20. What’s the matter with you? You
look so (sad, sadly). 21. She looked (sad, sadly) at me and turned
away. 22. It was snowing (heavy, heavily) all week.

Ex.11. Underline the right word:

1. This summer the shrubs in your garden look (bad,
badly). 2. That meat smells (bad, badly). 3. These peaches look
too (bad, badly) to use. 4. We felt (bad, badly) that you didn’t win.
5. Has anything happened? Your voice sounds (unusual,
unusually). 6. When I woke up the next morning I still felt (sleepy,
sleepily). 7. The test seemed (easy, easily), but it wasn’t really. 8.
What you say sounds quite (correct, correctly). These green
apples taste (bitter, bitterly). 9. He usually feels (lazy, lazily) in hot
weather.

Ex.12. Complete the sentences with well, bad, badly, hard (2) hardly
(2)
Last Monday I woke up feeling ill. When I got up I realized I could
____ walk. I had exercised ____ in the gym the night before. My
left ankle seemed to be ____ swollen. I didn’t feel at all ____ but I
had to go to the doctor’s. I found it ____ to walk there, but I
managed it in the end. The ____ news was that I needed an x-ray
and had to go to hospital. The doctor there told me there was
nothing seriously wrong. I could ____ believe it.

Ex.13. Use the words in brackets as adjective or adverb to

complete the

200
 sentences:
1. He reads a book quite ____. (quick) 2. Mandy is a ____
girl, isn’t she? (pretty) 3. The class is ____ noisy today. (terrible) 4.
Max is a ____ singer and sings this song ____. (good) 5. You can
____ open this tin. (easy) 6. It’s a ____ day today. (terrible) 7. He
is a ____ driver. (careful) 8. Maria ____ opened her present. (slow)
9. He drives his new car extremely ____. (careful) 10. Don’t speak
so ____. I can’t understand you. (fast) 11. The bus driver was
____ injured. (serious) 12. Kevin is ____ clever. (extreme) 13. This
hamburger tastes ____. (awful) 14. Be ____ with this glass of milk.
It’s hot. (careful) 15. Robin looks ____. What’s the matter with
him? (sad) 16. Jack is ____ upset about losing his keys. (terrible)
17. This steak smells ____. (good) 18. Our basketball team played
____ last Friday. (bad)

Ex.14. Add one pair of adjectives/adverbs to each sentence in the

text:
already/never black/round easier/eventually
further/just longer/reading short/suddenly
1. I know I’m ____ in my forties, but I ____ imagined that I
would need glasses. 2. I ____ kept trying to read the newspaper
by holding it ____ away. 3. I really had to decide whether to get
____ arms or a pair of ____ glasses. 4. ____, I chose the ____
solution. 5. ____, with my new glasses, those ____ wiggly lines at
the top of the page turned into words. 6. And the ____ spots that
seemed to dance ____ on the floor became ants.

Ex.15. Choose the appropriate word from each pair for each
space:
acute/acutely, colour/coloured, far/further, just/only,
pleased/pleasing, certain/certainly, early/earlier, now/yet,
Japan/Japanese, young/youngest
One evening in the spring of 1936, when I was a boy of
fourteen, my father took me to a dance performance in Kyoto. I

201
remember only two things about it. The first is that he and I were
the ____ Westerners in the audience; we had come from our home
in the Netherlands only a few weeks ____ so I had not ____
adjusted to the cultural isolation and still felt it ____. The second is
how ____ I was, after months of intensive study of the Japanese
language, to find that I could now understand fragments of the
conversations I overheard. As for the ____ ____ women dancing
on the stage before me, I remember nothing of them except a
vague impression of brightly ____ kimono.
I ____ had no way of knowing that in a time and place as ____
away as New York City nearly fifty years in the future, one among
them would become my good friend and would dictate her
extraordinary memoirs to me.

Ex.16. Circle the correct word:

1. Jack spoke (confident/confidently) to the audience urging
them to elect him president of the union. He knew he had a
(good/well) chance of winning the election. 2. The tomato plants
grew (quick/quickly) in the rich soil. Mrs. Ficara intended to use the
homegrown tomatoes to make her (delicious/deliciously) tempting
lasagna. 3. Sophie lived in Thailand for several years. She speaks
Thai (fluent/fluently), and she knows the culture very (good/well).
4. Nicole grew (tired/tiredly) from the hours of overtime at work. It
became quite (obvious/obviously) that she needed a long vacation.
5. The entrance examination is (extreme/extremely) challenging.
Very few people make it into the (prestigious/prestigiously) medical
school. 6. This airline’s (complete/completely) lack of organization
is astounding. I have been very (patient/patiently) up to this point,
but I am going to lose my temper if you don’t find my baggage
(immediate/immediately). 7. The young girl sings
(amazing/amazingly) well for someone her age. Her performance
was (spectacular/spectacularly) to say the least. 8. After the
medieval cathedral was (tragic/tragically) burnt down last year, the
city (quick/quickly) rebuilt it stone for stone. It looks (exact/exactly)

202
the same as it did before the fire. 9. Although Beth speaks
(soft/softly) and seems quite (timid/timidly), she is the leading
expert in her field. Don’t underestimate her abilities.

Ex.17. Translate into English:

1.àñù³Ý ßáõï ¹ÇÙ»ù µÅßÏÇ, ³ÛÝù³Ý ³í»ÉÇ Ñ»ßï ÏÉÇÝÇ
Ó»½ µáõÅ»É: 2.¸áõù ѳëï³ï ϳñáÕ »ù ê»ÙÇ íñ³ ÑáõÛë ¹Ý»É:
ܳ ³Û¹ ·áñÍÁ ÝáõÛÝù³Ý ³ñ³· ϳÝÇ, áñù³Ý »ë: 3.Üñ³
·áñÍ»ñÇó ³Ù»ÝÇó ß³ï ³Ûë ÝϳñÝ »Ù ѳí³ÝáõÙ: ÜϳñÇãÁ
ëï»ÕÍ»É ¿ ³ÛÝ, »ñµ Ëáñ³å»ë Ñdzëó÷í³Í ¿ñ ÏÛ³ÝùÇó: 4.àã
ß³ï í³Õáõó Ù»ñ ù³Õ³ùÝ Çñ³í³óÇáñ»Ý ³Ýí³ÝáõÙ ¿ÇÝ
§í³ñ¹³·áõÛÝ ù³Õ³ù¦: 5.ܳ »ñϳñ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ß³ï
Ù³Ýñ³Ù³ëÝáñ»Ý áõëáõÙݳëÇñ»ó ûٳÝ, Ñ»ïá í»ñç³å»ë
ëÏë»ó ·ñ»É Ñá¹í³ÍÁ: 6.´³ñÓñ ·áé³Éáí ¨ áõñ³Ë ÍÇͳջÉáí,
»ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ ˳ÕáõÙ ¿ÇÝ µ³ÏáõÙ: 7.ØÃáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç »ë ѳ½Çí ¿Ç
ï³é»ñÁ ï»ëÝáõÙ ¨ ëïÇåí³Í ¿Ç »ñÏïáÕÁ Ùáï»óÝ»É ³ãù»ñÇë:
8.²ÕçÇÏÁ Ëáñ³å»ë ½·³óí³Í ¿ñ »ñÇï³ë³ñ¹Ç ã³÷³½³Ýó
Ñá·³ï³ñ í»ñ³µ»ñÙáõÝùÇó: 9.²Ûëûñ µ³í³Ï³Ý óáõñï ¿, ¨
Ùdzݷ³Ù³ÛÝ Ñݳñ³íáñ ¿, áñ ÓÛáõÝ ·³: 10.ì»ñç»ñë »Õµ³Ûñë
ëáíáñ³Ï³ÝÇó áõß ¿ ïáõÝ ·³ÉÇë: ì³Ë»ÝáõÙ »Ù, áñ ë³ ³í»ÉÇ
Ñ»éáõÝ ·Ý³, ¨ ѳÛñë Ëëïáñ»Ý ³ñ·»ÉÇ Ýñ³Ý áõß ïáõÝ ·³É:
11.à±ñÝ ¿ ³í»ÉÇ Ùáï Ó»ñ ï³ÝÁ` ˳ÝáõÃÁ, û± ¹»Õ³ïáõÝÁ: –
ºñÏáõëÝ ¿É ·ñ»Ã» ÝáõÛÝ Ñ»é³íáñáõÃÛ³Ý íñ³ »Ý: 12.²Û¹ µáÉáñ
»ñ¨áõÛÃÝ»ñÁ ï³ñûñÇÝ³Ï Ï»ñåáí, µ³Ûó ë»ñïáñ»Ý ϳåí³Í »Ý
Çñ³ñ Ñ»ï: 13.²Û¹ ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïáõÃÛáõÝÁ ɳÛÝáñ»Ý ï³ñ³Íí³Í ¿
Ëáë³Ïó³Ï³Ý É»½íáõÙ, µ³Ûó ·ñ³Ï³Ý É»½íáõÙ ³ÛÝ µ³ó³ñÓ³Ï
³ÝÁݹáõÝ»ÉÇ ¿: 14.سÛñÝ ³Ý³ÕÙáõÏ Ý»ñë Ùï³í ¨ ѳÙá½í»ó,
áñ »ñ»Ë³Ý Çñáù ËáñÁ ùÝ³Í ¿ñ: 15.ܳ áõÕÇÕ ³ãù»ñÇë ¿ñ
ݳÛáõÙ` ë³éÝáñ»Ý ¨ ·áéá½áõÃÛ³Ùµ: 16.Ì»ñáõÝÇÝ ³ÛÝå»ë ¿ñ
Ëáñ³ëáõ½í³Í Ùïù»ñÇ Ù»ç, áñ ã¿ñ ÝϳïáõÙ ³ñ³· ëɳóáÕ
Ù»ù»Ý³Ý»ñÁ: 17.ÐÇí³Ý¹ ïÕ³Ý Í³Ýñ ¿ñ ßÝãáõÙ, ÇÝãÁ
ã³÷³½³Ýó ³Ýѳݷëï³óñ»ó ÙáñÁ: 18.гÕáñ¹³·ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ
å»ïù ¿ ·ñ»É ѳٳéáï ¨ Ñëï³Ï, ³ÛÝå»ë áñ Ñ»ßïáõÃÛ³Ùµ
ѳëϳóíÇ: 19.²Ù»Ý ÇÝã É³í ¿, »ñµ É³í ¿ ³í³ñïíáõÙ:

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Ex.18. Say whether the underlined word is an adverb or a modal
adverb:
1. They got married and lived happily. 2. Unfortunately, he
didn’t manage to reach there in time. 3. He stated his position
undoubtedly. 4. Naturally I couldn’t spend the night at their place
and hurried home. 5. This animal is dangerous indeed. 6. Will you
help me take these bags downstairs? – Certainly. 7. Actually I
adore him for what he’s done to me. 8. Her words came so
naturally that no one doubted in them. 9. The little girl was playing
and singing happily. 10. To understand this book you must
certainly read between the lines. 11. Fortunately, they made the
right choice. 12. It is sometimes really hard for me to understand
you. 13. I really want to take a decisive step. 14. The young man
declared about his decision certainly and without wavering. 15.
The people’s condition in our country has undoubtedly improved.
16. Talent is indeed a good gift of God. 17. If you smile when you
are alone, then you really mean it.

Ex.19. Translate into English using modal adverbs:

1.´Ý³Ï³Ý³µ³ñ, ݳ ÇÝùÁ áãÇÝã ãÇ å³ïÙÇ ù»½ ³Û¹
Ù³ëÇÝ: ºñ¨Ç ÇÝù¹ ÷áñÓ»ë å³ñ½»É ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ: 2.ºë
ÇѳñÏ» ã»Ù ·Ý³, ù³ÝÇ ¹»é ¹áõ í³ï³éáÕç »ë: 3.Æñáù, ¹áõ
ãå»ïù ¿ å³ßïå³Ý»ë Ýñ³Ý£ ²Ûë ѳñóáõ٠ݳ ³ÝϳëÏ³Í ë˳É
¿£ 4.òáõó³Ñ³Ý¹»ëÝ Çñáù ³Ýã³÷ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ¿£ ²ÛÝ Ó»½
³Ýå³ï×³é ¹áõñ Ï·³£ 5.¸áõù ·á±Ñ »ù Ó»ñ ׳Ù÷áñ¹áõÃÛáõÝÇó£
– ²Ûá, ÇѳñÏ»£ 6.Ðݳñ³íá±ñ ¿ ÇÝÓ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ñáå» ïñ³Ù³¹ñ»ë£
– ²Ýßáõßï, ÑÇÙ³ Ï·³Ù£ 7.´³ñ»µ³Ëï³µ³ñ, »ë ųٳݳÏÇÝ
ѳëϳó³, áñ ëË³É áõÕÕáõÃÛ³Ùµ »Ù ·ÝáõÙ£ 8.ܳ ³ÝϳëϳÍ
É³í µÅÇßÏ Ï¹³éݳ£ ܳ Çñáù ëÇñáõÙ ¿ Çñ Ù³ëݳ·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝÁ£
9.º±ñµ ϳñáÕ »Ù í»ñóÝ»É ³íïáÙ»ù»Ý³ë£ – ºñ¨Ç í³ÕÁ£ ¶áõó»
ѳçáñ¹ ûñÁ£ ´³Ûó áõñµ³Ã ûñÁ ³ÛÝ Ñ³ëï³ï å³ïñ³ëï ÏÉÇÝÇ£
10.¸áõ Çëϳå»ë áã ÙÇ ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝ ãáõÝ»±ë: – Üñ³Ýù ³ñ³µ»ñ»Ý
¿ÇÝ ËáëáõÙ£ ´Ý³Ï³Ý³µ³ñ »ë áã ÙÇ µ³é ãϳñáÕ³ó³

204
ѳëÏ³Ý³É Ýñ³Ýó ½ñáõÛóÇó£ 11.ÆÝãá±õ ¿ æáÝÁ áõß³ÝáõÙ£ ºñ¨Ç
ã·ÇïÇ, áñ Ù»Ýù ëå³ëáõÙ »Ýù Çñ»Ý£ Ø»Ýù å»ïù ¿ ³Ûëûñ
³Ýå³ÛÙ³Ý ³í³ñï»Ýù Ù»ñ ·áñÍÁ: 12.¸Åµ³Ëï³µ³ñ »ë ã»Ù
ѳëóñ»É ͳÝáÃ³Ý³É å³ÛÙ³ÝÝ»ñÇÝ ¨ ã»Ù ϳñáÕ Ù³ëݳÏó»É
ùÝݳñÏÙ³ÝÁ£ 13.ܳ ѳëï³ï ãÇ Ù»ñÅÇ ùá ³é³ç³ñÏÁ: ܳ
Çñáù ëÇñáõÙ ¿ ù»½£

THE NUMERAL

Ex.1. Read and write down the following numerals:

0, 11, 21, 39, 43, 55, 68, 73, 86, 94, 137, 281, 304, 938,
1963, 57.832, 254.912, 1.678.306

Ex.2. Read and write down the dates:

06.01.1987 01.06.1500
17.02.1999 12.08.1690
15.12.1306 23.10.2004

Ex.3. Write down in letters the following cardinal numerals and

form
their ordinals:
23, 44, 55, 11, 113, 314, 1915, 18, 21, 280, 120, 46, 67, 83, 99,
100, 2000

Ex.4. Tell the time:

1.20 10.30 2.10 p.m
9.16 17.45 7.30 a.m
11.40 18.25 5.25 a.m
06.05 14.35 3.20 p.m
22.00 8.50 1.50 a.m

Ex.5. What’s the time? Write the answers in numbers:

1. A quarter past three in the afternoon. ___3.15 p.m.___

205
2. Half past five in the morning. ______________
3. Twenty to eleven at night. ______________
4. A quarter to six in the evening. ______________
5. Twenty-five to two in the afternoon. ______________
6. Five to twelve at night ______________
7. Half past four in the morning ______________
8. Thirteen past six in the evening ______________

Ex.6. Read the following:

4+8=12 42-18=24 5+14=19
57-2=55 31+7=38 41-13=28

2,6; 5,8; 0,7; 1,4; ½; ¾; ⅞; ⅔; 1%; 25%

Ex.7. Translate into English:

1.ÎÛ³ÝùÁ 10% ³ÛÝ ¿, ÇÝã Ù»½ Ñ»ï å³ï³ÑáõÙ ¿, ¨ 90%
³ÛÝ, û ÇÝãå»ë »Ýù ¹ñ³Ý ³ñÓ³·³ÝùáõÙ: (ÎÇÙµñá) 2. ²ØÜ-Ç
³é³çÇÝ Ý³Ë³·³Ñ æáñç ì³ßÇÝ·ïáÝÁ ³Û¹ å³ßïáÝáõÙ
ÁÝïñí»ó 1789 Ã. ¨ »ñÏñáñ¹ ³Ý·³Ù í»ñÁÝïñí»ó 1792 Ã.` 3
ï³ñÇ ³Ýó: 3.²Ù»Ý³¹Åí³ñ ÏéÇíÁ, áñ »ñµ¨¿ áõÝ»ó»É »Ù, ÇÙ
»ñÏñáñ¹ ÏÝáç Ñ»ï ¿ñ: (Øáõѳٻ¹ ²ÉÇ) 4. úëϳñ àõ³ÛɹÁ 1891Ã.
Ññ³ï³ñ³Ï»É ¿ Çñ ³é³çÇÝ ¨ ÙÇ³Ï í»åÁ` §¸áñÇ³Ý ¶ñ»ÛÇ
¹ÇÙ³ÝϳñÁ¦: 5.îÕ³Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ ÙÇßï áõ½áõÙ »Ý ÏÝáç ³é³çÇÝ ë»ñÁ
ÉÇÝ»É. ϳݳÛù áõ½áõÙ »Ý ïÕ³Ù³ñ¹áõ í»ñçÇÝ ëÇñ³í»åÁ ÉÇÝ»É:
(ú. àõ³Ûɹ) 6. ºñÏñ³·Ý¹Ç ٳϻñ¨áõÛÃÇ 2/3-Á çáõñ ¿: 7.ØÇ ù³ÝÇ
ï³ñÇ ³é³ç, ¹»é 30 ï³ñ»Ï³Ý ѳë³ÏáõÙ, ÂáÙ Îñáõ½Á
Ýϳñ³Ñ³Ýí»É ¿ñ 15 ýÇÉÙáõÙ ¨ í³ëï³Ï»É ¿ñ ÙÇÉÇáݳíáñ
¹áɳñÝ»ñ: 8.´ñÇï³Ý³óÇÝ»ñÁ ûñ³Ï³Ý ÙÇçÇÝ Ñ³ßíáí ËÙáõÙ »Ý
3.39 ·³í³Ã Ã»Û ¨ 1.65 ·³í³Ã ëáõñ×: 9.Ðéã³Ï³íáñ ÝϳñÇã
è³ý³Û»É ê³ÝïÇÝ ÍÝí»É ¿ 1483 Ã. ³åñÇÉÇ 6-ÇÝ Æï³ÉdzÛÇ
àõñµÇÝá ù³Õ³ùáõÙ: ܳ ٳѳó»É ¿ 1520 Ã.` Çñ ÍÝÝ¹Û³Ý 37-ñ¹
ï³ñ»¹³ñÓÇ ûñÁ: 10.Ø»Ýù Ù»ñ ÏÛ³ÝùÇ Ù»Ï »ññáñ¹Ý ³Ýó »Ýù
ϳóÝáõÙ ùÝ»Éáí: 11.Ä³Ý ÎÉá¹ ì³Ý ¸³ÙÁ ÍÝí»É ¿ 1981Ã.

206
ÑáÏï»Ùµ»ñÇ 18-ÇÝ ´»É·Ç³ÛáõÙ: 1981 Ã., 21 ï³ñ»Ï³Ý
ѳë³Ïáõ٠ݳ ï»Õ³÷áËí»É ¿ ²ØÜ` ÐáÉÇíáõ¹:

Ex.8. Translate into English writing the numerals in letters:

ìÇÝë»Ýà ì³Ý ¶á·Á ÍÝí»É ¿ Üǹ»éɳݹݻñáõÙ 1853 Ã.
Ù³ñïÇ 30-ÇÝ: ÖÇßï Ù»Ï ï³ñÇ ³é³ç, ÏñÏÇÝ Ù³ñïÇ 30-ÇÝ
ÍÝí»É ¨ ٳѳó»É ¿ñ Ýñ³ »Õµ³ÛñÁ: Üñ³ ³ÝáõÝÁ ÝáõÛÝå»ë
ìÇÝë»Ýà ¿ñ: ìÇÝë»Ýà ì³Ý ¶á·Á ÃáÕ»ó ¹åñáóÁ, »ñµ Áݹ³Ù»ÝÁ
15 ï³ñ»Ï³Ý ¿ñ, ¨ Ù»ÏÝ»ó ²Ý·Édz 1869 Ã.: ²Ûëï»Õ Ùáï 7
ï³ñÇ ³ß˳ï»Éáõó Ñ»ïá ݳ ëÏë»ó áõëáõó³Ý»É ïճݻñÇÝ`
ϳÃáÉÇÏ »Ï»Õ»óáõÙ: гçáñ¹ ï³ñÇÝ»ñÇÝ Ý³ ³ÝóÝáõÙ ¿ñ ÙÇ
³ß˳ï³ÝùÇó ÙÛáõëÇÝ` ÉÇÝ»Éáí ºíñáå³ÛÇ ï³ñµ»ñ
»ñÏñÝ»ñáõÙ: ì»ñç³å»ë 1880 Ã. ì³Ý ¶á·Ý áõÕ¨áñí»ó ´ñÛáõë»É:
гçáñ¹ 10 ï³ñÇÝ»ñÇ ÁÝóóùáõ٠ݳ Ýϳñ»ó 872 Ýϳñ:
âÝ³Û³Í ì³Ý ¶á·Ý ³Ûëûñ ³ß˳ñѳÑéã³Ï ÝϳñÇã ¿, Çñ
ÏÛ³ÝùÇ ÁÝóóùáõÙ Ù»Í ×³Ý³ãáõÙ ã·ï³í` í³×³é»Éáí
Áݹ³Ù»ÝÁ 1 Ýϳñ:
ì³Ý ¶á·Á Ñ³×³Ë ¿ñ ï³é³åáõÙ ¹»åñ»ëdzݻñÇó: 1888
Ã.` ÙÇ Ýáå³ÛÇ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Ý³ Ïïñ»ó Çñ ³Ï³ÝçÁ, áñÇó Ñ»ïá
·Ý³ó Ñá·»µáõųñ³Ý (asylum): ²Ûëï»Õ ݳ Ýϳñ»ó Çñ
׳ݳãí³Í ÝϳñÝ»ñÇó Ù»ÏÁ` §²ëïÕ³ÉÇó ·Çß»ñÁ¦ (Starry
Night): 1890 Ã. ݳ ¹áõñë ·ñí»ó Ñá·»µáõųñ³ÝÇó ¨ Çñ ÏÛ³ÝùÇ
í»ñçÇÝ ³ÙÇëÝ»ñÝ ³Ýóϳóñ»ó üñ³ÝëdzÛáõÙ: Üñ³Ý ³Ûó»ÉáõÙ ¿ñ
µÅÇßÏ ¶³ß»Ý: §´ÅÇßÏ ¶³ß»Ç ¹ÇÙ³ÝϳñÁ¦ ì³Ý ¶á·Ç
³Ù»Ý³Ã³ÝÏ Ïï³íÝ»ñÇó ¿: 1990 Ã. èÛ»Ç ê³Çïá ³ÝáõÝáí ÙÇ
׳åáݳóÇ µÇ½Ý»ëÙ»Ý 82.5 ÙÇÉÇáÝ ¹áɳñ í׳ñ»ó ³Û¹ Ïï³íÇ
ѳٳñ: Üñ³ Ù³Ñí³ÝÇó Ñ»ïá` 1996 Ã. Ç í»ñ Ïï³íÁ ã»Ý
ï»ë»É:
ì³Ý ¶á·Ý ³ïñ׳ݳÏáí Ïñ³Ï»ó ÇÝùÝ Çñ»Ý 1890 Ã.
ÑáõÉÇëÇ 27-ÇÝ: ܳ ٳѳó³í 2 ûñ ³Ýó` ÑáõÉÇëÇ 29-ÇÝ` 37
ï³ñ»Ï³Ý ѳë³ÏáõÙ:

207
 THE PREPOSITION

Ex.1. Underline the prepositions and state to what group they

belong as
to their morphological structure and meaning:
Satellites orbiting round the earth have provided scientists
with a vast amount of information about conditions in outer space.
By comparison, relatively little is known about the internal structure
of the earth. It has proved easier to go up than to go down. The
deepest hole ever to be bored on land went down 25,340 feet –
considerably less than the height of Mount Everest. Drilling a hole
under the sea has proved to be even more difficult. The deepest
hole bored under sea has been about 20,000 feet. Until recently,
scientists have been unable to devise a drill which would be
capable of cutting through hard rock at great depths.
This problem has now been solved. Scientists have
developed a method which sounds surprisingly simple. A new drill
which is being tested at Leona Valley Ranch in Texas is driven by
a turbine engine which is propelled by liquid mud pumped into it
from the surface.

Ex.2. Fill in the blanks with the prepositions in, on, at showing
place:
1. I live ___ an apartment building. 2. My apartment building
is ___ the corner. 3. My apartment is ___ the fifth floor. 4. My
friend lives ___ 27 Strong Street. 5. He lives ___ apartment 501. 6.
It’s ___ San Francisco. 7. I live ___ the top floor. 8. It’s the fifth
door ___ your left. 9. That apartment was ___ the basement. 10. I
used to live ___ 12 Harrison Street. 11. Tom is still ___ the
hospital with serious injuries. 12. Sally is ___ the garden. 13. She
is ___ the bus stop waiting for a bus. 14. The headline is ___ the
top of the page. 15. There are many different languages ___ the
world.16. Did you see my picture __ the magazine? 17. She had a

208
toothache so she’s ___ the dentist’s. 18. I am ___ home all day on
Friday. 19. Please turn right ___ the traffic light.

Ex.3. Complete the sentences below by choosing the correct

prepositions
showing place: at, next to, on, under, behind, in, in front of
1. The computer printer is ___ the table ___ the computer. 2.
Shawn and Noel stood ___ the tree waiting for the rain to stop. 3. I
didn’t see the mailbox even though I was standing right ___ it. 4.
Everybody was already sitting ___ the table waiting for dinner to
be served. 5. Every evening, the dog sits ___ the dinner table
begging for food. 6. Frank had his passport ___ his hand as he
boarded the plane. 7. Debra was sitting ___ the computer surfing
the Internet. 8. I asked the woman standing ___ me on the bus
where I should get out. 9. My car keys were ___ the desk, but I
couldn’t see them because they were ___ a magazine. 10. When I
went to buy the concert tickets, there was nobody ___ the ticket
sales window. 11. Her wallet wasn’t ___ her purse; it was ___ her
coat pocket. 12. Tony had an ink stain ___ his coat pocket. 13.
Philip waited ___ the movie theater for Simone, so they could buy
tickets and go in together. 14. The kids were sitting ___ the floor
___ the TV when Barbara came home. 15. There was a sign ___
the restaurant door saying that it was closed for renovations. 16.
His grandfather, who had passed away years before, was ___ the
painting hung ___ the wall. 17. Shelly didn’t see Bobby because
he was hiding ___ the couch.

Ex.4. Complete the sentences below by choosing the correct

prepositions
showing direction:across, along, around, over, through,
under, to
1. While we were walking ___ the forest, we saw a mountain
lion. 2. We walked ___ the river looking for a way to get ___ it, but
there was no bridge. 3. When the kids saw the snake in the grass,

209
they started running ___ screaming hysterically. 4. The train
passed ___ nine tunnels on the way to Denver. 5. They strolled
___ the beach watching the sunset. 6. The plane flew ___ the
Grand Canyon on the way to ___ Los Angeles. 7. Several animals,
including emus, ran ___ the road in front of the car as they were
driving ___ the outback of Australia. 8. They walked ___ the
building twice looking for the entrance. 9. The cruise ship passed
___ the Golden Gate Bridge as it was leaving San Francisco. 10.
His dog is always trying to escape from the backyard. Sometimes
he manages to jump ___ the fence, and sometimes he digs a hole
and crawls ___ it.

Ex.5. Complete the sentences choosing the correct prepositions

showing
direction: down, down from, in, into, out, out of, up, up to, to
1. ___ the supermarket, she walks ___ the aisles, pushing
her trolley ___ the rows of shelves. 2. Just as Debbie was stepping
___ the elevator, she realized she was on the wrong floor, so she
quickly jumped back ___ before the doors closed. 3. The post
office is just ___ the street on the left near the hospital. 4. Lily had
problems climbing back ___ the tree because she had injured her
ankle as she was climbing ___. 5. She didn’t have any difficulty
pulling ___ the parking space, but as she was backing ___, she
scratched the car parked next to her. 6. Although you can take an
elevator ___ the top of the Eiffel Tower, we decided to walk ___. I
was exhausted by the time we got ___ the top. 7. Our customer
service center will help you solve that problem. Just walk ___ the
hall and take the elevator ___ the second floor. 8. You can go ___
now; Dr. Wilson is ready to see you.

Ex.6. Complete the sentences choosing the correct prepositions

showing
location (at, in, on): Ex.2???

210
 1. We have Internet access ___ work, but I don’t have a
high-speed connection ___ home. 2. The kids are learning about
the Civil War ___ their history class ___ school. 3. Toby was ___
hospital for two weeks after his motorcycle accident ___ the
freeway. 4. Jane and Debbie saw dolphins ___ the ocean while
they were having a picnic ___ the beach. 5. Fred loves to go
camping ___ the desert, but Kyle prefers to camp ___ the
mountains. 6. The conference was held ___ a ski resort ___
Telluride, a small town ___ southwest Colorado. 7. You can buy
stamps ___ the post office ___ Delancy Street. 8. The old man
who was standing ___ the corner yelled at the kids who were
playing ___ the street. 9. Munich lies 530 meters ___ sea level. 10.
They have a small house ___ a lake in the countryside. When I
visit them, I always love to sit ___ the shore and watch the kids
swimming ___ the lake. 11. Mike was sitting ___ his desk ___ his
office ___ work when Bill called; Bill was ___ Asia on business. 12.
The brown bears found ___ Kodiak Island are the largest ___ the
world. 13. There is no life ___ the moon, but there are many forms
of life ___ the ocean floor. 14. She bought her wedding dress ___
an exclusive shop ___ Fifth Avenue. 15. Nathan was able to
exchange money ___ the exchange counter ___ the airport. 16. I
stood ___ line for thirty minutes ___ the ticket window ___ the
movie theater to get tickets for the film. 17. While Dave was ___
the top of the Eiffel Tower, he could see several tourist boats ___
the Seine, the river that runs through Paris.

Ex.7. Fill in the blanks where necessary with the correct

prepositions
showing time:
1. Jane is arriving ____ January 26 ____ 2 o’clock ____ the
afternoon. 2. It snows here ___ every year ____ December. We
always go outside and play in the snow ____ Christmas day. 3.
Michael is leaving ____ Friday ____ noon. 4. Frankie started
working for her law firm ____ 1995. 5. Franklin began working on

211
the project ____ yesterday. 6. Normally, ____ New Year’s Eve, it’s
tradition to kiss the one you love ____ midnight. 7 Don’t be
ridiculous; there were no telephones ____ the 17th century! The
telephone was invented ____ the 1870s. 8. The plane leaves ____
tomorrow morning ____ 8:00 am. 9. The hills here are covered
with wildflowers ____ early spring. 10. We met at the restaurant
____ 6:30 and stayed ____ 10:30. 11. She always gets up early
____ the morning, so she can make it to class ____ time. 12. I was
sick, so I didn’t go to work ____ last Thursday, but I did go to work
____ Friday. 13. My birthday is ___ the 25th of July. 14. Late ____
night, you can here coyotes howling in the distance. 15. Just wait a
second; I’ll be there ____ a minute. 16. I need to give my parents a
call. I haven’t talked to them ____ over a month. 17. Barbara is
going to start her new job ____ next September. 18. The professor
said ____ the first day of the course that there would be a big final
test ____ the end of the term. 19. Jennifer watches a movie on
television ___ every Tuesday. 20. We were really worried ____
first because the banks were closed ____ Saturdays, so we
couldn’t exchange money. But ____ the end, everything worked
out because we were able to exchange money at the hotel.

Ex.8. Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions where

necessary:
1. They plan to arrive ___ Paris ___ July 4th. 2. ___ times of
war, soldiers usually dream ___ their home. 3. It was discovered
that he didn’t die ___ cancer. 4. Don’t forget to congratulate him
___ his birthday. 5. We must ___ all costs help those who are ___
danger. 6. The girl was dressed ___ white ___ head ___ foot. 7.
You will always have a good friend ___ me. 8. The old fellow sat
down ___ the roulette table and placed a few chips ___ number
25, red. 9. Is it wise to wish ___ something you can’t ever have?
10. My best friend lives ____ Boretz Road. 11. I’ll be ready to
leave ____ about twenty minutes. 12. My parents have been
married ____ forty-nine years. 13. I will wait ____ 6:30, but then

212
I’m going ___ home. 14. The police caught the thief ___ the corner
___ Cascade and Plum Streets. 15. My fingers were injured so my
sister had to write the note ___ me. 16. I am not interested ___
buying a new car now. 17. What are the main ingredients ____ this
casserole? 18. My best friend, John, is named ____ his great-
grandfather. 19. Grandpa stayed up ____ two ___ the morning.

Ex.9. Choose the right preposition:

a) for, since, during
1. ___ the football season the English papers provide
information to the fans. 2. Where have you been? I have been
waiting for you ___ an hour, ___ ten o’clock. 3. He got acquainted
with a very beautiful girl ___ the journey. 4. We have been learning
English ___ four years. 5. The old man has been living in the
country ___ the beginning of spring. 6. My father often reads a
newspaper ___ breakfast. 7. We saw the Browns in 1998 but we
haven’t seen them ___ then. 8. My brother has been playing the
violin ___ five years.

b) among, between
1. Harvard University comes first ___ the other universities of
the USA. 2. Differences in vocabulary ___ British English and
American English are numerous. 3. There has always been a
tough competition ___ Coca-Cola and Pepsi. 4. I can’t remember
when we left the restaurant: I think it was ___ eleven and half past
eleven. 5. I tell my sisters everything. There are no secrets ___ us.
6. Jack has gone to see his friend whose house is just ___ the
school and the shop on the corner. 7. It was a color ___ black and
grey. 8. This is strictly ___ ourselves.

c) by, with
1. Doctor’s prescriptions are made up ___ a chemist. 2. My
first impressions of England are connected ___ rain and fog. 3.
Jane made this sweater herself ___ hand. 4. The old woman was

213
taken to hospital ___ an ambulance. 5. The boat was carried ___
the waves into the open sea. 6. The girl cut her finger ___ a knife.
7. All the dishes at this restaurant are washed ___ hot soapy
water. 8. My uncle has a picture ___ Saryan and he can’t decide
where to hang it – in the hall or in the sitting room. 9. The patient
was treated ___ very effective drugs. 10. This song has been sung
___ lots of famous singers. 11. The best photos are usually taken
___ digital cameras. 12. All the candles were lit ___ the same
match.

d) before, in front of, behind, opposite

1. At the dinner party he was sitting ___ me so I couldn’t help
looking at him. 2. You’ll find my new house easily. There is a big
supermarket ___ it on the other side of the road. 3. We liked the
cottage very much. There was a lawn ___ the house and a garden
___ it. 4. The stranger held the parcel ___ his back. 5. It was too
dark to see anything, so he walked slowly, holding his arms ___
him. 6. It was a picture of her as a teenager ___ the war.

e) down, up, under, below, over, above

1. He presided ___ the meeting yesterday. 2. He doesn’t do
much work in the house: in fact, he seems to think he’s ___ that
sort of thing. 3. They had nowhere to stay, so they slept ___ a
bridge. 4. The plane flew slowly ___ the suburbs of Paris. 5. I got
off my bike and walked ___ the hill. 6. This lake is almost 600 feet
___ sea level.

f) along, over, across, past

1. When she was going ___ the jewelry shop, her attention
was attracted by a necklace in the shop window. 2. The burglar
climbed ___ the wall of the garden and got into the house ___ an
open window. 3. David is a good swimmer. He can swim ___ the
river. 4. The boys went ___ the bank of the river talking loudly. 5.
My parents were hurrying ___ the path towards me. 6. There are

214
fourteen bridges ___ the Thames in London. 7. Paul stood in
silence with his arms folded ___ his chest.

Ex.10. Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions:

about, across, after, along, among, behind, beside, off,
since,
through, under, without
1. The referee ordered two players ___ the field. 2. I could
see her ___ the window. 3. He sings whenever he is ___ the
influence of alcohol. 4. We have not met ___ early last year. 5.
She came up and sat ___ me. 6. The police want to know all ___ it
and are calling for witnesses. 7. Innocent civilians were ___ the
casualties. 8. Please shut the door ___ you. 9. How long can you
survive ___ light or heating? 10. Who is looking ___ you when
your parents are not in? 11. She was carrying her handbag ___
her arm. 12. We parked the car ___ the fence. 13. He had to push
his way ___ the crowd to get in. 14. The robbers jumped ___ the
train while it was still moving. 15. We enjoy driving ___ the
highway. 16. Books were scattered ___ the room. 17. It’s impolite
to talk ___ ourselves when in company. 18. He has completed this
degree course ___ too much trouble. 19. There is only one bridge
___ this river. 20. Do you believe in life ___ death?

Ex.11. Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions:

against, at, by, for, from, in, like, near, of, on, to, up, with
1. She is doing a degree course ___ a university. 2. His
trousers were washed ___ the washing machine. 3. We had to
climb slowly ___ the hill. 4. His house looks ___ a temple. 5. How
many ___ the members will join the trip? 6. The mob stoned her
___ death. 7. If you go ___ a river you go towards its source. 8.
Have you heard anything ___ him yet? 9. The store was robbed
because there was no guard ___ duty. 10. Put this ___ your
drawer and do not let anyone see it. 11. A university is where you
study ___ a degree. 12. Which of these roads will lead ___ the

215
church? 13. He sometimes quarrels ___ the neighbour. 14. I think
there is a salesman ___ the door. 15. Her next birthday will be ___
a Sunday. 16. Even the new drug could not cure him ___ his
illness. 17. He was given a ten-year prison sentence ___ armed
robbery. 18. The cat likes to rub its head ___ my legs.

Ex.12. Insert the prepositions:

1. You don’t know what you’re talking ___ 2. It’s not a thing
to laugh ___. 3. That’s the person to learn English ___. 4. Many of
the houses in this district are pleasant to look ___. 5. You’ve just
made the very mistakes you accuse me ___. 6. Bread is
something we can’t do ___. 7. Who are you in love ___? 8. I
wonder what hotel he is staying ___. 9. What does your
grandmother complain ___? 10. What did your father change his
job ___?

Ex.13. Fill in prepositions where necessary:

1. His story does not correspond ___ the facts. 2. Mark
failed ___ his attempt to pass the examination ___ chemistry. 3.
The lecturer returned ___ the point he had stopped ___ the
previous day. 4. How stupid ___ me to leave my mobile ___ home!
5. This statue was erected ___ honor ___ that great architect. 6.
Mr. Taylor usually finishes work early ___ Friday. He doesn’t work
___ the weekend. 7. They came back ___ sunset, tired and
hungry. 8. We started off ___ midnight and reached the place of
destination ___ ten hours, ___ noon. 9. The boys crawled ___ a
hole in the fence. 10. The president arrived ___ the airport ___ ten
minutes’ time before the flight. He quickly got ___ the plane and
some minutes later the plane took ___. 11. What time does this
train get ___ Scotland? –It arrives ___ Glasgow ___ 10:30 p.m.
12. You didn’t do it ___ mistake! You did it ___ purpose! 13. I quite
agree with you that going ___ air is the quickest means of
transport, but I am always airsick ___ the plane. 14. When he
came ___ home, he took ___ his coat, hang it ___ the hook and

216
sat ___ the armchair. 15. Where did you meet? – We met ___ the
party ___ the Greens’. 16. ___ her wedding day she got up ___
dawn. 17. Let’s meet ___ seven ___ Saturday. 18. I was in Spain
in 2010. ___ that time I was working ___ a waiter ___ a small cafe.
19. The children were afraid to sit ___ the dark. They came ___
the dinning-room and sat ___ their mother. 20. I disagree ___
people who make all sorts ___ promises which they have no
intention ___ keeping.

Ex.14. Fill in the blanks with the correct prepositions where

necessary:
1. While the sales director was ___ holiday, the sales office
got ___ a real mess. 2. He sold his shares ___ a profit. 3. They
were gossiping ___ him ___ his back. 4. The drunken man swayed
___ side ___ side. 5. The cars were moving ___ the track ___ high
speed. 6. The criminal got ___ all sorts of difficulties trying to
escape ___ the police. 7. If you smoke, you are ___ danger ___
getting ill. 8. Let’s shelter ___ the rain ___ that tree. 9. The
weather didn’t improve. It went ___ bad ___ worse. 10. The room
measured three metres ___ five. 11. ___ the holidays it rained day
___ day. 12. The movie was boring ___ beginning ___ end. 13.
The goods do not have to be paid for ___ advance. 14. I prefer to
pay ___ cheque rather than cash. 15. You should not do it
because it is ___ the rules. 16. Medicine should not be placed ___
reach ___ small children. 17. The mother divided the birthday cake
___ the children ___ the party. 18. She has got ___ her illness and
has returned ___ work. 19. We will definitely see you next week.
We will be there ___ fail. 20. ___ the seaside, the children were so
___ themselves ___ excitement, they could hardly control ___
themselves. 21. The employer knew every one ___ his employees’
___ name. 22. Why are those noisy children shouting ___ the tops
___ their voices? 23. He went ___ the boss and repeated
everything I said word ___ word. 24. He tried to warn his daughter
___ the dangers ___ going out alone ___ night. 25. It was love and

217
caring that she was desperately ___ need ___, not advice. 26. I
learned to ride a horse ___ the age ___ five. 27. The fee charged
___ that lawyer ___ his services was too high.

Ex.15. Complete the text with the correct prepositions:

Suddenly Uncle Henry stood ___. “There’s a cyclone
coming, Em,” he called ___ his wife. “I’ll go look ___ the stock.”
Then he ran ___ the sheds where the cows and horses were kept.
Aunt Em dropped her work and came ___ the door. One
glance told her ___ the danger close ___ hand. “Quick, Dorothy!”
she screamed. “Run ___ the cellar!”
Toto jumped ___ ___ Dorothy’s arms and hid ___ the bed,
and the girl started to get him. Aunt Em, badly frightened, threw
open the trap door ___ the floor and climbed ___ the ladder ___
the small, dark hole. Dorothy caught Toto ___ last and started to
follow her aunt. When she was halfway ___ the room there came a
great shriek ___ the wind, and the house shook so hard that she
lost her footing and sat ___ suddenly ___ the floor. (from “The
Wonderful Wizard of Oz” by L. Frank Baum)

Ex.16. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions where

necessary:
Ruth Handler, an American businesswoman, watched her
daughter Barbara ___ play ___ paper dolls, and noticed that she
often enjoyed giving them adult roles. ___ the time, most children’s
toy dolls were representations ___ infants. Realizing that there
could be a gap ___ the market, she suggested the idea ___ an
adult-bodied doll ___ her husband Elliot, a co-founder ___ the
Mattel toy company. He was unenthusiastic ___ the idea, as were
Mattel’s directors. But ___ a trip ___ Germany ___ 1956 ___ her
children Barbara and Kenneth, Ruth Handler discovered a German
doll called the Bild Lilli doll ___ a shop window. The adult-figured
Lilli doll was exactly what Handler had ___ mind, so she
purchased three ___ them. She gave one ___ her daughter and

218
took the others back ___ Mattel. The Lilli doll was based ___ a
popular character appearing ___ a comic strip ___ a German
newspaper. Lilli was a working girl who knew what she wanted and
was not above using men to get it. The Lilli doll was first sold ___
Germany ___ 1955, and although it was initially sold ___ adults, it
became popular ___ children who enjoyed dressing her up ___
outfits that were available separately. ___ her return ___ the
United States, Handler reworked the design ___ the doll and it was
given a new name, Barbie, ___ Handler’s daughter Barbara. The
doll made its debut ___ the American International Toy Fair ___
New York ___ March 9, 1959. This date is also used as Barbie’s
official birthday.

Ex.17. Fill in the gaps with the correct prepositions:

Suddenly she came ___ a little three-legged table, all made
___ solid glass; there was nothing ___ it except a tiny golden key,
and Alice’s first thought was that it might belong ___ one ___ the
doors ___ the hall; but, alas! Either the locks were too large, or the
key was too small, but ___ any rate it would not open any ___
them. However, ___ the second time round, she came ___ a low
curtain she had not noticed before, and ___ it was a little door
about fifteen inches high: she tried the little golden key ___ the
lock, and ___ her great delight it fitted!
Alice opened the door and found that it led ___ a small
passage, not much larger than a rat-hole: she knelt ___ and
looked ___ the passage ___ the loveliest garden you ever saw.
How she longed to get ___ ___ that dark hall, and wander about
___ those beds ___ bright flowers and those cool fountains, but
she could not even get her head ___ the doorway. ‘And even if my
head would go ___,’ thought poor Alice, ‘it would be ___ very little
use ___ my shoulders.’ (from “Alice in Wonderland” by L. Carroll)

Ex.18. Translate the following sentences into English:

219
 1.ÆÙ³ëï ãáõÝÇ Ù»ù»Ý³Ûáí óïñáÝ ·Ý³É, »Ã» ã»Ýù
ϳñáÕ Ï³Û³Ý»É ß»ÝùÇ Ùáï: 2.ºë ë³ñë³÷»óÇ, »ñµ ݳۻóÇ Ýñ³
¹»ÙùÇÝ: ܳ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ ï»ëù áõÝ»ñ, ϳñÍ»ë û ß³µ³ÃÝ»ñáí ã¿ñ
ùÝ»É: 3.Ø»Ýù ã·Çï»ÇÝù, áñ »ñ»Ë³ÛÇÝ Ñ³çáÕí»É ¿ñ ¹áõñë
÷³Ëã»É Ññ¹»ÑíáÕ ïÝÇó: 4.àõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÝ ³ÛÝù³Ý ß³ï ¿ÇÝ Éë»É
³Û¹ ·ÇïݳϳÝÇ Ù³ëÇÝ, áñ ³Ýѳٵ»ñáõÃÛ³Ùµ ¿ÇÝ ëå³ëáõÙ
Ýñ³Ý ï»ëÝ»ÉáõÝ: 5.ØÇû± ݳ ÁݹáõÝ³Ï ¿ ÝÙ³Ý ëïáñáõÃÛ³Ý:
20.ºë ã·Çï»Ç, û áõÙ å»ïù ¿ ¹ÇÙ»Ù û·ÝáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ: 6.ºñµ
¹áõ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñǹ Ñ»ï ݳ˳׳ßáõÙ »ë é»ëïáñ³ÝáõÙ, á±í ¿
í׳ñáõ٠ѳßÇíÁ: – Úáõñ³ù³ÝãÛáõñÁ í׳ñáõÙ ¿ Çñ å³ïíÇñ³ÍÇ
ѳٳñ: 7.Ø»Ýù ³ÛÝ ïå³íáñáõÃÛáõÝÝ áõÝ»ÇÝù, áñ ϳñÍ»ë û
í׳ñ»É ¿ÇÝ ù»½ ³ÛÝ ³ß˳ï³ÝùÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ, áñ ¹áõ ³ÝáõÙ ¿Çñ:
8.¸áõù ϳñÍáõÙ »ù ´ÇÉÉÁ ѳñÙ³±ñ ûÏݳÍáõ ¿ ³Ûë
³ß˳ï³ÝùÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ: 9.ºë ã»Ù ϳñáÕ ³ë»É, û ÇÝã ã³÷áí ¿
³Û¹ ï»Õ»Ï³ïíáõÃÛáõÝÁ ×Çßï: 10.ºë »ñ³Ëï³å³ñï »Ù Ó»½
³Û¹ ³Ý·Ý³Ñ³ï»ÉÇ ËáñÑáõñ¹Ý»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ: 11.Üñ³ Ñ»ï ¹Åí³ñ
¿ ·áñÍ áõݻݳÉ: ܳ ÙÇßï Çñ ³ë³ÍÝ ¿ åݹáõÙ: 12.гÛñÁ ïí»É ¿
Çñ ѳٳӳÛÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ` æáÝÇ Ñ»ï Ýñ³ ³ÙáõëÝáõÃÛ³ÝÁ: 13.¸áõù
å»ïù ¿ ³ÝÙÇç³å»ë Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ Ëݹñ»ù ø»ÛÃÇó »ñ»Ïí³ Ó»ñ
å³Ñí³ÍùÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ: 14.²ñï³ë³ÑÙ³ÝÛ³Ý ½µáë³ßñçÇÏÝ»ñÝ ³Ûë
ÑÛáõñ³ÝáóáõÙ µáÕáùáõÙ »Ý ëÝݹÇó: 15.²Ûë Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ Ùßï³å»ë
Ñá· »Ý ï³ÝáõÙ ßñç³Ï³ ÙÇç³í³ÛñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ:

THE CONJUNCTION

Ex.1. State the morphological structure of the following

conjunctions:
although, as well as, while, provided, unless, now that, for,
no sooner than, notwithstanding, as if, before, as long as, and,
that, neither … nor, until, for, lest, as soon as, not only … but also.

Ex.2. Underline the conjunctions and state whether they are

coordinating

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 or subordinating:
1. When the lights went out, Mother lit some candles. 2. I
didn’t go out last night because I was feeling awful. 3. Since all the
cakes looked good she couldn’t decide which to choose. 4. They
couldn’t sell their house because prices were falling. 5. I gave
David my address so that he could contact me. 6. Although she
had a bad cough, she was able to sing in the choir. 7. If my
grandfather were still alive, he would be eighty today. 8. There is
no chance of getting the job unless you apply. 9. He had been
walking since morning and he was beginning to feel extremely
tired.

Ex.3. Fill in the blanks with the following coordinating conjunctions:

and, but, or, so:
1. Jason was cold, ___ he put on a coat. 2. Maria tried to
read a novel in French, ___ it was too difficult. 3. To get from
Vancouver to Victoria, you can fly, ___ you can ride the ferry. 4. I
bought a bottle of wine, ___ we drank it together. 5. The waiter
was not very nice, ___ the food was delicious. 6. I went to buy a
Rolling Stones CD, ___ the shop didn’t have it. 7. Anna needed
some money, ___ she took a part-time job. 8. There’s so much
rain lately! Maybe it’s because of El Nino, ___ maybe it’s just
coincidence. 9. Julie has a guitar, ___ she plays it really well. 10.
The concert was cancelled, ___we went to a nightclub instead. 11.
Mrs. Taylor is tall ___ slim. 12. Learning geography is hard ___
interesting. 13. I don’t like football ___ soccer. 14. Do you pull the
handle ___ push it? 15. These tools are old ___ still good. 16. We
visited lots of castles ___ palaces in England. 17. The classes are
quite difficult ___ I’m doing well. 18. I didn’t know whether to turn
left ___ right.

Ex.4. Choose the best subordinating conjunction for each

sentence:

221
 1. Although/Because it was raining, I didn’t get wet. 2.
Whereas/Since Mei Li doesn’t speak English, she can’t go to
university in Canada. 3. I will be late today though/because my car
has broken down. 4. I don’t drink coffee as/although it makes me
nervous. 5. Since/Whereas my wife likes to travel abroad, I prefer
to stay at home for my vacations. 6. Paula got the job even
though/as she had no experience. 7. Jerry passed the exam first
time while/as I had to retake it three times. 8. Jun couldn’t buy any
Christmas presents because/even though he didn’t have any
money.

Ex.5. Fill in the blanks with the following conjunctions:

although, and, because, but, or, since, so, unless, until,
when
1. Things were different ___ I was young. 2. She will die ___
the doctors operate immediately. 3 Let us wait here ___ the rain
stops. 4. You cannot be a lawyer ___ you have a law degree. 5.
That was years ___ years ago. 6. She has not called ___ she left
last week. 7. I saw him leaving an hour ___ two ago. 8. This is an
expensive ___ very useful book. 9. We were getting tired ___ we
stopped for a rest. 10. He was angry ___ he heard when
happened. 11. Walk quickly ___ you will be late. 12. He had to
retire ___ his health was poor. 13. We will go swimming next
Sunday ___ it’s raining. 14. I heard a noise ___ I turned the light
on. 15. Would you like coffee ___ tea? 16. ___ the car is old it still
runs well. 17. Do you want a pen ___ a bit of paper?

Ex.6. Fill in the blanks with the following conjunctions:

so that, as long as, while, until, as if, though
1. You can come to the meeting ______ you don’t say
anything. 2. I’m not leaving ______ I get an apology from you. 3. I
came here ______ you could give me an explanation. 4. Bob is
very tall ______ Bill is very short. 5. You look ______ you’ve seen
a ghost. 6. I refuse to pay anything ______ you do the work

222
properly. 7. I’m going shopping for food this evening ______ I don’t
have to go at the weekend. 8. You look ______ you haven’t eaten
for a week. 9. I came early ______ I could talk to you privately. 10.
______ I don’t think she’s perfect for the job, she’s certainly better
qualified than Steve. 11. I don’t mind if you go out for lunch ______
you’re back for the meeting at two. 12. Are you OK? You look
______ you have a problem. 13. ______ the job is very interesting,
it’s very badly paid. 14. We’ll go to the mountains on Saturday
______ it doesn’t rain. 15. The winters here are very cold ______
the summers are very hot. 16. You can write the report when you
want ______ it’s ready by the end of the month. 17. It looks
______ the government has got a lot of problems. 18. I want Mary
to be in charge ______ I get back from holiday. 19. ______ I don’t
approve of what you did, I’m not going to punish you for it. 20. I’m
learning English ______ I can get a better job.

Ex.7. Fill in the gaps with one of the conjunctions listed below:
however, although, so that, whereas
Sweets of Middle and Far East (such as baklava) gradually
began to find their way into western cuisines starting from the 14th
and 15th centuries; ____, there are significant differences between
eastern and western cuisines in the variety and consumption of
sweets. ____ in the West sweets tend to be light and are served at
the end of the meal, in the East they are served at any hour of the
day and are fragrant and flavourful and drenched in
syrup. ____many theories have been put forward concerning the
invention of baklava, none is certain. Due to their nomadic lifestyle,
the Turks of Central Asia carried their cooking equipment with
them on horseback. The only stove that could be carried on the
back of a horse was a thin metal brazier, and the food prepared on
such a brazier had to be thin ____ it would cook quickly.

Ex.8. Fill in the blanks with appropriate conjunctions:

223
 1. He is not ___ clever as his brother. 2. He must be
punished ___ he is guilty. 3. A fool ___ his money are soon parted.
4. He was not punished ___ he was guilty. 5. He worked hard ___
he might pass the examination. 6. Give every man thy ear, ___ few
thy voice. 7. I waited for him ___ the clock struck seven. 8. You will
not get the prize ___ you deserve it. 9. It has been a year ___ I
saw him. 10. Hardly had he reached the platform ___ the train
arrived. 11. No sooner did he see the tiger ___ he fainted. 12. ___
you do not apologize, I shall punish you. 13. Enjoy yourself ___
you are young. 14. ___ the car passed I recognized the driver. 15.
She has been looking pale ___ she had been seriously ill for some
time. 16. She must have been wearing that hat ___ Noah came
out of the ark. 17. Nobody knows what became of him ___ he
never came back. 18. ___ he worked, he would succeed. 19. I had
a wonderful time in the country ___ my wife was disappointed. 20.
___ I got to the door I knocked three times. 21. ___ he was
speaking, everybody listened carefully. 22. Nothing was said ___
in favor of ___ against the project. 23. I’ll forgive you ___ you tell
this to anybody. 24. He leaned forward ___ spoke as one who was
used to a large audience. 25. ___ in bed, Elizabeth continued to
hold her mother’s hand.

Ex.9. Join the following sentences by using conjunctions:

1. He spent a sleepless night. He wrote his resignation to the
chairman of the board of directors. 2. The children were all smiling
at me. I came toward them. 3. I did not watch the film to the end. It
was not interesting. 4. He stood there as a statue would. He didn’t
speak. He didn’t move. 5. He was tired and alone. He was not lost.
6. The expedition may be dangerous. He would take part in it. 7.
Can you feed the dog? I’ll be away. 8. I shall pay you back. I’ll get
the money. 9. I’ll tell you about the holiday. I’ll come back. 10. My
brother collects coins. He collects stamps. 11. It was quite clear.
Our team was going to lose. 12. Swallows migrate in winter.
Robins stay during the whole year. 13. The windows in the hall

224
were open. It was hot. 14. The travelers left early in the morning.
They wanted to reach the village before sunset.

Ex.10. Join each pair of sentences into one by using a suitable

conjunction:
Model: Rita has no time to answer your call as she is in a
hurry.
1. We will go for an outing. We will do so if the weather is
fine. 2. We had better get ready now. We may not have time to
reach the airport. 3. The meeting had to be called off. There was
not enough quorum. 4. Mr. Liew has been sick. He has been so
since coming back from Japan. 5. Do not start the rehearsal yet.
The chairman has not arrived. 6. The debating teams were very
happy. Both were declared joint-champions. 7. The players did
their best. They still did not win the match. 8. Let us be more
serious in our revision. We may not perform as well as we want. 9.
The boys were unhappy with their results. The girls were also
unhappy with theirs. 10. Some apples are red. Others are green.
11. You should stay away from bears. They are dangerous. 12.
Surfing is fun. It can be dangerous. 13. The boat could not move.
There was no wind. 14. I took my umbrella. It was raining. 15. Deer
are cute. They eat all your flowers.

Ex.11. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.гٳϳñ·ÇãÝ ³í»ÉÇÝ ³ñÅ»ñ, ù³Ý Ýñ³Ýù Ùï³¹Çñ
¿ÇÝ Í³Ëë»É: 2.ÂáÙÁ å³ñ½³å»ë ã¿ñ ϳñáÕ ³ß˳ï»É, ÙÇÝã¨
µáÉáñ å³ÛÙ³ÝÝ»ñÝ Çñ ëñïáí ãÉÇÝ»ÇÝ: 3.Üñ³Ýù ëïÇå»óÇÝ
ïÕ³ÛÇÝ Ã³ùÝí»É, áñ áëïÇϳÝÁ ãï»ëÝ»ñ Çñ»Ý: 4.ÆÝã ¿É áñ
Ùï³¹Çñ »Ù ³Ý»É, »ë ϳݻ٠³é³Ýó áñ¨¿ Ù»ÏÇ ËáñÑñ¹Ç: 5.Ø»Ýù
ÏñÏÇÝ ÏѳݹÇå»Ýù, Ñ»Ýó áñ í»ñ³¹³éݳ٠³ñï³ë³ÑÙ³ÝÇó:
6.ʳÝáõÃÁ, áñï»ÕÇó »ë ·Ý»óÇ ³Ûë Ó³Ûݳëϳí³é³ÏÁ,
É³í³·áõÛÝÝ ¿ Ù»ñ ù³Õ³ùáõÙ: 7.ºñµ ¹³ÑÉÇ×áõÙ å»ï³Ï³Ý
ÑÇÙÝÝ ¿ÇÝ Ï³ï³ñáõÙ, µáÉáñ Ý»ñϳݻñÁ áïùÇ Ï³Ý·Ý»óÇÝ:
8.àõß³¹Çñ Ïݳۻë ÷áÕáóÇ ³ÝÏÛáõÝáõÙ Ï³Ý·Ý³Í Ù³ñ¹áõÝ, »ñµ

225
³ÝóÝ»ë Ýñ³ ÏáÕùáí: 9.ºñµ лÝñÇÝ í³ÕÁ ·³, »ë Ýñ³Ý ϳë»Ù,
áñ Ù»Ýù Ññ³Å³ñíáõÙ »Ýù Ù³ëݳÏó»É ³Û¹ ùÝݳñÏÙ³ÝÁ:
10.êÙÇÃÝ»ñÁ ÙÇ ß³µ³Ã ÙݳóÇÝ ÑÛáõñ³ÝáóáõÙ, ÇëÏ Ñ»ïá Ýñ³Ýó
ѳçáÕí»ó µÝ³Ï³ñ³Ý ·ïÝ»É ÈáݹáÝÇ ³ñí³ñÓ³ÝÝ»ñáõÙ:
11.»¨ æ»ÛÝÁ ³ÙáõëÝ³Ï³Ý Ù³ï³ÝÇ ãÇ ÏñáõÙ, ݳ ѳí³Ý³µ³ñ
³Ùáõëݳó³Í ¿ ¨ ÙÇ·áõó» »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñ ¿É áõÝÇ: 12.´áÉáñÇÝ å³ñ½
¿ñ, áñ ÑÛáõñÁ ѳÏí³Í ã¿ñ áñ¨¿ ѳñóÇ å³ï³ë˳ݻÉ: 13.ØÇÝã¨
Ó»éùÇóë í³Ûñ ÁÝÏÝ»ÉÁ ųٳóáõÛóë É³í ¿ñ ³ß˳ïáõÙ: 14.ºë
ã·Çï»Ù, ³ñ¹Ûá±ù ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿ ÑÇß»óÝ»É Ýñ³Ýó ³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ:
15.Ðݳñ³íáñ ¿, áñ Ý»ñϳ۳óáõÙÁ ³í³ñïí»É ¿, ù³ÝÇ áñ ß³ï
Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ »Ý ¹áõñë ·³ÉÇë óïñáÝÇó: 16.àã ѳñ³½³ïÝ»ñÁ ¨ áã
¿É ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÁ ã·Çï»ÇÝ, û áñï»Õ ¿ ݳ ¨ ÇÝã ¿ ³ÝáõÙ: 17.¸áõ
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ݳ »ñµ»ù ɳí ã¿ñ Ýí³·Ç çáõóÏ, ÙÇÝ㨠³í»ÉÇ ß³ï
ãå³ñ³å»ñ:

THE PARTICLE

Ex.1. Point out the particles and define the group each belongs to:
1. The room looks exactly as it did when I was here last year.
2. Not a word was said about yesterday’s incident. 3. Man cannot
live on bread alone. 4. I shall also try to be there tomorrow. 5. You
ought to have written at once and told your parents exactly what
had happened. 6. He was a brilliant engineer. The company even
offered him higher wages. 7. The stranger said that he only wanted
to ask me the time. 8. I remember but little of the journey. I only
know that it seemed too long to me. 9. We were just about to start
when all that happened. 10. He was only 16 and he would
compete against fellows two or three years his senior.

226
Ex.2. Make up sentences using the following particles:
still, just, even, also, only, too, simply, yet, merely, alone, right,
exactly

Ex.3. Fill in the appropriate particle from the given list:

not, also, alone, exactly, right, too, only, merely, just, but
1. When Nelly tried on the skirt it came ___ below her knees.
2. Do you think man can live on water ___ for a long time? 3. We
decided to put the Christmas tree ___ in the middle of the room. 4.
Time ___ will show who was right. 5. Mr. Scott ___ hinted at the
possibility. 6. What ___ do you mean? 7. ___ everyone likes
detective stories. 8. She is still ___a child, she wants to play. 9. I
shall ___ try to contact her as soon as possible. 10. Susan has got
a lovely voice, and she’s a good dancer ___.

THE INTERJECTION

Ex.1. Point out the interjections. State the kind of emotions they
express:
1. Oh, dear! I have lost my keys. 2. “My grandma is ill again.”
“Dear me! I am sorry to hear that”. 3. Hey! Is anybody here? 4.
Hallo! What’s happening now? 5. Oh! Don’t be so stupid. 6. Oh! I
am sorry! 7. Oh! How glad I am to see you! 8. Oh! Really? 9. Alas
for my hopes! 10. Well, it’s all the same now, isn’t it? 11. Why, boy,
how is it you are so short for your age? 12. Good gracious! Do you
sleep in the street? 13. For goodness’ sake, stop crying! 14. We’ve
done it. Hurray for us! 15. Bother! I’ve missed my train!

Ex.2.Underline the interjections:

1. Hey! You left me behind. 2. Ouch! That soup is hot. 3.
Oops! The plate broke. 4. Well, I guess I’ll go. 5. Hurray! We won
the game. 6. Wow! John hit the ball far. 7. Hurry! I saw something
scary in the cave. 8. Alas! I cannot go with you. 9. Shh! I heard

227
something. 10 Ah, I see what you mean. 11. Hey, do you know her
name? 12. Wow! That ballet dancer is really good. 13. Gee, I
would never be able to dance like Jenny. 14. Bravo! Our baseball
team won the pennant. 15. Shh, be quiet. 16. Oh no! Our team lost
that game! 17. Good grief, Charlie Brown is playing! 18. Hurray,
we won anyway. 19. Whoops, I lost the key. 20. Goodness, the
school basketball team is quite good this year.

Ex.3. Make up sentences with the following interjections:

dear me, pooh, gosh, aha, damn, my God, hey, here, oh, bravo,
alas

Ex.4. Fill in the blanks with correct interjections:

Eek!, Oh!, Oops!, Wow!, Hey!, Aha!, Ouch!, Ah!, Well, Ugh!
1. ___ He stole my watch. 2. ___ That hurts. 3. ___ I think I’ll
go. 4. ____ I hate rats. 5. ___ What a cute kitten. 6. ___ I lost my
pencil. 7. ____ The bus left. 8. ____ How exciting. 9. ____, I guess
you can have my soup. 10. ____ I slipped.

Ex.5. Choose the correct answer:

1. An interjection is ___.
a. an exclamation which shows thoughts or feelings
b. a meaningless string of sounds
c. the same as an adjective
2. You are most likely to hear or use the interjection boo! ___.
a. at a theatrical performance
b. while listening to a political speech
c. on both of the above mentioned occasions
3. Paraphrase the interjection used in the following dialogue:
A: I’ve forgotten to tell John about the party.
B: Eh?
a. What did you say? b. Really? c. How come?
4. Somebody has just stepped on your toe. Which interjection
would best fit the situation?

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a. Yoo-hoo! b. Ouch! c. Eh!
5. Which of the following interjections is NOT an expression of
surprise or wonder?
a. Gee! b. Gosh! c. Boo!
6. ___, Mary! Come here! I want to talk to you.
a. Oops b. Mmm c. Hey
7. Ta is synonymous of ___.
a. take it easy b. thank you c. tra-la-la
8. Your children are making a lot of noise and you want to hear the
news on the radio. How do you urge silence?
a. Shh! b. Tut-tut. c. Ow!
9. The interjection ‘Woe!’ is a synonym of ___.
a. Alas! b. Bother! c. Really!
10. ___! The spinach soup is out of this world!
a. Uh b. Yuk c. Mmm
11. A: I scored 660 points at the TOEFL test!
B: ___! That’s amazing!
a. Wow b. Aha c. Woe
12. Which is the odd word out? (Which word fits in a different
group?)
a. hey b. yoo-hoo c. oops
13. You are vegetarian and you are offered a dish of raw meat.
What do you think?
a. Ugh! b. Hurrah! c. Yippee!

THE VERB

Ex.1. Say whether the underlined verbs are notional, auxiliary or

link-
verbs:
1. No one had ever explained to him why they called it Indian
Summer, but it had always been his favourite time of the year. 2.
The sand was soft and clean, and the beach was empty. 3. He

229
opened the wine and realized they would have to drink from the
bottle, as they had brought no glasses. 4. “Why do you look so
shocked?” she asked. 5. Amanda didn’t really start to play the
game until she got herself a girl-shaped avatar. 6. Some girls
completely stop eating and get all anorexic. 7. The more she
looked, the more scared she got. 8. A man was whistling as he
came up the path to the cottage. 9. She turned to look at the
cottage once more, watching as the flames reduced even the
stones to ash. 10. Maggie peered down the alley, but she could
see nothing. 11. The war is over, and the King has gone from our
land. 12. She started to get up, but Mrs. Cook stopped her. 13. I
will get those papers for you. 14. You know as well as I do that you
are not the strongest bird in the sky.

Ex.2. State the type of the underlined verbs (stative / dynamic,

durative /
terminative):
1. The pharmacist looked me in the eye, shook his head, and
gave a long sigh. 2. I turned and saw her standing by the inner
entrance. 3. Tire tracks ran across the front lawn. 4. I stood up,
walked to the door. “You have two weeks, Mr. Lee. Be ready.” 5. I
could not forget how it felt to have no memory. Awake, the problem
seemed even more serious. 6. I felt nervous typing that message
and looked up to find Bob. 7. “I had a dog once. She died.”
“Everything dies,” said Mr. Lee. He sounded sympathetic. 8. The
guests sat stunned and wide-eyed in their fancy pressed clothing.
9. The next morning, after you left for work, I sat down and wrote
you this note. 10. I shrugged, as if I hadn’t noticed how beautiful
she was. 11. “Michael,” said a voice I didn’t think I would ever hear
again. 12. Do you remember last month, when I told you I had a
business trip? 13. I figure management wants to fire Bob so they
can hire a younger supervisor at a lower salary. 14. Once I woke
up, the whole thing would seem silly, and I’d forget all about it by
breakfast. 15. Her business grew and made her financially

230
comfortable. 16. She thinks I don’t know about that boy she is
seeing.

Ex.3. State the type of the following verbs (transitive, intransitive):

1. He ran the slideshow again. 2. When the little boy woke
up, he threw his boots and snowsuit on, and ran out the door. 3. I
have lots of ideas such as using apes to find equipment lost at the
bottom of the sea. 4. She saw the pain in his eyes at having to
annihilate his creation. 5. “I did write one of those stories once,
yes, but I couldn’t help writing lots of other things at the same time.
Couldn’t switch off. Finished the novel eventually, too.” “I see.
What else did you do?” 6. Then the doctor ran the scalpel over the
chilled, blue skin and split the two sides like Moses parting the sea.
7. He worked quickly, sketching cartoons and outlining the
colourful shapes symbolic of his current style. 8. I stood up and
worked my way across the room to stand with him. 9. These sorts
only grow deep in the forest and blossom for an hour or two past
midnight. 10. When he returned, he bought a small house in the
country and began growing flowers. 11. There was nothing
anybody could do about it. No father, no pompous uncle could do
a damn thing now! 12. “Well, how are you doing at school,” Father
asked. 13. He opened the door to get out, then turned and looked
me in the eyes. 14. The curtain should fall back any moment now.
And the door should open. 15. “They took my money. I’m going to
get it back,” he said. 16. The cold is welcome as the fever has
already begun. 17. The snow had begun to fall harder.

Ex.4. Find the verbs in the following sentences and say whether
they are
finite or non-finite:
1. When I saw Carly and Annie come out of the ladies room,
walking towards me, smiling and talking with their hands, I puffed
my cheeks and blew out the air slowly. 2. I only asked once,
seeing how much the question irritated him. 3. Nobody cares about

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a snowman, right? It’s just a bunch of snow rolled into balls with
some sticks and rocks, probably made by a kid. Maybe this kid had
nothing better to do. Or maybe he waited all year for the first
snowfall. Maybe his eyes lit up during math class when the first
flakes fell. Maybe he was the first outside waiting for his mom
when the principal called an early dismissal. A little boy rushing
into his house and back out in less than a minute with his snowsuit
on. Spending the entire day gathering, shaping, and creating until
it was perfect. 4. “I’m as real as –” I broke off, realizing the stupidity
of what I’d started to say. 5. As we were about to enter, a nurse
asked to have a word with Mom. 6. Your mother called me after
you went missing, asking if I knew anything they should know… I
wish I’d told your mother I knew everything she should have
known, but nothing that would have helped. 7. Brushed out of its
tangles and lovingly oiled, her hair was pitch-dark and shining.

THE INDEFINITE FORM

The Present Indefinite Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Present Indefinite:

1. The Thames flows through London. 2. Buses go there
every ten minutes.3.What time does she come here as a rule? 4.
Father generally returns from work at 6. 5. I eat an apple every day
– an apple a day keeps the doctor away. 6. Light travels more
quickly than sound. 7. In spite of her old age she hears very well.
8. I don’t understand your remark. 9. The sun rises in the east, and
sets in the west. 10. He says he doesn’t dine at home. 11.
Tomorrow a group of students leave for Cambridge. 12. An atheist
doesn’t believe in God. 13. Hospitals treat the sick. 14. My friend
works in a bank. 15. I frequently meet my friends in a nearby
coffee bar. 16. In the evening Pat usually read books or listens to
music. 17. If you look at them, don’t smile. 18. I shall accompany
you with pleasure as soon as I am free.

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Ex.2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative:
1. My sister has a very beautiful voice. 2. John has a shower
every morning and evening. 3. The last train leaves at midnight. 4.
He lives beside the sea. 5. The room is terribly stuffy. 6. In
England the traffic keeps to the left. 7. Mothers often tell small
children stories before bedtime. 8. She always has lunch at the
office. 9. They are my best friends. 10. My father buys a morning
newspaper every day. 11. Their children get up very early.

Ex.3. Match the beginning and the end of the sentences:

1. Vanuatu a. are very beautiful.
2. Am b. ’m hungry.
3. Cats c. handsome.
4. Sean’s d. is a nation in the Pacific.
5. Brigitte e. are types of music.
6. Are f. the Prime Minister happy?
7. Jazz and breakbeat g. you happy?
8. Is h. is beautiful.
9. I i. I crazy?

Ex.4. Choose one verb and make each sentence negative:

Model: It doesn’t snow very often in San Francisco. (snow,
sing, play)
1. I like football, but I ____ cricket at all. (think, like,
remember) 2. She lives in Japan, but she ____ a word of
Japanese. (sing, ask, speak) 3. I’m sorry, I ____ your name.
(forget, remember, call) 4. He works in New York, but I ____ what
he does. (know, matter, tell) 5. Mary’s really tired, but she ____ to
go to bed. (help, want, walk) 6. We ____ a big flat – just one
bedroom. (work, live, want) 7. Phil ____ very hard, but he makes a
lot of money. (work, stand, stop) 8. Ann’s parents ____ I’m the
right man for their daughter. (allow, want, think)

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Ex.5. Ask questions to the following sentences beginning with the
word(s)
in brackets:
1. People often do stupid things. (Why?) 2. It is his problem,
not mine. (Whose?) 3. The milkman brings us milk very early.
(Who?) 4. Pete always reads some pages from one book or
another before going to bed. (When?) 5. It is rarely cold in Great
Britain even in winter. (Where?) 6. My car sometimes breaks
down. (How often?) 7. We seldom see each other these days
because we are too busy. (Why?) 8. He grows all kinds of
vegetables in his garden. (What?) 9. Lucy likes to take a cold
shower. (What kind of?) 10. I meet these people on my way to the
University. (Whom?)

Ex.6. Write questions for the following answers:

1. He lives in the United States. 2. She is Scottish. 3. Cardiff.
4. They go to church once a week. 5. It’s two pounds fifty. 6. Today
it is foggy and cold. 7. Yes, I do. 8. No, she doesn’t. 9. She has
breakfast at 8 a.m. 10. Two brothers and one sister. 11. I go skiing
and do gymnastics. 12. She works in an office.

Ex.7. Complete the questions using the verbs in bracket. Give

answers to
the questions:
1. ____ bones growing? (to stop) (yes) 2. How much water
____ the brain? (to contain) (about 80%). 3. How many square
meters _____ an adult’s skin _____? (to cover) (about 2m2) 4.
Which vitamin ____ the liver ____? (to produce) (vitamin A) 5.
How many times a day ____ you____ in and out? (to breathe)
(about 25.000). 6. How long ____ the heart ____ to pump blood
around the body? (to take) (about a minute). 7.____ muscles ____
or push? (to pull) (they can’t push).

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Ex.8. Interview Harry Potter. Complete the questions using the
Present
Indefinite of the verbs in brackets. Ask about other things
that
interest you:
You: ______ (you/to live) with?
Harry: My uncle, my aunt and their son.
You: ______ (you/to live) with them?
Harry: Because my parents died when I was a little baby.
You: I know you have a hard life at home. ______ (you/to do) the
housework?
Harry: Oh, every day.
You: ______ (usually/you/to do)?
Harry: I wake up and make my bed, then I prepare breakfast. And I
even clean the house.
You: ______ (you/to wake up)?
Harry: I usually wake up at about 8.
You: And ______ (you/to have) for breakfast?
Harry: I often have scrambled eggs, bacon and milk. Yummy,
yummy!
You: Yuck! Well, changing the subject, ______ (you/to get) to
Hogwarts?
Harry: By a magical train.
You: Wow, that sounds fun. Mmm, I think that’s all. Thank you for
the interview.
Harry: Don’t mention it.

Ex.9. Choose the right verb (to be, to do, to have) and use it in the
Present Indefinite:
1. You ______ the best friend I’ve ever had. 2. Where ___
you? I ___ in the kitchen. 3. Two heads ___ better than one. 4.
Which sport do you think ___ the most dangerous? 5. It ___ ten
o’clock. She ___ late again. 6. He ___ the measuring and we ___
the cutting. 7. Those sheep ___ not belong to that farmer. 8. The

235
equator ___ an imaginary line round the earth. 9. The natives of
this island ___ a friendly people. 10. She ___ some mistakes in
her dictation. 11. This boy ___ a good influence on his friends. 12.
___ you many friends here? 13. Their son ___ what he wants. 14.
She ___ a pale face and dark grey hair. 15. ___ you sleep well?
Yes, I ___. 16. That ___ not mean I ___ not like her. 17. ___
anybody know the answer? 18. It ___ not matter where you got
this money from.

Ex.10. Put the verb in brackets in the Present Indefinite:

1. My little brother (to collect) stamps. 2. Anything that he
(to say) (to be) worth listening to. 3. Every year we (to spend) our
holidays on the seashore in Greece. 4. What you (to see) over
there? 5. Sometimes my dog (to be) very funny. 6. His work (to be)
rather dull, he (to think). 7. The manager (to meet) a lot of people
every day. 8. They (to run) a very profitable business somewhere
in South Africa. 9. My working day (to last) 8 hours. 10. He (to
have) hardly any knowledge of the subject. 11. Few people (to
realize) how important it is to go in for sports. 12. Unfortunately, we
(to make) very many mistakes in our life. 13. You (to like) our new
car? 14. He (to live) somewhere near here. 15. I (not to like) horror
films. 16. She (to be) easy to deal with. 17. He (to believe) that he
is right. 18. She (to be) never at home at the weekend. 19. It
occasionally (to rain) here. 20. Helen always (to fail) her exam in
Spanish. 21. You (to help) your mother about the house? 22. Who
the car (to belong) to?

Ex.11. Put the verb in brackets in the correct Present Indefinite

form:
A. My Old Dad. We never (to see) him in the morning. And
he always (to come) home late. Then he (to sit) and (to read) the
newspaper. And (to do) the crossword while he (to eat). He never
(to help) us with our homework. But he (to teach) me how to swim.

236
And he (to teach) me to be patient. I guess I (to learn) a lot from
him.
B. 1. Romance (to live) by repetition. Each time one (to
love) is the only time. Difference of object (not to alter) singleness
of passion. It merely (to intensify) it. (O. Wilde) 2. All influence (to
be) immoral – because then the person (not to think) his natural
thoughts, and (not to burn) his own passions. His virtues (not to
be) real to him. His sins, if there (to be) such things as sins, (to be)
borrowed. He (to become) an echo of someone else’s music. The
aim of life (to be) self-development. (O. Wilde)

Ex.12. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present Indefinite:

Al Wright (to be) a good example of a modern teenager.
He’s 17 years old and he’s a British student. In the morning, he (to
go) to school and he (to do) his homework in the evening. In the
afternoon, he (to do) all kinds of activities, from sports to
community work.
Being healthy and strong (not to be) everything to him. He
(to want) more. He (to want) to have good grades at school, so he
(to study) hard. Al’s very popular at school and he (to have) many
friends. He (to play) the guitar in a band, plays chess and (to have)
karate lessons.
He (to have) a girlfriend, Rachel Hayes. She (to be) in
Brazil right now, as an exchange student. He (to miss) her very
much. He (to chat) with her on the Internet on the weekends.

Ex.13. Read the passage and put the verbs in brackets in the
Present Indefinite:
An old white, broken-down, frame house, with a front porch
on San Benito Avenue in Fresno, California. There (to be) no other
houses near by, only a desolation of bleak lands and red sky. It (to
be) late afternoon of a day in August, 1914. The evening sun is
going down.

237
 Johnny, aged nine, but essentially ageless, is sitting, dy-
namic and acrobatic, on the steps of the porch, dead to the world
and deep in thought of a high and holy order. Far away a train
whistle (to cry) mournfully. He (to listen) eagerly, cocking his head
on one side like a chicken, trying to understand the meaning of the
cry and at the same time to figure out everything. He quite (not to
make) it and when the cry (to end) he stops being eager. A
fourteen-year-old boy on a bicycle, eating an ice-cream cone and
carrying newspaper bags, (to go) by on the sidewalk in silence,
oblivious of the weight on his shoulders and of the contraption in
which he (to be seated), because of the delight and glory of ice
cream in the world. Johnny (to leap) to his feet and (to wave) to the
boy, smiling in a big humanitarian way, but (to be ignored). He (to
sit) down again and (to listen) to a small overjoyed but angry bird.
After making a brief forceful speech of no meaning, the bird (to fly)
away. ( from “My Heart’s in the Highlands” by W. Saroyan)

Ex.14. Read the passage and put the verbs in brackets in the
Present Indefinite:
A little jailhouse in Matador, Texas. There (to be) a fellow in
a small-town prison cell, tapping slowly on the floor with a spoon.
After tapping half a minute as if he were trying to telegraph words,
he (to get up) and (to begin) walking around the cell. At last he (to
stop), (to stand) at the center of the cell, and (not to move) for a
long time. He (to feel) his head as if it were wounded. Then he (to
look) around. Then he (to call) out.
Young man: Hello – out there! (Pause) Hello – out there!
(Long pause) Hello – out there! (A girl’s voice is heard)
The Voice: Hello.
Young Man: Is that you, Kathy?
The Voice: No – this here is Emily.
Young Man: Emily who? I (not to know) anybody named
Emily. You (to be) the girl I met at Sam’s in Salinas about three
years ago?

238
 The Voice: No – I (to be) the girl who (to cook) here. I’m the
cook. I’ve never been in Salinas. I even (not to know) where it is.
Young Man: You (to say) you (to cook) here?
The Voice: Yes, I (to do).
Yong Man: Well, why you (not to cook) something good?
The Voice: I just (to cook) what they (to tell) me to. (from
“Hello Out There” by W. Saroyan)

Ex.15. Compete the headlines with the Present Indefinite of the

verbs in
the list, putting the verbs in the correct position:
crash, hit, fear, continue, retain, demand, launch
1. Plane ____ in fog. 2. America ____ Moon Rocket. 3.
Doctors ____ flu epidemic. 4. Mp ____ urgent inquiry. 5.
Consumer boom ____. 6. Champion ____ title. 7. Injuries ____
English Team.

Ex.16. Translate the sentences into English:

1.ÐÇÙ³ »ë ·Çï»Ù ³Ûë µ³éÇ ÇÙ³ëïÁ, ë³Ï³ÛÝ ã·Çï»Ù
ÇÝãå»ë ³ÛÝ ·áñͳͻÉ: 2. Ø»Ï ß³µ³ÃÇó ÃéãáõÙ »Ù Æëå³Ýdz ¨
í»ñ³¹³éÝáõÙ Ù»Ï ³ÙëÇó: 3.Ø»ñÇÝ ß³ï Ñ»ßï ÏÛ³Ýù ¿ í³ñáõÙ:
ܳ »ñµ»ù ųÙÁ 9-Çó ßáõï ãÇ ³ñÃݳÝáõÙ ¨ ÙÇßï ݳ˳׳ßáõÙ
¿ ³ÝÏáÕÝáõÙ: 4.ºÃ» ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ »ù ³ÝÏ»ÕÍ Ï³ñÍÇù Éë»É, ³í»ÉÇ
É³í ¿ ѳñóÝ»ù ѳÛñÇÏÇë: ܳ ÙÇßï ³ëáõÙ ¿ ³ÛÝ, ÇÝã Ùï³ÍáõÙ
¿: 5.Èë»É »Ù` Ýáñ ïáõÝ »ù ·Ý»É: – ²Ûá, µ³Ûó ¹»é ã»Ù ³åñáõÙ
³ÛÝï»Õ: 6.ÆÙ ÏáÕùÇ Ñ³ñ¨³ÝÁ Ñ³×³Ë Ã³ÏáõÙ ¿ ¹áõéë ¨ ÇÝã-áñ
µ³Ý ËݹñáõÙ: 7.²Ûë ·»Õ»óÇÏ µ³Å³ÏÝ»ñÁ 20 ¹áɳñ ³ñÅ»Ý:
γñÍáõÙ »ù, ¹³ ó±ÝÏ ¿: 8.Ü»ÉÉÇÝ ß³ï ¿ ëÇñáõÙ »ñ»ÏáõÛÃÝ»ñ:
ܳ ÙÇßï ³é³çÇÝÝ ¿ ·³ÉÇë ¨ Ñ»é³ÝáõÙ í»ñçÇÝÁ: 9.ìëï³Ñ »Ù,
³ÛÝ ÇÝã ¹áõù ³ëáõÙ »ù, ×ßÙ³ñÇï ¿: 10.ܳ ³ÏÝϳÉáõÙ ¿, áñ »ë
ÏÙ³ùñ»Ù ïáõÝÁ Ï»ë ųÙáõÙ, µ³Ûó ¹³ ³ÝÑݳñ ¿: 11.ºÃ» ¹áõ ÇÙ
ϳñÇùÁ ½·³ë, å³ñ½³å»ë ½³Ý·³Ñ³ñÇñ: 12.²Ý·ÉdzóÇÝ»ñÁ
ѳ½í³¹»å »Ý ËáëáõÙ Ù»ïñáÛáõÙ: Üñ³Ýù ݳËÁÝïñáõÙ »Ý
ϳñ¹³É Çñ»Ýó Éñ³·ñ»ñÁ: 13.àñï»ÕÇ±ó ¿ Ó»ñ ÁÝÏ»ñÁ: –

239
Ö³åáݳóÇ ¿: ܳ ß³ï ˻ɳóÇ ïÕ³ ¿, ËáëáõÙ ¿ »ñ»ù ûï³ñ
É»½íáí: 14.î»ëÝáõ±Ù »ë ÷áÕáóÇ ³ÝÏÛáõÝáõÙ Ï³Ý·Ý³Í Ù³ñ¹áõÝ:
¸áõ ׳ݳãáõÙ »±ë Ýñ³Ý: ܳ ѳÛïÝÇ íÇñ³µáõÛÅ ¿: 15.ÀÝÏ»ñë
³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ ³ÛÝ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ, áíù»ñ ÷áÕ »Ý å³ñïù Çñ»Ý, ϳñÍ»ë
ÙÇßï Ùáé³ÝáõÙ »Ý ³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ: 16.¸áõù ÇÝãå»±ë »ù
³ß˳ï³ÝùÇ Ñ³ëÝáõÙ: – ¸³ ϳËí³Í ¿ »Õ³Ý³ÏÇó: ²ÝÓñ¨áï
ûñ»ñÇÝ ·ÝáõÙ »Ù Ù»ïñáÛáí, ÇëÏ É³í »Õ³Ý³ÏÇÝ` áïùáí:

The Past Indefinite Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Past Indefinite:

1. The manager entered the office, sat down at his desk and
began to look through the morning mail. 2. They started their
journey when the sun was rising. 3. She married a sailor in 1995
and went to live in Cyprus. 4. That night nobody slept, as it was too
noisy in the corridor. 5. I didn’t hear you. What did you say? 6. On
Sunday evening he usually took her to the pictures. 7. Some years
ago he used to call on me, now he never does. 8. Did she use to
knit in the evenings? 9. The car stopped, the door opened and a
well-dressed gentleman got out of it. 10. She said she would do it if
nothing unexpected happened. 11. The cherry trees were in full
bloom. 12. He lived alone and always made his own breakfast. 13.
When did you see him last? 14. He was abroad 5 years ago. 15.
When did it all happen?

Ex.2. Make the sentences interrogative and negative:

1. She was hungry and tired after that long walk. 2. My
friends were at the seaside last summer. 3. He was disappointed
and wanted to stay alone for some time. 4. He had breakfast at 8
a.m. as usual. 5. He called when I was at the University. 6. Tom
usually had a sandwich and a cup of tea for lunch. 7. Yesterday
Larry argued with his boss. 8. I met my former classmate two
weeks ago.

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Ex.3. Ask questions to the underlined parts of the sentences:
1. Tom’s mother came to his school and to speak to his
teacher. 2. These students were usually late for their lectures last
year because they had transport problems. 3. Robert took his
driving test last week. 4. Eric left his book at home because he
was in a hurry. 5. Jane asked her mother to buy her a new coat. 6.
We wanted to learn the truth.

Ex.4. Replace the infinitives in brackets by the Past Indefinite:

1. Some two centuries ago, when there (not to be) trains,
cars and trams, people (to travel) in carriages. The mail-coach (to
take) both people and the post from town to town. 2. The metric
system is a system of measures and weights which (to be) first
adopted in France. 3. They (to work) hard at that problem for a
year, but when they (to fail), the failure (not to discourage) them
and they (to start) working anew. 4. Two days later his friend (to
come) and (to apologize) for his rudeness. 5. She (to begin) her
story hesitatingly but I (to know) that she would tell me everything
no matter how difficult it (to be) for her. 6. He (to think) that if he (to
push) the door hard the lock would give way. 7. Stratford-on-Avon
is a small town in central England where Shakespeare (to be
born). 8. Mike (to be) very upset yesterday. His parents (not to
allow) him to go out. 9. “How long you (to work) there?” “About 2
years”, she (to say). 10. He (to sit) down at his desk and (to stare)
out of the window.

Ex.5. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite:

A. One summer I (to work) two months in a grocery store. I
(to work) from 4 in the afternoon till midnight, but after 8 o’clock
there wouldn’t be any business and all I would do (to be) look out
of the window, sometimes I (to go) around the store and (to keep)
the things in order. It (to be) a little store in one of the poorest
districts. The people who (to come) to the store (to be) all
interesting and poor.

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Only 2 or 3 of them (not to steal) things, not counting little children.
Almost all the others (to steal) more than they (to buy).
B. “Mr. Dorian Grey!” (to echo) the old gentleman, “of course
... I (to know) his mother.... I believe I (to be) at her christening.
She (to be) an extraordinarily beautiful girl, and (to make) all the
men frantic by running away with a penniless young fellow, a mere
nobody... I remember the whole thing as if it (to happen)
yesterday... He was killed in a duel. There (to be) an ugly story
about it... She never (to speak) to her father again. Oh, yes, it (to
be) a bad business. The girl (to die) too, within a year… So she (to
leave) a son?” (from “The Picture of Dorian Grey” by O. Wilde)

Ex.6. Fill in the blanks with the Past Indefinite of the verbs in
brackets:
My mother and my father (to be) both Londoners. They (to
meet) on a train travelling from King’s Cross station to Arbroath
Scotland when they (to be) both eighteen. They (to get) married
one year later and (to move) to the outskirts of Bristol, in the West
of England.
My mother (to give) birth to me when she (to be) twenty. I (to
be) a rotund baby. My sister Di (to arrive) a year and eleven
months after me. Di (to have) – and still has – very dark, almost
black hair, and dark brown eyes like my mother’s, and she (to be)
considerably prettier than I (to be).
I left school in 1983 and (to go) to study at the University of
Exeter, on the south coast of England. I (to study) French, which
was a mistake. After leaving university, I (to work) in London.
The idea for Harry Potter simply (to fall) into my head. Then,
on December 30th 1990, something(to happen) that (to change)
both my world and Harry’s forever: my mother (to die). It (to be) a
terrible time. Now, Harry’s feelings about his dead parents (to be)
much deeper, much more real. (from J.K. Rowling’s
autobiography)

242
Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense-form:
1. You (to want) to buy a new computer? – No, I (to buy) one
last month.
2. You (to want) to watch this film? – No, I (to watch) it three
days ago.
3. Would you like to drink some brandy? – No, thanks, I (to
drink) some an hour ago.
4. Let’s study the results of the research! – I (to study) them
half an hour ago.
5. Let me help you with your lessons! – Thank you, but I (to
do) them yesterday evening.
6. Let’s visit Jenny. She (to be) ill yesterday. – I know. I (to
visit) her yesterday afternoon.
7. You (to give) the documents to Mr Jones yesterday? –
No, I (not to find) him in his office.
8. You (to buy) a wedding-ring yesterday? – No, I (not to
know) the size of my fiancée’s finger.

Ex.8. Put the verb in brackets in the Past Indefinite:

My grandfather had a very exciting life. When he was young,
he (to live) on a farm in the country. His parents (to raise) cattle,
and he (to look) after the cows. When he was eighteen, he went to
university, where he (to study) Philosophy. He also (to play) the
trumpet in a jazz band. When the war started, he (to try) to join the
Air Force, but he (to end) up in the Navy. In the Atlantic, a German
torpedo (to rip) a hole in the side of his ship, and the ship (to sink).
Only five men (to escape). They (to sail) in a lifeboat back to
England. Then he met my grandmother, and they (to marry) after
only three weeks. He says now that he (to want) to marry her very
quickly in case he (to die) in the war.

Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite:

I (to go) for a walk around the block. It was a nice summer -
evening. Returning I (to glance) idly in their front door. The dark

243
silence (to be) there, and the heavy shapes, sitting, and the little
blue light burning. I (to stand) a long time, finishing my cigarette. It
was only in turning to go that I (to see) him in the doorway, looking
out with his bland, plump face. He (not to move). He just (to stand)
there, watching me.
‘Evening,’ I (to say).
Silence. After a moment, he (to turn), moving away into the
dark room.
In the morning, the little Mexican (to leave) the house at
seven o’clock alone, hurrying down the alley, observing the same
silence he (to keep) in his rooms. She (to follow) at eight o’clock,
walking carefully. They had gone to work this way, remote and
silent, for years.
I (to type) a few pages of my novel, (to read), (to idle), (to
type) some more. At five in the afternoon I (to see) the little
Mexican woman come home. She(to unlock) her door, (to hurry)
inside, (to hook) the screen, and (to lock) the door tight.
He (to arrive) at six sharp, in a rush. Once on their back
porch, however, he (to become) infinitely patient. (R. Bradbury,
The Little Mexican)

Ex.10. Use “used to” plus a suitable verb to complete the

sentences:
1. He _____ online to find the information he wanted. 2. My
sister _____ to school by bus but now she cycles. 3. I _____
thinner than my brother but now I am not. 4. My father _____ many
cigarettes a day. He gave up smoking last year. 5. She _____
night after night for her degree in Economics. 6. They _____
football when they were younger. 7. ______ you ______ a lot of
sweets when you were a child? 8. That building is now a cinema. It
_____ a hotel. 9. When you lived near that shopping centre, _____
you _____ there very often?

Ex.11. Remember your school years and answer the questions:

244
What did you use to do when...?
1. you were at school
2. you were on holiday
3. you got bored
4. you were lonely
5. you escaped from classes
6. you had spare time
7. you went on excursions
8. you failed your exams
9. you got a bad mark
10. you had no wish to go to school

Ex.12. Remember your childhood and answer the questions:

1. What did you look like? Were you tall/short/thin/plump?
Did you have curly/straight/wavy/long/short hair?
2. How old were you when you began to talk? What was
your first word? What funny words/expressions did you use?
3. How old were you when you started school? What was
your favourite subject? Who was your favourite teacher? Could
you describe him/her? What qualities did you appreciate in your
teacher?
4. Were you fond of reading? What kind of books did you
like? Did you like novels/historical novels/poetry/short stories?
Who was your favourite author? Who was your favourite hero?
5. How did you spend your spare time at home? Did you
have a hobby?
6. How did you spend your spare time with your friends?
What games did you play?
7. Did you go in for sports? What was your favourite sport?
Who was your favourite sportsman?
8. What kind of music did you like? Did you like classical
music/jazz/rock’n roll/rap/rock/hard rock/pop music? Who was your
favourite singer? Did you play any musical instrument?

245
 9. What kind of TV programmes did you like? Did you like
cartoons/comedies/sports programs/music programs? Who was
your favourite TV-star/actor/actress?
10. What was your favourite food/drink/dessert?

Ex.13. Describe in detail what you did and your younger brother
(or some other member of your family) did not do and why:
yesterday morning, after the lessons, last night, at the previous
weekend.

Ex.14. Translate the sentences into English:

1.ºñµ ݳ Ååï³ó, »ë ѳëϳó³, áñ Ýñ³Ý ѳ׻ÉÇ ¿ñ Éë»É
³Û¹ ÉáõñÁ: 2.ܳ ³ë³ó, áñ ãÇ ÑÇßáõÙ í»åÇ Ù³Ýñ³Ù³ëÝ»ñÁ:
3.ܳ ß³ï ÇÝùݳíëï³Ñ ¿ñ ¨ ѳٳñáõÙ ¿ñ, áñ ³Û¹ ϳÝáÝÝ»ñÝ
Çñ»Ý ã»Ý í»ñ³µ»ñáõÙ: 4.ܳ Ùݳó ÑÛáõñ³ÝáóáõÙ` ³ë»Éáí áñ
áõÅ»Õ ·É˳ó³í áõÝÇ, ÇëÏ Ù»Ýù ·Ý³óÇÝù ù³Õ³ùÇ ï»ë³ñųÝ
í³Ûñ»ñÁ ¹Çï»Éáõ: 5.ÆÝãáõ± ¹áõù ãó³Ýϳó³ù û·ïí»É ³Û¹
ÑdzݳÉÇ Ñݳñ³íáñáõÃÛáõÝÇó: 6.²Û¹ µ³é³ñ³ÝÝ ³Ûɨë í³×³é-
ùáõÙ ã¿: ²÷ëáë, áñ »ë ã·Ý»óÇ ³ÛÝ ³ÝóÛ³É ß³µ³Ã: 7.ºë ·Çï»Ç,
áñ ø»ÛÃÝ Çñ ³ÙáõëÝáõ Ñ»ï ³åñáõÙ ¿ ÈáݹáÝáõÙ: ܳ »ñç³ÝÇÏ ¿ñ
³ÛÝï»Õ ¨ ã¿ñ ¿É Ùï³ÍáõÙ í»ñ³¹³éÝ³É Ñ³Ûñ»ÝÇ ù³Õ³ù:
8.ºñÏáõ ï³ñÇ ³é³ç ݳ ÝáõÛÝÇëÏ ã·Çï»ñ ÇÝãå»ë û·ï³·áñÍ»É
ѳٳϳñ·ÇãÁ: 9.ÂáÙÁ ݳí³ëïÇ ¹³ñÓ³í 20 ï³ñ»Ï³ÝáõÙ ¨
Çñ ³ÙµáÕç ÏÛ³ÝùÝ ³Ýóϳóñ»ó ÍáíáõÙ: ܳ Ãáß³ÏÇ ³Ýó³í 55
ï³ñ»Ï³ÝáõÙ ¨ ·Ý³ó ³åñ»Éáõ ·ÛáõÕáõÙ: 10.ºñ»Ï »ñ»ÏáÛ³Ý »ë
ÑÇÝ ÁÝÏ»ñáçë ï»ë³ ³íïáµáõëÇ Ï³Ý·³éáõÙ, µ³Ûó ãϳñáÕ³ó³
»ñϳñ Ëáë»É Ýñ³ Ñ»ï: 11.ܳ ³ÛÝù³Ý ¿ñ ÏɳÝí³Í Çñ
³ß˳ï³Ýùáí, áñ »ñµ »ë Ý»ñë Ùï³, ÝáõÛÝÇëÏ ·ÉáõËÁ
ãµ³ñÓñ³óñ»ó: 12.êϽµáõÙ »ë ½³Ûñ³ó³Í Ëáë»óÇ, ë³Ï³ÛÝ ÙÇ
áñáß Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³Ýó ½Õç³óÇ ÇÙ µ³é»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ: 13.ÆÝãáõ±
ãëå³ë»óÇñ ÇÝÓ ¹³ë»ñÇó Ñ»ïá: – ºë ëå³ë»óÇ 5 ñáå», µ³Ûó
¹áõ ã»Ï³ñ: 14.ܳ ÙÇ ùÇã ÏáÝÛ³Ï Éóñ»ó µ³Å³ÏÇ Ù»ç,
ï³ù³óñ»ó ³ÛÝ Ó»éù»ñáõÙ, Ñ»ïá ¹³Ý¹³Õ ËÙ»ó: 15.ºë ëáíá-
ñ³µ³ñ ³Ûó»ÉáõÙ ¿Ç Ýñ³Ý ¨ ÙÇßï ½³ñÙ³ÝáõÙ, û ÇÝãáõ ¿ñ ݳ

246
³Û¹ ë³ñë³÷»ÉÇ ß³ÝÁ ï³ÝÁ å³ÑáõÙ: 16.ºñ»Ï ¹áõù ³é³Ýó
í»ñ³ñÏáõÇ ¹áõñë »Ï³ù ¨ ½³ñٳݳÉÇ ã¿, áñ Ùñë»óÇù: 17.²ÝóÛ³É
ÏÇñ³ÏÇ áõëáõóãáõÑÇÝ Ù»½ ï³ñ³í ½µáë³ËÝçáõÛùÇ, µ³Ûó Ù»Ýù
ëïÇåí³Í ¿ÇÝù Ï³Ý·Ý³Í áõï»É, áñáíÑ»ï¨ ËáïÁ ã³÷³½³Ýó
ËáÝ³í ¿ñ: 18.ú¹³ãáõÝ ÙÇ³Ï Ù³ñ¹Ý ¿ñ, áñ áÕç Ùݳó íóñÇó
Ñ»ïá: 19.Ì»ñ Ù³ñ¹áõ Ùïùáí ¿É ã¿ñ ³ÝóÝáõÙ Çñ ³åñáõëïÇ
ѳٳñ ÷áÕ Ëݹñ»É áñ¹áõó: 20.ÀÝÏ»ñë ÇÝÓ ×³ßÇ Ññ³íÇñ»ó Çñ
ïáõÝ ¨ ÇÝÓÝÇó ËáñÑáõñ¹ Ëݹñ»ó Çñ µÇ½Ý»ëÇ í»ñ³µ»ñÛ³É:

The Future Indefinite Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Future Indefinite:

1. He’ll take her up to town; they’ll do some shopping and
have lunch, so they will be back in late afternoon. 2. Unless you’re
careful, you’ll get into trouble. 3. When the secretary comes, ask
her to type this document. 4. It will be cold tomorrow, the forecast
says. 5. We will grow old, sooner or later. 6. It will cost a lot of
money to live in such a fine hotel. 7. A fish out of water will die very
quickly. 8. The two brothers will never be separated again! 9. He
will pay his account at the end of the month. 10. You will feel cold
without an overcoat in December.

Ex.2. Make the sentences interrogative and negative:

1. It will be difficult for you to stay there so long. 2. I’ll give
you another piece of cake. 3. My niece will go to school next year.
4. The students will have holidays after their exams. 5. Tomorrow
our in-laws will visit us. 6. Those happy days will come back again.
7. Someone will take care of the child. 8. The necessary
documents will reach you in due course. 9. A crowd of admirers
will come to the airport to see him off.

Ex.3. Ask questions to the following sentences beginning with the

words
in brackets:

247
 1. I’ll read the newspaper in the evening (When? Who?) 2.
He’ll never lend you money; he’s too greedy for that (What? Why?)
3. The students of our faculty will go to London next month (Who?
When? Where?) 4. Ron will help me to translate the article. (Who?
What? Whom?) 5. Tom will pack his bags tomorrow morning, as
he is too busy tonight (Who? What? When? Why?)

Ex.4. Jim asked a fortune teller about his future. Here is what she
told
him. Put the verbs in the Future Indefinite:
You (to earn) a lot of money. Then you (to travel) around the
world and you (to meet) lots of interesting people. Everybody (to
adore) you. You (not to have) any problems. Many people (to
serve) you. They (to anticipate) your wishes. There (not to be)
anything left to wish for. Everything (to be) perfect. But all these
things (to happen) only if you marry me.

Ex.5. Fill in the gaps with will or won’t:

1. Don’t get up, I ____ answer the phone. 2. If you eat too
much you ____ put on weight. 3. Don’t stay out too late, you ____
get up on time. 4. I don’t think she ____ pass the exam, she isn’t
very good at maths. 5. You may as well go home now, I ____ be
back for hours. 6. Go to bed and you ____ feel better tomorrow. 7.
It’s Mary’s birthday next month. She ____ be 18. 8. They are on
holiday for two weeks so they ____ be here tomorrow. 9. If the
weather is OK, the plane ____ leave on time.

Ex.6. Put the verbs in brackets into the Present or Future

Indefinite:
1. He (to want) to know if you (to be) free tomorrow morning
at 11 . 2. I (to wonder) when I (to be) able to get there. 3. I (not to
30

want) to discuss it over the telephone but I (to tell) you about it
when I (to get) home. 4. “Life is a difficult business”, said father.
“You (to know) that when you (to come) to my age”. 5. I (not to

248
deal) with him, if he (to be) so stubborn! 6. If he (to come) I (to
give) him this message. 7. I (to be) at home if you (to need)
anything. 8. Ask them when they (to move) to a new flat. 9. She (to
be) still here tomorrow if you (to decide) to ring her up. 10. Go on
till you (to come) to a square with a statue in the middle, then turn
left and you (to find) the theatre on your right.

Ex.7. Use subordinate clauses of time and condition instead of

underlined
parts of the following sentences. Make some necessary
changes if
necessary:
1. I shall call my father and he will help us to fix your car. 2.
He will take this medicine and will be all right. 3. You smoke a lot,
so you will have headaches. 4. We shall go to the Black Sea and
bathe a lot there. 5. Ann will pass her exams successfully and go
to the South. 6. I shall book the tickets and let you know about it. 7.
You will translate this article into Armenian and I shall use it in my
report.

Ex.8. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present, Past or Future

Indefinite:
1. They (to enjoy) themselves at the concert yesterday? 2.
Who (to take) care of the child in the future? 3. How often you (to
go) to the dentist’s? 4. Two years ago they (to be) rich and money
(to be) never a problem. 5. Who (to create) Mickey Mouse? 6.
Antonio Stradivarius (to make) wonderful violins. 7. What you (to
prepare) for dinner tomorrow? 8. At the travel agency they (to tell)
you exactly when the train (to leave). 9. If she (to come) to the
party alone and there (to be) nobody she (to know), she (to feel)
lonely.

Ex.9. Complete the text with the appropriate forms of the given
verbs,

249
 using the Present or the Future Indefinite: to be, to give, to
have, to
make, not to start, not to stop
I was standing at the bus stop reading my horoscope in the
newspaper. It said, “You ____ good moments and bad moments
today.” I looked up and saw the bus coming.
Then I realized it ____ because it was already full. “Oh, no,” I
thought. “If I ____ walking fast, I ____ late for my first class!” I had
just started walking when a car pulled up beside me and one of my
classmates leaned out. “Hey Jean, get in, we ____ you a lift. “ It’s
amazing how the bad moments ____ the good moments feel so
much better.

Ex.10. Put the verb in brackets in the Present or the Future

Indefinite:
Brandon: You (to help) me with my homework tonight?
Lisa: Sure! I always (to watch) ‘Lost’ at seven. I (to come) over
after it’s finished. We (to need) a dictionary?
Brandon: If we do, I have a good dictionary at home. How you (to
get) here?
Lisa: I (not to know). Do you think it (to rain)?
Brandon: I (not to think) so.
Lisa: I (to walk) then.
Brandon: OK. I (to see) you later!
Lisa: Bye!

Ex.11. Each question has a sentence referring to future time. In

each
question, think about the context and meaning of what the
person
is saying, and choose which verb form you think would be
best:
1. A: What time should we go to the airport?

250
B: The plane (will land/lands/is landing) in half an hour. I think we
should leave now.
2. A: Have you ever been to Paris?
B: No, but (I go/I’ll go/I’m going) there next year with my parents.
3. A: Joe borrowed your car.
B: What? (I’ll kill/I kill) him. I need it!
4. A: Have you decided what to do about your broken washing
machine?
B: Yes. (I have it fixed/I’m going to have it fixed/I’ll have it fixed)
tomorrow.
5. A: How many books did you buy?
B: I don’t know. (I count/ I’m going to count/I’ll count) them now.
6. A: There’s no milk in the fridge.
B: Really? (I’m getting/I’m going to get/ I’ll get) some tomorrow.
7. A: What time does the History class start tomorrow?
B: (It is going to start/It will start/ It starts) at two-thirty.
8. A: Has Sue made up her mind about university yet?
B: Yes, I spoke to her last night. (She goes/She’s going to go/ She
will go) to Oxford.
9. A: It’s starting to rain.
B: Don’t worry. (I’m lending/I’ll lend/I lend) you my umbrella.
10. A: Are you free for lunch tomorrow?
B: Sorry! (I play/ I’ll play/I’m playing) tennis with Andrew.

Ex.12. Using the words in brackets complete the sentences with

be going
to or the Future Indefinite:
1. Why are you holding the receiver? – I (to call) my friends
back in Texas. 2. I’m about to fall asleep. I need to wake up! – I (to
get) you a cup of coffee. That will wake you up. 3. I can’t hear the
television! – I (to turn) it up so you can hear it. 4. It is so hot in
here! – I (to turn) the air-conditioning on. 5. Excuse me; I need to
talk to someone about our hotel room. I am afraid it is simply too
small for four people. – That man at the service counter (to help)

251
you. 6. We are so excited about our trip next month to France. We
(to visit) Paris, Nice and Grenoble. 7. I think he (to be) the next
President of the United States. 8. After I graduate, I (to attend)
medical school and become a doctor. I have wanted to be a doctor
all my life. 9. Sarah (to come) to the party. Oliver (to be) there as
well. 10. As soon as the weather clears up, we (to walk) down to
the beach and go swimming.

Ex.13. Using the words in brackets complete the sentences below

with be
going to or the Future Indefinite:
1. “You (to do) me a favor, Sam?” “Sure, what do you want
me to do?” “I (to change) the broken light bulb in the lamp above
the dining room table. I need someone to hold the ladder for me
while I am up there.” “No problem, I (to hold) it for you.” 2. “We (to
go) camping this weekend. Would you like to come along?” “That
sounds great, but I don’t have a sleeping bag.” “No problem. I (to
lend) you one. My family has tons of camping gear.” 3. “Fred and I
(to visit) Santa Fe next summer. Have you ever been there?” “ My
family lives in Santa Fe! I (to give) you my parents’ phone number.
When you get to Santa Fe, just call them and they (to give) you a
little tour of the town. They can show you some of the sights that
most tourists never see.” 4. “Can you see my future in the crystal
ball? What (to happen) next year?” “You (to meet) a man from the
East Coast, perhaps New York or maybe Boston. You (to marry)
that mystery man.” “Forget the man! I want to know if I (to get) a
new job.”

Ex.14. Using the words in brackets, complete the sentences below

with
the Present or Future Indefinite or be going to:
1. Today after I (to get) out of class, I (to go) to a movie
with some friends. 2. When you (to arrive) in Stockholm, call my
friend Gustav. He (to show) you around the city and help you get

252
situated. 3. “Do you know what you want to do after you (to
graduate)?” “After I (to receive) my Master’s from Georgetown
University, I (to go) to graduate school at UCSD in San Diego. I (to
plan) to complete a Ph.D. in cognitive science.” 4. If it (to snow)
this weekend, we (to go) skiing near Lake Tahoe. 5. Your father (to
plan) to pick you up after school today at 3:00 o’clock. He (to meet)
you across the street near the ice cream shop. If something (to
happen) and he cannot be there, I (to pick) you up instead. 6. If the
people of the world (not to stop) cutting down huge stretches of
rain forest, we (to experience) huge changes in the environment
during the twenty-first century. 7. If Victor (to keep) drinking, he (to
lose, eventually) his job. 8. I promise you that I (not to tell) your
secret to anybody. Even if somebody (to ask) me about what
happened that day, I (not to reveal) the truth to a single person. 9.
She (to make) some major changes in her life. She (to quit) her job
and go back to school. After she (to finish) studying, she (to get) a
better-paying job and buy a house. She is (to improve) her life! 10.
Tom (to call) when he (to arrive) in Madrid. He (to stay) with you
for two or three days until his new apartment (to be) available.

Ex.15. Using the words in brackets complete the sentences below

with the
Present or Future Indefinite or be going to:
1. “By the time we (to get) to the movie theater, the tickets
(to be sold out).” “Don’t worry. I told Jane we might be arriving just
before the movie (to start). She (to buy) our tickets and meet us in
the lobby.” “That place is huge! We (to find, never) her in that
crowded lobby.” “Calm down, we (to meet) each other near the
entrance.” 2. “If the weather (to be) good tomorrow, maybe we
should go to the beach.” “I have a better idea. If it (to be) nice out,
we’ll go to the beach; and if it (to rain) we’ll see a movie.” “I guess
we will have to wait until we (to get) up in the morning to find out
what we are going to do.” 3. “What are (to do) tomorrow after
work?” “I (to meet) some friends at the cafe across the street.

253
Would you like to come along?” “No thanks! My brother is coming
to town and I (to pick) him up from the airport at 7 o’clock.” “We (to
be, probably) at the cafe until 9 o’clock. Why don’t you join us after
you (to pick) him up.” “Sounds good. We (to see) you around 8
o’clock.”

Ex.16. Use will or be going to with the given verbs to complete the
sentences:
collapse, have supper, enter, explode, have, increase,e
leave,
paint, re-open, retire, see, show, phone, walk, be sick
1. Get out of the building! It sounds like the generator ____. 2. Tim
____ early before he reaches 65. He mentioned it at the meeting
recently. 3. “I think I ____ home across the park.” “That’s a good
idea”. 4. Next year, no doubt, more people ____ the competition as
the prize money increases. 5. “Can we meet at 10.00 outside the
station?” “Okay. I ____you there. 6. Don’t sit on that bench, I ____
it. 7. I’m not feeling well. In fact I think I ____! 8. “Closed over the
New Year period. This office ____on January 2.” (Sign on an office
window) 9. I’m sure you ____ a good time staying with Richard.
10. We ____ with Tim tonight. He’s asked us to be there at 7.00.
11. “The 2.35 to Bristol ____ from platform 5.” (Announcement at
railway station) 12. I wouldn’t walk across that old bridge if I were
you. It looks like it ____. 13. I read in the paper that they ____ the
price of gas again. 14. Do you like my new solar watch? Here, I
____ how it works. 15. “Dr. Jackson isn’t in his office at the
moment.” “In that case, I ____ him at home.

Ex.17. Do you believe in superstitions? What do you have to do to

avoid
misfortune in certain cases? Answer the questions using
the ideas
suggested below (or using your own ideas):
What will happen ...?

254
1. ... if you spill salt 2. ... if you break a mirror 3. ... if you walk
under a ladder 4. ... if you find a horseshoe 5. ... if your left/right
palm itches 6. ... if you drop a fork/a knife 7. ... if you whistle in the
house 8. ... if you open am umbrella in the house 9. ... if you find a
five-petal lilac flower 10. ... if a black cat crosses the road in front
of you 11. ... if you leave the money/bag/keys on the table 12. ... if
you return to take something you have left behind

(to have a man/woman guest, to get/spend some money; to hear

about somebody’s death, to have good luck, to have misfortune, to
have bad luck; to have a quarrel; to come true)

Ex.18. Complete the proverbs choosing suitable endings from

those given
and find their Armenian equivalents:
1 If you stand up like a nail...
2. If the blind leads the blind...
3. If an ass goes travelling...
4. If two ride a horse...
5. If life gives you lemons...
6. If you agree to carry a calf
...
7. If you laugh before
breakfast ...
8. If you run after two hares ...
9. If you want a friend...
10. If you want to judge a
man’s character
11. Take care of the pennies...
12. If you’re in a hole...
a) give him power.
b) you will catch neither.
c) stop digging.
d) he’ll never come back a horse.
e) they will make you carry a
cow.
f) you’ll cry before supper.
g) make lemonade.
h) one must ride behind.
i) both shall fall into the ditch.
j) and the pounds will take care of
themselves.
k) you will get hammered down.
l) be a friend.

Ex.19. Put the verbs in brackets in the Future Indefinite and

translate the
proverbs into Armenian:

255
 1. Give him cloth and he (to ask) for linen. 2. The worth of a
thing is what it (to bring). 3. When you lie on roses while young,
you (to lie) on thorns while you’re old. 4. One shoe (not to fit) all
feet. 5. Respect yourself or no one else (to respect) you. 6. A
drowning man (to catch) at a straw. 7. As you sow you (to reap). 8.
At the game’s end we (to see) who gains. 9. He that is ill to himself
(to be) good to nobody. 10. He that serves the god for money (to
serve) the devil for better wages.

Ex.20. Describe how you are going to celebrate:

1. your birthday
2. Mother’s Day
3. St. Valentine’s day
4. Christmas

Ex.21. Describe how you are going to spend:

1. your winter holidays
2. your summer holidays
3. your weekend

Ex.22. Answer the questions:

1. What do you think you will not forgive?
2. What won’t you do even to save your friend?
3. What won’t you do even for a great sum of money?
4. What won’t you do even for the sake of your dearest
people?

Ex.23. Translate the sentences into English:

1.Ü»ñϳ۳óáõÙÁ Ù»Í Ñ³çáÕáõÃÛáõÝ Ïáõݻݳ, »Ã» ³Ûë
»ñÇï³ë³ñ¹ ¹»ñ³ë³ÝÁ ˳ճ ·É˳íáñ ¹»ñÁ: 2.ºÃ» ÁÝÏ»ñë
ã·³, Ù»Ýù ã»Ýù ·Ý³ ù³Õ³ùÇó ¹áõñë: 3.Ø»Ýù ÏùÝݳñÏ»Ýù
ѳٳӳÛݳ·ñÇ å³ÛÙ³ÝÝ»ñÁ, Ñ»Ýó áñ ïÝûñ»ÝÁ ·³: 4.ºë
ϳëϳÍáõÙ »Ù, áñ ÂáÙÁ Ï·³ Ù»½ Ñ»ï: ܳ ß³ï ½µ³Õí³Í ¿
ÑÇÙ³: 5.ºÃ» ¹áõù û¹³Ý³í³Ï³Û³Ý ѳëÝ»ù ÇÝÓÝÇó ßáõï,

256
ëå³ë»ù ÙÇÝ㨠·³Ù: 6.ºë »ñ³Ëï³å³ñï ÏÉÇݻ٠ӻ½, »Ã» ¹áõù
ÇÝÓ û·Ý»ù ³Û¹ ѳñóáõÙ: 7.ºë íëï³Ñ ã»Ù, û ݳ ÏÑ»ï¨Ç ÇÙ
ËáñÑñ¹ÇÝ: 8.ºë ÇѳñÏ» ϳë»Ù ²ÝݳÛÇÝ áÕç ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ,
µ³Ûó û·áõï ãáõÝÇ, ݳ ÇÝÓ ãÇ Ñ³í³ï³: 9.سÛùÁ ѳ×áõÛùáí
ÏÁÝÏ»ñ³ÏóÇ ù»½, »Ã» ¹áõ Ýñ³Ý Ëݹñ»ë: 10 Ò³ÛÝ ãѳݻë, û ã¿
ϳñÃݳóÝ»ë »ñ»Ë³ÛÇÝ: 11.Ø»ñÇ, »ë ù»½ í³ÕÁ Ù»ù»Ý³Ûáí
³ß˳ï³ÝùÇ Ïï³Ý»Ù, »Ã» ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ »ë: 12.ìëï³Ñ »Ù, áñ
»ñµ »Õµ³Ûñë ·³, ݳ Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ ÏËݹñÇ Ó»½ÝÇó Çñ ÏáåÇï
í³ñù³·ÍÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ: 13.ì³ÕÁ ѳݹÇå»Éáõ »Ù µ³ÝÏÇ ïÝûñ»ÝÇÝ:
àõ½áõÙ »Ù í³ñÏ í»ñóÝ»É: 14. гٻñ·Á ëÏëíáõÙ ¿ ųÙÁ 7-ÇÝ:
Ø»Ýù å»ïù ¿ ßï³å»Ýù: ºÃ» ï³ùëÇ ãÝëï»Ýù, Ïáõ߳ݳÝù:
15.æáñçÁ ¨ ÈÛáõëÇÝ ³ÙáõëݳÝáõÙ »Ý »ÏáÕ ß³µ³Ã: – ¸áõ ·Ý³Éáõ±
»ë ѳñë³ÝÇùÇÝ: – â·Çï»Ù ÇÝÓ ÏÑñ³íÇñ»Ý, û± áã: 16.²Ñ³
ÉáõóÏÇÝ: ´³Ûó ÇÝãDZ ѳٳñ »ë áõ½áõÙ ³ÛÝ: – ºë å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ
»Ù ˳ñáõÛÏ í³é»É å³ñ﻽áõÙ ¨ ³Ûñ»É ãáñ³ó³Í ï»ñ¨Ý»ñÇ ³Û¹
Ù»Í ÏáõÛïÁ:

Ex.24. Put the verbs in brackets in the Future Indefinite or the

Future
Indefinite in the Past:
1. She (to travel) to India if she had enough money. 2. Sam
thought he (to win) the contest. 3. She (to make) friends with your
daughter if we introduce them. 4. I (to give) this ticket to the first
person who asks me. 5. She said she (to write) to me as soon as
she arrived. 6. I (to give) you half of what I find in the box. 7. If I
were free I (to do) only what I liked. 8. I knew the documents (not
to be) ready the next week. 9. I suppose I (to see) my classmates
tomorrow. 10. If my dad has time next week, we (to paint) my
room. 11. Tom was a sensible boy, and she knew he (to take) care
of himself. 12. She said she (not to speak) to Mark unless he
apologised for being rude. 13. She said that she (to be) home by
eight, but he somehow knew that she (to return) late. 14. You (to
learn) a lot about American history if you visit the exhibition. 15.

257
The start of the film was wonderful. I hoped it (to get) better, but in
fact it got worse as it went on.

Ex.25. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Future
Indefinite in the Past:
1. If we (to have) a yacht, we (to sail) the seven seas. 2. In
his speech the president (to promise) that he (to help) all poor
people. 3. If they (to tell) their father, he (to be) very angry. 4. She
(to spend) a year in the USA if it (to be) easier to get a green card.
5. When we talked he (to say) that he (to bring) this book the next
day. 6. My brother (to promise) that he (to buy) me a new phone
for my birthday. 7. If I (to feel) better, I (to go) to the cinema with
you. 8. If you (to go) by bike more often, you (to not be) so flabby.
9. She (not to talk) to you if she (to be) mad at you. 10. What you
(to do) if you (to see) an accident? 11. Where you (to live) if you (to
have) a choice? 12. I (to imagine) that I (to meet) a lot of
interesting people at the party, but I didn’t. 13. If Caroline (to
arrive) late for the meeting, her boss (to be) angry. 14. If I (to lose)
my wallet, I (to report) it to the police. 15. If Paul’s boss (to invite)
him to lunch, he (to accept). 16. We (to help) you if we (to know)
how. 17. I (to think) I (to make) new friends when I (to move) town,
and I did. 18. I (to be sure) I (not to have) any problems dealing
with that task, but it (to turn out) to be extremely difficult.

Ex.26. Translate the sentences, using the Future Indefinite in the

Past:
1.ܳ ³ë³ó, áñ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ãÇ áõݻݳ ù³Õ³ùÁ ¹Çï»Éáõ,
áñáíÑ»ï¨ ß³ï ½µ³Õí³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ£ 2.ºë Ëáëï³ó³, áñ Ïû·Ý»Ù
ÁÝÏ»ñáçë, »ñµ ݳ ï»Õ³÷áËíÇ Çñ Ýáñ µÝ³Ï³ñ³Ý£ 3.ÂáÙÁ Ù»½
Ëáëï³ó³í, áñ Ïå³ïÙÇ ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝÁ, Ñ»Ýó áñ Çٳݳ£ 4.ܳ
ѳñóñ»ó û DZÝã ϳݻÙ, »Ã» íÇ׳ϳ˳Õáí Ù»Í ·áõÙ³ñ
߳ѻÙ: 5.ܳ ÇÝÓ ½·áõß³óñ»ó ¹³Ý¹³Õ í³ñ»É, û ã¿ íóñÇ
Ï»ÝóñÏí»Ù£ 6.ºë ·Çï»Ç, áñ ÍÝáÕÝ»ñë ÏÑå³ñï³Ý³Ý
ÇÝÓ³Ýáí, »ñµ É³í µÅÇßÏ ¹³éݳ٣ 7.Ø»Ýù áñáß»óÇÝù å³ñ½»É,

258
û »ñµ ¿ ·Ý³óùÁ Ù»ÏÝáõÙ£ 8.ºë »ñ¹í»óÇ, áñ »ñµ»ù Ýñ³Ý ã»Ù
Ñdzëó÷»óÝÇ£ 9.Üñ³Ýù ³ë³óÇÝ, áñ Ïëå³ë»Ý ÇÝÓ, ÙÇÝã¨
å³ïñ³ëïí»Ù: 10.Ø»Ýù Ñáõëáí ¿ÇÝù, áñ Ýáñ ·áñÍ ÏëÏë»Ýù,
Ñ»Ýó áñ µ³í³Ï³Ý ÷áÕ áõݻݳÝù£ 11.ºë ѳÛï³ñ³ñ»óÇ, áñ ã»Ù
å³ï³ë˳ÝÇ ³Û¹ ѳñóÇÝ, ÙÇÝ㨠ãËáñÑñ¹³Ïó»Ù ÇÙ
÷³ëï³µ³ÝÇ Ñ»ï£

THE CONTINUOUS FORM

The Present Continuous Tense

Ex.1.Comment on the use of the Present Continuous and translate

the
sentences into Armenian:
1. The Wilsons are spending their holidays at the seaside
this summer. 2. He is being somewhat strange today. 3. The men
are fixing the floor in the hall right now. 4. I have no patience with
you. You are always losing your things. 5. Are you going in my
direction? I can give you a lift. 6. Where are the children? – The
boys are playing football in the yard, the girls are reading in their
room. 7. I am leaving for Manchester next week. 8. “Where are you
going?” “I am going for a walk, are you coming with me?” 9. The
woman who is speaking to my sister in the yard is our next door
neighbor. 10. I am meeting Tom at the station at 6. 11. I am living
with my parents until I find a flat. 12. Why are being so rude? I
can’t believe my ears! 13. Don’t you understand that your behavior
is killing your wife?

Ex.2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative:

1. Tony is doing quite nicely in his business. 2. She is
constantly mispronouncing this word. 3. We are discussing what
can be done about this situation. 4. The whole town is talking

259
about that incident. 5. Alice is always boasting about her baby
daughter. 6. Aunt Helen is shopping at the supermarket.

Ex.3. Ask questions to the underlined parts of the following

sentences:
1. My parents are redecorating our sitting-room now,
because they never liked its style. 2. Liz is trying to fix her washing
machine. 3. None of them is taking part in the discussion because
they are not ready. 4. The delegation of French physicians is
arriving tonight. 5. My brother is waiting for me downstairs.

Ex.4. Complete the conversation putting the verbs in the Present

Continuous and completing the short answers with the
correct
form of the verb to be (affirmative or negative):
– What (to happen)? They (to have) a party?
– Yes, they ___.
– And what they (to do)?
– Well, a few of them (to dance).
– Mum and Dad (to dance)?
– Yes, Mum ___ but Dad ___. He (to talk) to Uncle Jack and they
(to laugh) a lot.
– Is Aunty Linda there?
– Yes, she ___. She (to dance) with Brian from next door. Oh, and
Dad (to give) everyone a drink.
– What they (to eat)?
– Only crisps and nuts and some cheese.
– And we (not to eat) anything. It’s not fair.

Ex.5. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present Indefinite or the

Present
Continuous:
1. “Why that man (to stand) in the middle of the road?” “He
(to try) to get across. He (to wait) for a gap in the traffic.” “Why he

260
(not to use) the subway?” “Some people (not to bother) to use the
subway. They (to risk) their lives.” 2. “I am just going out to get an
evening paper.” “But it (to rain). Why you (not to wait) till the rain
(to stop)?” 3. My aunt usually(not to make) cakes on Mondays, but
she (to make) one today as her grandchildren (to come) to tea
tomorrow. 4. “You (to recognize) that man?” “I (to think) I (to
recognize) him but I (not to remember) his name.” 5. “You (to
read), dear? What (to be) the book about?” “Don’t talk to him while
he (to read).” 6. He (to understand) the rule, but he still (to make)
mistakes too often. 7. She (to worry) a lot at the moment, but the
problems (not to be) very serious. 8. Could you tell me the way to
the nearest metro station? I (to go) the right way? 9. “Where (to
be) Mike?” “He (to play) chess with his friend.” 10. Look! The kitten
(to play) with its tail. 11. “Where (to be) Sheila?” “She (to make) all
the necessary arrangements. She (to fly) to San Francisco
tomorrow.” 12. The weather (to be) fine today. It (to be) warm, the
sun (to shine) brightly. A soft wind (to blow). Small white clouds (to
sail) in the sky.

Ex.6. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Indefinite or Present

Continuous:
1. “What you (to do)?” “I’m an architect.” 2. “What you (to
do)?” “I (to want) to get this car started.” 3. “Where you (to work)?”
“I (to work) in a big insurance company.” 4. “ Where you (to work)
now?” “I’m in Cardiff this week.” 5. “Your son (to play) the violin?”
“No, the piano.” 6. “your son (to play) the violin?” “Actually, that’s
the radio.” 7. “What language she (to speak)?” “It (to sound) like
Russian.” 8. “What language she (to speak)?” “French – she’s from
Belgium.” 9. “Who (to drink) champagne?” “Me, when I can afford
it.” 10. “Who (to drink) champagne?” “Me, can I have some more?”

Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present Indefinite or Present

Continuous:

261
 1. Vegetarians are people who (not to eat) meat. 2. I (not to
understand). What (to happen)? 3. Some people still (to think) the
sun (to go) round the earth. 4. I (to play) tennis every weekend. 5.
Who (to sit) in my chair? 6. It is five o’clock. Kevin (to take) Red’s
dog into the garden. He always (to take) Red’s dog into the garden
in the afternoon. 7. It is a summer evening. Patrick and Barbara (to
play) football against Kevin and Melanie. They often (to play)
football against Kevin and Melanie. 8. “What you (to look) at?” “A
strange bird!” 9. I (to stay) with John for a few weeks until my flat is
ready. 10. We usually (to stay) with Peggy when we go to Chicago.
11. What time you (to go) to bed on Saturdays? 12. Why you (to
wait) outside the door? 13. Don’t ask Tim. He (not to know) the
answer. 14. I (to have) lunch at the moment. 15. When he (to
leave) the house? 16. We can’t use the lift because it (not to work)
17. “What you (to do) here?” “Nothing.”

Ex.8. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present Indefinite or the

Present
Continuous:
1. Look! It (to snow). We are going to have a white
Christmas. 2. This delicious chocolate (to be) made by a small
chocolatier in Zurich, Switzerland. 3. I’m sorry I can’t hear what
you (to say) because everybody (to talk) so loudly. 4. I have to go
now. It (to get) dark. 5. English classes (to require) self-discipline.
6. The business cards (to be) normally printed by a company in
New York. Their prices (to be) inexpensive, yet the quality of their
work is quite good. 7. Justin (to write) currently a book about his
adventures in Tibet. I (to hope) he can find a good publisher when
he (to finish). 8. Don’t go. Bob still (to need) to talk to you. 9. Why
you (not to believe) him? He (to tell) you the truth. 10. Shhh! Be
quiet! John (to sleep). 11. Every Monday Sally (to drive) her kids to
football practice.

262
Ex.9. Use the verb in brackets in the correct tense-form (the
Present
Indefinite or the Present Continuous):
Next week, my friends and I (to go) camping in the woods. I
(to organize) the food, because I (to like) cooking. Dave (to have) a
big car with a trailer, so he (to plan) the transportation. Sam (to
bring) the tent – he (to go) camping every year, so he (to have) a
great tent and lots of other equipment. My wife (to think) we’re
crazy. She (to like) holidays in comfortable hotels, so she (to take)
a trip to Paris instead.

Ex.10. Insert a verb in the following sentences in the Present

Indefinite or
Present Continuous:
1. Roland usually ____ a raincoat, but today he ____ an
anorak instead. 2. Linda ____ at 8.00 a.m. every day and ____ to
work by car. 3. Frances never ____ high-heeled shoes, in fact she
usually ____ sandals. 4. Matthew ____ in the centre of town but this
week he ____ at his parents’ house in the country. 5. Alex is a very
reliable person, everybody ____ him. 6. Carol usually ____ to work
on foot, but this morning it is raining so she ____ her car. 7. Kevin
always ____ his new pen for his homework. But he cannot find it, so
he ____ Tina’s pen now. 8. It is Thursday. A coach full of children
____ to Cardiff. The children at Jenny’s school ____ on a trip every
summer. 9. The Bensons usually ____ breakfast in the kitchen. But
today is Sunday, and they ____ it in the dining-room. 10. Usually, I
____ as a secretary at ABT, but this summer I ____ French at a
language school in Paris. That is why I am in Paris.

Ex.11. Put the verb in brackets in the correct tense-form (the

Present
Indefinite or the Present Continuous):
Today (to be) the second day of my trek around Mount
Annapurna. I am exhausted and my legs (to shake); I just (to hope)

263
I am able to complete the trek. My feet really (to kill) me and my
toes (to bleed), but I (to want, still) to continue.
Nepal (to be) a fascinating country, but I (to have) a great
deal to learn. Everything (to be) so different, and I (to try) to adapt
to the new way of life here. I (to learn) a little bit of the language to
make communication easier; unfortunately, I (not to learn) foreign
languages quickly. Although I (not to understand) much yet, I
believe that I (to improve, gradually).
I (to travel, currently) with Liam, a student from Leeds
University in England. He (to be) a nice guy, but impatient. He (to
walk, always) ahead of me and (to complain) that I am too slow. I
(to do) my best to keep up with him, but he is younger and
stronger than I am. Maybe, I just (to feel) sorry for myself because
I (to get) old.
Right now, Liam (to sit) with the owner of the inn. They (to
discuss) the differences between life in England and life in Nepal. I
(not to know) the real name of the owner, but everybody (to call,
just) him Tam. Tam (to speak) English very well and he (to try) to
teach Liam some words in Nepali. Every time Tam (to say) a new
word, Liam (to try) to repeat it. Unfortunately, Liam (to seem, also)
to have difficulty learning foreign languages. I just (to hope) we
don’t get lost and have to ask for directions.

Ex.12. Expand one of the sets of notes below to complete each

dialogue:
continually/change/mind always/borrow/money
always/let down/people constantly/criticize/driving
always/complain/handwriting always/lose/things
constantly/interrupt/speakers always/gossip/neighbours
forever/moan/work
Model: I can’t read this. –
You’re always complaining about my handwriting.
1. Sorry, I didn’t meet your friends at the airport. I really had
forgotten. − You’re … 2. − Can you lend me £10? − You’re … 3. That

264
was a dangerous thing to do! − You’re… 4. I think I’ll stay here after
all. − You’re… 5. I had a bad day at the office again. − You’re… 6. I
can’t find the keys. − You’re… 7. I refuse to do it. −You should
listen up to the end. You’re… 8. The young couple living next door
were quarrelling all day yesterday. − You’re…

Ex.13. Translate the sentences into English:

1. ƱÝã »Ý ³ÝáõÙ µáÉáñ ³Û¹ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ ÷áÕáóÇ Ù»çï»ÕáõÙ:
ºí ÇÝãá±õ »Ý Ýñ³Ýù ³Û¹åÇëÇ ï³ñûñÇÝ³Ï Ñ³·áõëïÝ»ñ ÏñáõÙ: −
Üñ³Ýù ýÇÉÙ »Ý Ýϳñ³Ñ³ÝáõÙ: 2.ä³ïíÇñ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ
ųٳÝáõÙ ¿ »ñÏáõß³µÃÇ£ ºë å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ »Ù ¹ÇÙ³íáñ»É
Ýñ³Ýó: 3. ƱÝã »ù ÷ÝïñáõÙ, å³ñáÝ ´ñ³áõÝ: − ºë ÷ÝïñáõÙ »Ù
³íïáïݳÏÇ µ³Ý³ÉÇÝ: ØÇßï ÏáñóÝáõÙ »Ù ³ÛÝ: 4. ƱÝã ¿
ϳï³ñíáõÙ ³Ûëï»Õ: ÆÝãá±õ »Ý Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ í»ñ áõ í³ñ ³ÝáõÙ
÷áÕáóáí: 5. ì»ñç ïáõñ ÍË»Éáõ¹: ²ÙµáÕç ë»ÝÛ³ÏÁ ÉÇùÝ ¿ ÍËáí:
²Ûëï»Õ ëáíáñ³µ³ñ áã áù ãÇ ÍËáõÙ: 6. ´³ÝÏÇ ³ß˳ïáÕÝ»ñÁ
ëáíáñ³µ³ñ Ï»ëûñÇÝ Ý³Ë³×³ßáõÙ »Ý ׳߳ñ³ÝáõÙ, µ³Ûó
³Ûëûñ Ýñ³Ýù ݳ˳׳ßáõÙ »Ý Ùáï³Ï³ ëñ׳ñ³ÝáõÙ: 7. ¸áõ
¹áÕáõÙ »ë ¨ ë³ñë³÷»ÉÇ ·áõÝ³ï »ë: ƱÝã ¿ å³ï³Ñ»É: 8.¸áõ
ÙÇßï ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇó¹ å³ñïù »ë í»ñóÝáõÙ: ì»°ñç ïáõñ ³Û¹
ëáíáñáõÃ۳ݹ: 9. ÐÇÙ³ ³Ûɨë áã áù ãÇ ÷áñÓáõÙ Ýñ³Ý û·Ý»É: ¸³
Ýñ³Ý ¹áõñ ãÇ ·³ÉÇë: 10. ƽáõñ »ë ÷áñÓáõÙ ¾É»ÝÇÝ Ñ³Ùá½»É:
ØǨÝáõÛÝ ¿, ݳ ù»½ ãÇ ÉëÇ: 11. سÛñÇÏÝ áõ ÷áùñÇÏ Ø»ñÇÝ
ËáѳÝáóáõÙ »Ý: سÛñÇÏÁ ÃËí³Íù ¿ å³ïñ³ëïáõÙ, ÇëÏ Ø»ñÇÝ
Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿ Ýñ³ ÏáÕùÇÝ ¨ ÷áñÓáõÙ ¿ û·Ý»É Ýñ³Ý: 12.¸», »ë ù»½
áõß³¹Çñ ÉëáõÙ »Ù: ƱÝã »ë å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ ³Ý»É: 13.ÐÇÙ³ »ë
ùñáçë Ùáï »Ù ³åñáõÙ: ÆÙ µÝ³Ï³ñ³ÝÁ í»ñ³Ýáñá·áõÙ »Ý: 14.
æ»ÛÝÝ ³Ý¹³¹³ñ ·³Ý·³ïíáõÙ ¿ Çñ ÏÛ³ÝùÇó áõ ³ß˳ï³ÝùÇó:
¸³ ÇÝÓ ÑáõÝÇó ѳÝáõÙ ¿: 15.ܳ ß³ï ×ßï³å³Ñ ¿, µ³Ûó ã·Çï»Ù
ÇÝãáõ ¿ ³Ûëûñ áõß³ÝáõÙ ¿: лï³ùñùÇñ ¿, DZÝã ¿ å³ï³Ñ»É: 16.
ä³ïÙÇ°ñ ÇÝÓ ùá ·áñÍ»ñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ: ÆÝãDZ íñ³ »ë ÑÇÙ³
³ß˳ïáõÙ: − лï³ùñùÇñ ݳ˳·ÍÇ íñ³ »Ù ³ß˳ïáõÙ:
¸»é¨ë ÝÛáõÃÇ áõëáõÙݳëÇñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÝ »Ù ³ÝáõÙ, Ýáñ ï»Õ»Ïáõ-
ÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ »Ù ѳí³ùáõÙ:

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 The Past Continuous Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Past Continuous:

1. While we were having supper all the lights went out. 2.
Was it snowing the whole evening? 3. It was getting chilly, so the
guests left the veranda. 4. The old man was sitting in the armchair
and thinking of his past. 5. It wasn’t raining when I left the house.
6. What was he trying to explain when I came up? 7. My father
was watching his favorite TV program while my mother was
cooking dinner. 8. Yesterday while Jack was fixing the electricity,
he burnt his hand. 9. This time last year the Smiths were living in
Brazil. 10. I was waiting for a very important phone call at noon
yesterday. 11. We were having a farewell party at 6 o’clock
yesterday. 12. Mr Johnson was working in his laboratory from 6 to
9 yesterday.

Ex.2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative.

1. They were working on their reports all Sunday. 2. The
lecture was getting rather dull. 3. Ted was walking along the lane
when he heard a shot somewhere. 4. The fire was still burning
when the fire-brigade arrived. 5. Lucy was playing the piano when I
entered the room.

Ex.3. Ask questions to the underlined parts of the sentences:

1. You were talking wonderfully at yesterday’s conference. 2.
No one was talking to George because of his rude behaviour. 3.
Peter was staying at a seaside hotel on holiday when he first met
his wife. 4. I was working in the library from 10 till 3. 5. I was tying
to get into contact with my friend at 5 yesterday.

Ex.4. Use the Past Indefinite or the Past Continuous instead of the
infinitives in brackets:

266
 1. I (to meet) a friend while I (to do) the shopping. I (to pay)
for my things when I (to hear) someone call my name. I (to turn)
round and (to see) Mary. She (to wear) a bright green dress. We
(to decide) to have a cup of coffee. While we (to have) lunch, a
waiter (to drop) a pile of plates. We all (to get) a terrible shock.
While the waiter (to pick up) the broken plates, he (to cut) his
finger. We (to leave) the cafe and (to say) goodbye. I (to finish) my
shopping and (to go) home. 2. When Lucy (to open) the door, a
man (to stand) on the doorstep. It (to be) her uncle, but she (not to
recognize) him because he (to wear) dark glasses. 3. A disco,
which (to take) place at the club last weekend, (to keep) people
awake half the night. 4. Your parents (to sleep) when you (to
come) home yesterday? 5. When I (to come) to the theatre, my
friends already (to wait) for me. 6. Somebody (to knock) at the
door, when she (to argue) with her husband. 7. Tom (to begin)
repairing his bicycle in the morning and (to repair) it the whole day
yesterday. 8. Every evening the old fisherman (to go) out upon the
sea and (to throw) his net into the water. But that day he (not to
go) there as it (to rain) heavily.

Ex.5. Use the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Past
Continuous:
1. As it (to rain) their mother (to cancel) the picnic. 2. I (to
drop) my bag when I (to board) the plane. 3. Whenever the
politician (to open) his mouth to speak the crowd (to shout) insults.
4. While the maid (to clean) the room a skeleton (to fall) out of the
cupboard. 5. As soon as he (to get) under the shower, the doorbell
(to ring). 6. They (to slip) and (to fall) while they (to climb) the
mountain. 7. As they (to fly) from Stockholm to Moscow, the
starboard engine (to burst) into flames. 8. When the teacher (to
walk) into the classroom, the boys (to listen) to pop music and the
girls (to eat) chips. 9. The receptionist (to welcome) the guests and
(to ask) them to fill in the form.10. When my sister (to wash) her
skirt, she (to find) a banknote in the pocket. 11. When I (to look)

267
out of the window, it (to rain) heavily and people (to hurry) along
the streets. 12. While Bob (to shop) yesterday, he (to lose) his
wallet. 13. Mother (to come) in, (to look) around and (to tell) me to
tidy up my room. 14. While one group (to prepare) dinner the
others (to collect) wood for the campfire. 15. When he (to cycle)
downhill, the brakes (to fail) and he only (to avoid) a serious
accident by steering into a friendly rosebay bush.

Ex.6. A. Complete the text using the verbs in brackets in the Past
Indefinite or the Past Continuous:
Every day James Lullaby travels to London. Yesterday he (to
drive) his car, when he (to see) a dog in the middle of the road.
The dog (to watch) the car. James (to stop) and (to get) out of his
car. As he (to get) out, the dog (to run) away. James (to go) back
to his car.
While he (to get) in the car, the dog (to appear) again and (to
sit) down in the middle of the road. James(to start) the engine, but
the dog (not to move). James (to jump) out of the car and (to
shout) at the dog. The dog (to bark) at him and (to start) to run.
James (to follow) the dog.
Suddenly, he (to see) two girls lying on the grass. They (to
bleed).

B: Form the policeman’s questions. Use the words in

brackets:
Policeman: ______? (what/to do/yesterday at 8.15)
James: I was driving to work.
Policeman: ______? (what time/to meet/the dog)
James: I saw him at about 8.30.
Policeman: When you saw the dog ______? (to drive/fast)
James: No, I wasn’t.
Policeman: ______? (what/the dog/to do)
James: He ran away.
Policeman: ______? (how/to find/the two girls)

268
James: I followed the dog, when he came back.
Policeman: ______? (to see/anyone else)
James: No, I didn’t.
Policeman: ______? (to call/an ambulance)
James: No, I didn’t. I drove the girls to hospital.

Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Past
Continuous:
Last month Amy (to spend) an exciting day at the Museum of
Natural History in New York. Mrs Miller, her teacher (to tell) Amy
and her classmates not to touch anything. Then they (to be
allowed) to look at all the interesting things in groups of four. While
Amy and her friends (to walk) around they (to hear) an alarm. Of
course they (to want) to know what was wrong. As they (to try) to
find the room where the alarm (to come) from they (to see) some
of their classmates in the dinosaur room. Brian, a small quiet boy,
(to cry) terribly – and next to him there (to be) a large number of
dinosaur bones.
“I (to not want) to ruin the T-Rex, but when I (to count) its leg
bones I (to cough) and (to fall) right into T-Rex.”
Poor Brian! Mrs Miller (to be) very angry – but the director of
the museum (to believe) Brian. He (to say): “In future there will be
a big fence around our favourite dinosaur.”

Ex.8. Using the words in brackets, complete the text below with the
appropriate tenses (the Past Indefinite or the Past
Continuous):
Last night, while I (to do) my homework, Angela (to call). She
said she to call) me on her cell phone from her biology classroom
at UCLA. I (to ask) her if she (to wait) for class, but she said that
the professor was at the front of the hall lecturing while she (to
talk) to me. I couldn’t believe she (to make) a phone call during the
lecture. I asked what (to go on).

269
 She (to say) her biology professor was so boring that several
of the students (to sleep, actually) in class. Some of the students
(to talk) about their plans for the weekend and the student next to
her (to draw) a picture of a horse. When Angela (to tell) me she
was not satisfied with the class, I (to mention) that my biology
professor was quite good and (to suggest) that she switch to my
class.
While we (to talk), I (to hear) her professor yell, “Miss, you
(to make) a phone call?” Suddenly, the line went dead. I (to hang)
up the phone and (to go) to the kitchen to make dinner. As I (to
cut) vegetables for a salad, the phone (to ring) once again. It (to
be) Angela, but this time she (not to sit) in class.

Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Past
Continuous:
Betsy: I (to telephone) you yesterday afternoon but you (not to
answer). Where were you?
Brian: I was in another room when you (to call). I (not to hear) the
phone ringing until it was too late.
Betsy: What you (to work) on?
Brian: I ((to photocopy) a report that I (to need) to send to a client.
What you (to do) when you (to telephone)?
Betsy: I (to look for) Tom and couldn’t find him. Do you know
where he was?
Brian: Tom (to drive) to a meeting.
Betsy: Oh, I see. What you (to do) yesterday?
Brian: I (to meet) the representatives from Driver’s in the morning.
In the afternoon, I (to work) on the report and just (to finish) when
you (to telephone). What did you do?
Betsy: Well, at 9 I (to have) a meeting with Ms Anderson. After
that, I (to do) some research.
Brian: Sounds like a boring day!

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Ex.10. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Past
Continuous:
1. “What you (to do) when the accident occurred?” “I (to try)
to change a light bulb that had burnt out.” 2. After I (to find) the
wallet full of money, I immediately (to go) to the police and (to turn)
it in. 3. The doctor (to say) that Tom (to be) too sick to go to work
and that he (to need) to stay at home for a couple of days. 4. “I (to
call) you last night after dinner, but you (not to be) there. Where
were you?” “I (to work) out at the fitness center.” 5. When I (to
walk) into the busy office, the secretary (to talk) on the phone with
a customer, several clerks (to work) busily at their desks, and two
managers quietly (to discuss) methods to improve customer
service. 6. Sharon (to be) in the room when John told me what had
happened, but she (not to hear) anything because she (not to
listen). 7. It’s strange that you (to call) because I (to think, just)
about you. 8. When I entered the bazaar, a couple of merchants
(to bargain) busily and (to try) to sell their goods to naive tourists
who (to hunt) for souvenirs. Some young boys (to lead) their
donkeys through the narrow streets on their way home. A couple
of men (to argue) over the price of a leather belt. I (to walk) over to
a man who (to sell) fruit and (to buy) a banana. 9. The firemen (to
rescue) the old woman who (to be) trapped on the third floor of the
burning building. 10. She was so annoying! She (to leave) always
her dirty dishes in the sink. I think she actually (to expect) me to do
them for her.

Ex.11. Complete the sentences with these pairs of verbs using the
Past
Indefinite or the Past Continuous:
arrive/get go/get meet/work look/slip
wait/order ski/break take/place write/drive
1. Just as I ____ into the bath the fire alarm ____. 2. Helen
____ her leg while she ____ in Switzerland. 3. We ____ when I
____ in a music shop. 4. It was an amazing coincidence. Just as I

271
____ to Lucy, she ____ to my house to come and see me. 5.
When his mother ____ in the other direction Steve ____ away
quietly. 6. I ____ a drink while I ____ for Pam to arrive. 7. Our
guests were early. They ____ as I ____ changed. 8. He ____ the
cake out of the oven and ____ it carefully on the table.

Ex.12. Translate the sentences into English:

1.ºñµ »ë ù³ÛÉáõÙ ¿Ç ÷áÕáóáí áõß »ñ»ÏáÛ³Ý, ѳÝϳñÍ
Ýϳï»óÇ, áñ ëåÇï³Ï Ùáñáõùáí ÙÇ Ù³ñ¹ ÇÝÓ ¿ñ Ñ»ï¨áõÙ: ºë
ù³ÛÉ»ñë ³ñ³·³óñ»óÇ, ûùí»óÇ ³ç ¨ ϳݷ ³é³ ÙÇ
óáõó³÷»ÕÏÇ Ùáï: 2.²ñ¨Á Ù³Ûñ ¿ñ ÙïÝáõÙ, »ñµ Ñ³ë³ ·ÛáõÕ, áñÁ
ÙdzÛÝ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ÙÕáÝ ¿ñ Ñ»éáõ ÍáíÇó: 3. ºñ»Ï ·Çß»ñ Ù»Ýù »ñϳñ
½µáëÝáõÙ ¿ÇÝù ³Û·áõÙ: òáõñï ¿ñ, ¨ »ë ï»ñ¨Ç å»ë ¹áÕáõÙ ¿Ç:
4.¸áõù DZÝã ¿Çù ³Ýáõ٠ݳËù³Ý ³Ûë ·áñÍÇÝ ³ÝóÝ»ÉÁ: –
²ß˳ïáõÙ ¿Ç ÙÇ Ù»Í ýÇݳÝë³Ï³Ý ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛáõÝáõÙ:
5.ì³ñ³·áõÛñÁ ¹»é Ýáñ ¿ñ µ³ñÓñ³ÝáõÙ, »ñµ ÇÝã-áñ Ù»ÏÁ í»ñçÇÝ
ß³ñù»ñÇó µÕ³í»ó: ´áÉáñÁ ë³ñë³÷³Í ßñçí»óÇÝ, ¨ DZÝã »ù
ϳñÍáõÙ, DZÝã ï»ë³Ý: ØÇ ÏÇÝ å³éÏ³Í ¿ñ ѳï³ÏÇÝ ¨ ѳ½Çí
¿ñ ßÝãáõÙ: ºë ³ÝÙÇç³å»ë ßï³åû·ÝáõÃÛáõÝ Ï³Ýã»óÇ: 6.ºñ»Ï
Ó»ñ ·ñ³ë»ÝÛ³ÏÁ É»÷-É»óáõÝ ¿ñ áëïÇϳÝÝ»ñáí ¨
áëïÇÏ³Ý³Ï³Ý ßÝ»ñáí: ƱÝã ¿ÇÝ Ýñ³Ýù ³ÝáõÙ ³ÛÝï»Õ:
7.²ñ¹»Ý ÙÃÝáõÙ ¿ñ, ¨ »ë ³é³ç³ñÏ»óÇ, áñ µáÉáñë
í»ñ³¹³éݳÝù ÑÛáõñ³Ýáó: 8.ºñµ Ù»Ýù ½ñáõóáõÙ ¿ÇÝù, »ë
Ýϳï»óÇ, áñ ݳ ÃÕÃÇ ÙÇ Ïïáñ ¿ñ å³ÑáõÙ Ó»éùáõÙ:
9.ºñ»ÏáõÛÃÁ ¹»é ã¿ñ ³í³ñïí»É: ºë ³ÝÝÏ³ï ¹áõñë »Ï³, ÙÇÝã
ÙÛáõëÝ»ñÁ í³Û»ÉáõÙ ¿ÇÝ Çñ»Ýó ëáõñ×Á: 10.ÈÇݹ³Ý í³½»Éáí Çç³í
³ëïÇ׳ÝÝ»ñÇó ¨ ·Ý³ó ÑÛáõñ³ë»ÝÛ³Ï, áñï»Õ Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿ñ
³ÙáõëÇÝÁ` ÙÇ ³ÝͳÝáÃÇ Ñ»ï: 11.ÎÇñ³ÏÇ ³é³íáïÛ³Ý
»Õ³Ý³ÏÝ ³Ýëáíáñ É³í ¿ñ: ²ñ¨Á å³Ûͳé ßáÕáõÙ ¿ñ ³Ý³Ùå
»ñÏÝùáõÙ, ¨ Ù»Ýù áñáß»óÇÝù Ý³Ë³×³ß»É å³ñ﻽áõÙ:

The Future Continuous Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Future Continuous:

272
 1. She will be having a music lesson at 5 tomorrow. 2. It’s no
use inviting Tom for a walk in the evening tomorrow. He will be
watching a football match. 3. They will be packing things in half an
hour. 4. What will the sportsmen be doing at this time tomorrow? 5.
When I arrive in London my friends will be waiting at the airport. 6.
They will be making an official announcement next week. 7. When
will you be seeing him? 8. I believe the delegation will be arriving
in no time. 9. From 8.30 till 12 the students of our group will be
taking their English exam. 10. Don’t phone me at 12. I’ll be
sleeping.

Ex.2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative:

1. I’ll be waiting for his call. 2. Mary will be flying to the South
in a couple of days. 3. He’ll be sitting in that room all alone. 4. Pete
will be looking for a new job. 5. They’ll be playing in the garden in
the afternoon. 6. The students will be revising for their exams in
May.

Ex.3. Ask questions to the following sentences beginning with the

words
in brackets:
1. They will be listening to my story and wondering. (Who?
What?) 2. Don’t explain it to me. Tomorrow you will be talking with
the headmaster. (Who? What? When? Whom?) 3. I expect he will
be telling the same story all over again. (Who? What?) 4. She will
be waiting for you when you come out. (Who? When?) 5. Be
careful. They’ll be watching you all the time. (Who? What?
Whom?) 6. Tomorrow at this time they will be waiting for you at the
airport. (Who? When? Where?)

Ex.4. Extend the statements using the Future Continuous of the

verbs in
brackets:
Model: Don’t disturb Mr Porter after classes (to work in the

273
 laboratory). – He’ll be working in the laboratory.
1. Don’t expect that Tim will come next Saturday (to work). 2.
Don’t watch that film (to have nightmare). 3. Don’t worry about his
health (to get better). 4. Don’t translate this article (to have
problems with unknown words). 5. Don’t leave the children alone
(to fight). 6. Don’t expect she will come to the University tomorrow
(to stay in bed). 6. Don’t call on Jane at 11 (to sleep).

Ex.5. Complete the sentences using the Future Continuous:

1. Mr Porter is in hospital. Tomorrow morning … 2. I know
too little on the subject. Next week … 3. The weather is fine now
but I think soon … 4. The new project isn’t ready yet and next
week … 5. At 6 in the evening … 6. I don’t think I’ll have time to
see you tonight, because … 7. Do you like my dress? … 8. In a
couple of days … 9. … when my alarm rings. 10. If we come too
early … 11. … while Lucy is in Paris. 12. … after I take my nap.
13. … while the sun is setting. 14. … when we go to the beach. 15.
… when I get up tomorrow. 16. …before I sit down to homework.
17. … after we have dinner.

Ex.6. Put the verbs in brackets in the Future Indefinite or the

Future
Continuous tense:
1. Wait a little, I (to phone) for a taxi. 2. I am very tired. I think
I (to go) to bed earlier today. 3. Can you imagine that in five days
we (to cross) the Atlantic on our way home. 4. The big stores (to
have) their summer sales soon. 5. It’s awful to think I (to work) this
time next week. 6. I’m leaving now, but suppose I (to see) you in
the evening. 7. What you (to do) if I come at 5? – I still (to work) at
my report.

Ex.7. Use the the verbs in brackets in the Past Continuous or the
Future
Continuous:

274
 1. When I come home, my little sister (to sleep). 2. When I
came home, my little sister (to sleep). 3. When Mother returns, I (to
do) my homework. 4. When Mother returned, I (to do) my
homework. 5. When I get up, my father and mother (to drink) tea.
6. When I got up, my father and mother (to drink) tea. 7. When I
come to my friend’s place in the evening, he (to watch) TV. 8.
When I came to my friends place in the evening, he (to watch) TV.

Ex.8. Use the Future Indefinite or the Future Continuous in the

negative
form:
1. Janet (to be) happy if her husband makes the journey
alone. 2. We (to begin) the next exercise until we finish this one. 3.
I (to think) about my problems at work when I am on holiday next
month. 4. We (to move) to our new flat while it is being repaired. 5.
The students (to use) their dictionaries at the exam as it is
forbidden. 6. I (to use) this dictionary. It’s an awful one. 7. I (to go)
to his party. I’ve got to finish writing my term-paper today. 8. We
(to go) to his party. He is a rude and unpleasant person. 9. Ronald
(to quit) his job. He likes it. 10. Ted (to leave) his job until he finds
a better one. 11. I (to get) out of bed until I feel better. 12. I (to
study) when you come tonight. I never study in the evening. 13.
The sun (to shine) this afternoon. The sky is grey. 14. I (to do) this
exercise in writing. It’s too easy. 15. Stella (to be) happy, until she
finds romance. 16. I (to tell) you my secret until you promise to
keep it. 17. You (to make) much money until you learn a skill. 18.
They (to get) a divorce until she has made a final decision. 19.
They (to get) a divorce. They want to stay together. 20. You (to
feel) better until you stop smoking. 21. What’s wrong with the
computer? It (to start). 22. I (to play) the piano for some time. I’ll be
studying hard for my exam. 23. I (to go) to her party. I always get
bored there. 24. I (to go) to her party tomorrow as I’m leaving for
Egypt tonight.

275
Ex.9. Ask about people’s plans in a polite way using the Future
Continuous:
Model: You want to use the computer. David is using it now.
Will you be using the computer for long?
1. You want to watch your favourite film. Your brother is
watching a cartoon. 2. You want some things from the
supermarket. Your sister is just leaving the house. 3. You don’t
want to go to the seaside alone. Your friend is just calling on you.
4. You want to buy your friend’s car but you don’t know whether he
plans to sell it. 5. You have a business meeting and can’t take your
baby with you. Your mother is calling you.

Ex.10. Using the words in brackets, complete the texts with the
appropriate tenses (the Future Indefinite or the Future
Continuous):
1. “Where is Tim going to meet us?” “He (to wait) for us
when our train arrives. I am sure he (to stand) on the platform
when we pull into the station.” “And then what?” “We (to pick)
Michele up at work and go out to dinner.” 2. “Just think, next week
at this time, I (to lie) on a beach in Miami drinking cold juice and
eating pineapple.” “While you are luxuriating on the beach, I (to
stress) out over this marketing project. How are you going to enjoy
yourself knowing that I am working so hard?” “I (to manage)
somehow.” “You’re terrible. Can’t you take me with you?” “No. But
I (to send) you a postcard of a beautiful white sand beach.” “Great,
that (to make) me feel much better.” 3. “If you need to contact me
next week, I (to stay) at the Hoffman Hotel.” “I (to call) you if there
are any problems.” “This is the first time I have ever been away
from the kids.” “Don’t worry, they (to be) be fine.”

Ex.11. Using the words in brackets complete the text with the
appropriate
tenses (the Present Indefinite/the Present Continuous; the
Future

276
 Indefinite/the Future Continuous):
1. Right now, I (to watch) TV. Tomorrow at this time, I (to
watch) TV as well. 2. Tomorrow after school, I (to go) to the beach.
3. I am going on a dream vacation to Tahiti. While you (to do)
paperwork and (to talk) to annoying customers on the phone, I (to
lie) on a sunny tropical beach. Are you jealous? 4. We (to hide)
when Tony (to arrive) at his surprise party. As soon as he opens
the door, we (to jump) out and (to scream): “Surprise!” 5. We work
out at the fitness center every day after work. If you (to come) over
while we (to work) out, we (not to be able) to let you into the
house. Just to be safe, we (to leave) a key under the welcome mat
so you (not to have) to wait outside. 6. While you (to study) at
home, Maida (to be) in class. 7. When I (to get) to the party, Sally
and Doug (to dance), John (to make) drinks, Sue and Frank (to
discuss) something controversial, and Mary (to complain) about
something unimportant. They are always doing the same things.
They are so predictable. 8. When you (to get) off the plane, I (to
wait) for you. 9. I am sick of rain and bad weather! Hopefully, when
we (to wake) up tomorrow morning, the sun (to shine). 10. If you
(to need) to contact me sometime next week, I (to stay) at the
Sheraton in San Francisco.

Ex.12. Use the Present/Past/Future Indefinite, the

Present/Past/Future
Continuous instead of the infinitives in brackets:
1. Nowadays cars (to get) more and more expensive. 2.
“My train (to leave) in half an hour.” “O.K., I (to drive) you to the
station in my car.” 3. I (to give) a party on Sunday. Please don’t fail
to come. 4. She (to wash) up before she (to go) to bed, won’t she?
5. Stand here, they (to change) the guard soon and you (to get) a
good view. 6. When you (to get up) usually on weekdays and what
you (to do) in the morning? 7. Queen Elizabeth II (to be born) in
1926. She (to become) Queen of England in 1952. 8. “What (to be)
the matter with her? She (to be) so excited.” “I (not to know). 9. I

277
(to be sorry) I (to miss) the match yesterday. But I (to know) the
score. 10. When I (to go) to the library the other day I (to meet) my
friends. They (to talk) and (to laugh). They (to tell) me a funny
story. Soon I (to laugh) too. 11. When we (to open) the door, the
children (to dance) round the fir tree. 12. If we (to have) televisions
at our supermarket, they (to inform) customers about things in the
store. 13. If we (to play) music, it (to produce) the right
atmosphere.

Ex.13. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.лï³ùñùÇñ ¿, DZÝ㠳ݻÉÇë ÏÉÇݻ٠»ÏáÕ ï³ñÇ ³Ûë
ųٳݳÏ: 2.ÎÇë³ÙÛ³ÏÇ ³é³çÇÝ ûñÁ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ¿ ÉÇÝ»Éáõ,
ù³ÝÇ áñ µáÉáñÁ Ëáë»Éáõ »Ý Çñ»Ýó ³Ù³é³ÛÇÝ ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹Ç
Ù³ëÇÝ ¨ óáõÛó »Ý ï³Éáõ Çñ»Ýó Éáõë³ÝϳñÝ»ñÁ: 3.ì³ÕÝ ³Ûë
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï µáÉáñÁ ϳñ¹³ÉÇë ÏÉÇÝ»Ý ùá ѳçáÕáõÃÛ³Ý Ù³ëÇÝ, ¨
ß³ï»ñÁ Ͻ³Ý·³Ñ³ñ»Ý ù»½ ßÝáñѳíáñ»Éáõ: 4.ºë ѳÙá½í³Í
»Ù, áñ ³Û¹ ϳÕÝÇÝ ¹»é Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ ³Ûëï»Õ 50 ï³ñÇ Ñ»ïá:
5.êÛáõ½ÇÝ ³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ ÇÝùÁ ãÇ ·³ ½µáë³ËÝçáõÛùÇ, »Ã» Ù»ù»Ý³Ý
üñ»¹Ý ¿ í³ñ»Éáõ: 6.¸áõ ϳñÍáõÙ »ë Ýñ³Ýù ¹»é ëå³ë»ÉÇë
ÏÉÇÝ»±Ý Ù»½, »ñµ ųٳݻÝù: 7.¸áõ Ùdzݷ³Ù³ÛÝ ×Çßï »ë: ºë
³ñ¹»Ý ³å³ùÇÝíáõÙ »Ù: 8.ܳ ãÇ ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ Ãáß³ÏÇ ³ÝóÝ»É:
ºë ϳñÍáõÙ »Ù ݳ ¹»é ³ß˳ï»ÉÇë ÏÉÇÝÇ, »ñµ ¹³éݳ 80
ï³ñ»Ï³Ý: 9.ØÇ »ñ»Ïá, »ñµ ³ÙáõëÇÝÁ å³ïáõѳÝÇ Ùáï Ýëï³Í
ûñà ¿ñ ϳñ¹áõÙ, ÏÇÝÁ Ý»ñë Ùï³í ÙÇ ³ÝͳÝáÃÇ Ñ»ï:
10.öáÕáóÇ ³ÝÏÛáõÝáõÙ »ñÏáõ Ù³ñ¹ ÏéíáõÙ ¿ÇÝ, ¨ ³Ýóáñ¹Ý»ñÁ
÷áñÓáõÙ ¿ÇÝ Ýñ³Ýó µ³Å³Ý»É: 11.гçáñ¹ ûñÁ, »ñµ Ýñ³Ýù
ÇÙ³ó³Ý, áñ áëïÇϳÝÝ»ñÝ Çñ»Ýó »Ý ÷ÝïñáõÙ, Çñ»ñÁ
óùóñ»óÇÝ ³Ýï³éáõÙ ¨ ÷³Ë³Ý ï³ñµ»ñ áõÕÕáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí:
12.¸Åí³ñ ¿ñ Ïé³Ñ»É, û ݳ ÇÝã ¿ñ Ùï³ÍáõÙ, ϳ٠ÇÝã ¿ñ
å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ ³Ý»É:

Ex.14. Translate into English using different means of denoting a

future
action:

278
 1.ºñµ ³í³ñï»Ù ѳٳÉë³ñ³ÝÁ, ³ß˳ï»Éáõ »Ù
¹åñáóáõÙ£ ÆëÏ ¹áõ±:– ÆÝÓ Ñ³Ù³ñ ¹³ë³í³Ý¹»ÉÁ ß³ï ¹Åí³ñ
ÏÉÇÝÇ£ γñÍáõÙ »Ù, »ë ϳß˳ï»Ù áñ¨¿ ÑÇÙݳñÏáõÙ£ 2.¸³ëÇó
Ñ»ïá DZÝã »ë ³Ý»Éáõ£ – ¶Ý³Éáõ »Ù ÏÇÝá èáµ»ñïÇ Ñ»ï£ Î·³±ë
Ù»½ Ñ»ï£ – г×áõÛùáí£ 3.º±ñµ »ë Ù»ÏÝáõÙ ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹£ – ì³ÕÁ£
ºñÏáõ ûñ Ñ»ïá »ë ³ñ¹»Ý å³éÏ³Í ÏÉÇݻ٠ï³ù ³í³½Çݪ ³ñ¨Ç
ï³Ï£ – ÆëÏ »ë ³Û¹ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Ùï³Í»ÉÇë ÏÉÇݻ٠ùá Ù³ëÇÝ£
4.ºñµ »ë ö³ñǽáõÙ ÉÇÝ»Ù, ¹áõ Ñ»ßïáõÃÛ³Ùµ Ïϳñáճݳë ÇÝÓ
·ïݻɣ ºë ÙݳÉáõ »Ù »Õµáñë ï³ÝÁ£ ÐÇÙ³ ù»½ Ïï³Ù Ýñ³
ѳëó»Ý£ 5.æ»ÛÝÇ ÍÝáõݹÁ í³ÕÝ ¿£ ºë å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ »Ù Ýñ³Ý
ß³ï ·»Õ»óÇÏ Ù³ï³ÝÇ ÝíÇñ»É£ 6.Üñ³Ýù ßáõïáí ·³Éáõ »Ý£
ֳ߻±Ýù, û± ëå³ë»Ýù Ýñ³Ýó£ 7.ºñ»ÏáÛ³Ý ³Û¹ ýÇÉÙÁ ã»Ù ¹ÇïÇ,
áñáíÑ»ï¨ ½µ³Õí³Í ÏÉÇݻ٠ÇÙ Ïáõñë³ÛÇÝ ³ß˳ï³Ýùáí£
8.ƱÝã å³ïñ³ëï»Ù ׳ßÇÝ ù»½ ѳٳñ£ – ºë áãÇÝã ã»Ù áõï»Éáõ£
ØdzÛÝ ÑÛáõà »Ù ËÙ»Éáõ, áñáíÑ»ï¨ ³ÛÝù³Ý ¿É ɳí ã»Ù ½·áõÙ£
9.ì³Õí³ ÅáÕáíÇÝ Ù»Ýù ÙÇ ß³ï Éáõñç ѳñó »Ýù ùÝݳñÏ»Éáõ£
¶³Éáõ »ë, 㿱: 10.ºñµ ѳÛñÇÏÁ ïáõÝ ·³, »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ ¹»é
¹³ë»ñÁ å³ïñ³ëï»ÉDZë ÏÉÇÝ»Ý, û± ³ñ¹»Ý ùÝ³Í ÏÉÇݻݣ
11.ÆÝãå»±ë ׳ݳã»Ù ù»½, »ñµ ѳݹÇå»Ýù£ ƱÝã ÏÉÇÝ»ë ѳ·³Í£
12.ºñµ »ñ»ÏáÛ³Ý ïáõÝ ·³ë, ËݹñáõÙ »Ù ã³ÕÙÏ»ë£ öáùñÇÏ ÈÇÉÇÝ
ùÝ³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ: 13.ì³ÕÁ ÉáÕ³÷ ã»Ýù ·Ý³Éáõ, ù³ÝÇ áñ
ϻݹ³Ý³µ³Ý³Ï³Ý ³Û·Ç »Ýù ·Ý³Éáõ: 14.ìëï³Ñ »Ù, áñ »ñµ
×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÝ Çٳݳë, áñáßáõÙ¹ Ï÷áË»ë£ 15.Üáñ ï³ñí³
ݳËûñÛ³ÏÇÝ Ù³ÛñÇÏÝ»ñÁ Ñ³Ù»Õ Ï»ñ³ÏáõñÝ»ñ å³ïñ³ëï»ÉÇë
ÏÉÇÝ»Ý, ѳÛñÇÏÝ»ñÁ ½³ñ¹³ñ»ÉÇë ÏÉÇÝ»Ý ïáõÝÝ áõ »Õ¨ÝÇÝ, ÇëÏ
»ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÝ ³Ýѳٵ»ñ Ïëå³ë»Ý Ýí»ñÝ»ñÇÝ, áñáÝù µ»ñ»Éáõ ¿
ÒÙ»é ä³åÁ£ 16.ƱÝã »ë ѳ·Ý»Éáõ í³Õí³ ¹Çٳϳѳݹ»ëÇÝ£
ºë ØáËñáïÇÏÇ (Cinderella) ½·»ëï »Ù Ïñ»Éáõ£– ºë ¿É ´»ÃÙ»ÝÇ
å»ë »Ù ѳ·Ýí»Éáõ:

279
Ex.15. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Continuous or the
Future
Continuous in the Past:
1. Jane reminded us that at eight she (to fly) to Berlin. 2.
Henry! Good Lord! I forgot you (to come) for supper. 3. Anna and
Lidia turned up at my apartment just as I (to go) to bed. 4. We
understood that he (to play) the piano at six o’clock. 5. He applied
for a passport because he (to go) abroad. 6. We (to listen) to
music when one of the neighbours knocked at the door.7. If we
won that price we (to leave) for the Bahamas very soon. 8.
Surprise! We knew you (not to expect) us to arrive so early. 9. The
Titanic (to cross) the Atlantic when it struck an iceberg. 10. I was
sure that my brother (to sleep) if I phoned later. 11. He hoped the
girl still (to wait) when he returned. 12. She didn’t believe that they
(to discuss) her suggestion at the meeting the next day.

Ex.16. Translate the sentences, using the Future Continuous in the

Past:
1.ºñµ íëï³Ñ ¿Ç, áñ »ñµ ųٳݻ٠û¹³Ý³í³Ï³Û³Ý, ÇÙ
³ÙµáÕç ÁÝï³ÝÇùÁ ëå³ë»ÉÇë ÏÉÇÝÇ ÇÝÓ£ 2.øáõÛñë ³ë³ó, áñ ³ß-
˳ï»Éáõ ¿ ¹åñáóáõÙ, »ñµ ³í³ñïÇ Ñ³Ù³Éë³ñ³ÝÁ: 3.лÝñÇÝ
³ë³ó, áñ Ù»ÏÝáõÙ ¿ ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹ ¨ »ñÏáõ ûñ Ñ»ïá ³ñ¹»Ý
å³éÏ³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ ï³ù ³í³½Çݪ ³ñ¨Ç ï³Ï£ 4.ܳ ã·Çï»ñ, áñ
³é³íáïÛ³Ý Çñ ѳñ³½³ïÝ»ñÁ Ù»ÏÝ»Éáõ »Ý ³ñï³ë³ÑÙ³Ý:
5.æ»ÛÝÝ ³ë³ó, áñ Çñ»Ýù ÏÙÝ³Ý ÑÛáõñ³ÝáóáõÙ, ù³ÝÇ ¹»é
ѳñÙ³ñ µÝ³Ï³ñ³Ý ã»Ý ·ï»É£ 6.îÝûñ»ÝÁ ѳÛï³ñ³ñ»ó, áñ
í³Õí³ ÅáÕáíÇÝ Ù»Ýù ÙÇ ß³ï Éáõñç ѳñó »Ýù ùÝݳñÏ»Éáõ£ 7.
àõëáõóÇãÁ ÑÇß»óñ»ó Ù»½, áñ ѳçáñ¹ ¹³ëÇÝ Ëáë»Éáõ »Ýù
Þ»ùëåÇñÇ ëáÝ»ïÝ»ñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ£ 8.гÛñÇÏÝ ³ë³ó, áñ í³ÕÁ
ÉáÕ³÷ ã»Ýù ·Ý³Éáõ, áñáíÑ»ï¨ ·Ý³Éáõ »Ýù ù³Õ³ùÁ ï»ëÝ»Éáõ£
9.ºë ·Çï»Ç, áñ í³ÕÁ ¹Åí³ñ ûñ »Ù áõݻݳÉáõ£ 10.ܳ ѳñóñ»ó,
û DZÝã ϳݻÙ, »Ã» ѳÛïÝí»Ù ³ÝÙ³ñ¹³µÝ³Ï ÏÕ½áõÙ: 11.ÜÇùÝ
³ë³ó, áñ ¹Çٳϳѳݹ»ëÇÝ ëáõå»ñÙ»ÝÇ Ñ³Ý¹»ñÓ³Ýù ¿ Ïñ»Éáõ£

280
 THE PERFECT FORM

The Present Perfect Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Present Perfect:

1. It is afternoon. It has stopped raining, and the sun has
come out. 2. Thank you for everything you’ve done. I’ve learned a
great deal from you. 3. I believe Mr. Smith has already paid all his
debts. 4. We haven’t seen each other since the evening party at
Mr. Brown’s. 5. Nancy does what she likes. Mother has always
spoiled her. 6. I have never been on this bank of the lake before. 7.
“How long has he been here?” “For already a month.” 8. Father
has just come back from work and is having tea in his study.

Ex.2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative:

1. They’ve always been too strict with their children. 2. I’ve
seen a lot of my former classmates recently. 3. He has already
started his new job. 4. My father has recently got promotion. 5. The
discussion has already begun. 6. I have been to this museum
several times. 7. The waitress has already taken my order. 8. He
has always been interested in maths. 9. Andrew has been in love
with Lucy since last year. 10. He has been abroad twice this year.

Ex.3. Put questions to the underlined parts of the following

sentences:
1. We haven’t had a family reunion for three years. 2. I’ve
been late several times this week. 3. The secretary has typed five
documents since morning. 4. I haven’t seen Tom since his
wedding. 5. The windows in this room haven’t been cleaned for
two months. 6. The patient hasn’t had a good night’s sleep for
weeks. 7. I haven’t eaten raw fish since I was in Japan. 8. I haven’t
seen Mrs Snyder since she left the farm. 9. My brother hasn’t

281
driven a car for over six months. 10. These boys haven’t put up a
tent since they left the army.

Ex.4. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Perfect:

1. I don’t know this man. I never (to meet) him. 2. Don’t worry
about the fax. I already (to send) it. 3. “Where are the keys?” “I (to
put) them in the drawer.” 4. “Do you speak Greek?” “No. I never (to
study) it.” 5. I can’t find my bag. I think somebody (to take) it by
mistake. 6. I know London perfectly well. I (to be) there several
times. 7. How long you (to be) away? It seems ages. 8. I (to know)
you for 22 years, but I never (to hear) you speak like that before.

Ex.5. Change the tense form in the following sentences into the
Present
Perfect:
1. He is recording his favorite film on his video recorder. 2.
Susan is making a new dress for her birthday party. 3. My friend is
helping me to solve a difficult problem. 4. Kate is sweeping the
floor in the kitchen. 5. The waiter is putting a glass of whisky in
front of him. 6. I am having breakfast. 7. She is buying some meat
and vegetables. 8. Mother is taking the dirty dishes from the table.
9. The children are putting on their coats.

Ex.6. Circle the right option:

1. I read/have read “Oliver Twist” when I was at school. 2.
When did your cousin arrive/has your cousin arrived? 3. I
heard/have heard that wonderful news only last night. 4. The
Smiths lived/have lived in this district since 1967. 5. We last
met/have met when we were at university. 6. It rained/has rained
all day yesterday. 7. Have you finished/Did you finish your work
yet? 8. Jane told/has told me everything a minute ago. 9. As far as
I remember, they got/have got married in 1990. 10. How long did
you know/have you known Sally?

282
Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets either in the Past Indefinite or the
Present
Perfect:
1. The rain (to stop) but a strong wind is still blowing. 2. “How
long you (know) him?” “We (to meet) in 2009, but we (not to see)
each other since last autumn.” 3. I (to read) this novel when I (to
be) at school. 4. “The clock is slow.” “It isn’t slow, it (to stop).” 5.
My friend (to leave) for Australia two years ago and I (not see) him
since. 6. This is the fourth cup of coffee you (to have) today! 7.
“You ever (to be) to Japan?” Yes, I (to be) there last year. It is the
most beautiful place I ever (to visit).” 8. “I (not to see) Nick lately.
Anything (to happen) to him?” “Yes, he (to get) into an accident a
fortnight ago. Since that time he (to be) in hospital.” 9. “The last
post (to come)?” “Yes, it (to come) a quarter of an hour ago.” 10.
“You (to find) the money you (to lose) yesterday?” “Yes, I (to find) it
in the pocket of my coat when I (to come) home.” 11. You never (to
tell) me why you’re called Peggy when your name is Pauline. 12. “I
(to invite) Linda my birthday party.” “When you (to see) her?” “I (to
call) her an hour ago.” 13. They (to leave) Spain when he (to be)
still a child. 14. My grandma’s health (to improve) greatly since I (to
see) her last. 15. “You (to pass) your driving test yet?” “Yes, I (to
pass) it in May, but I (not to buy) a car yet.” 16. They already (to
move). They (to find) a nice flat before Christmas and they (to be)
there for a year now.

Ex.8. Put the verb in brackets in the Present Perfect or the Past
Indefinite:
A: Hello, John. You (not to be) in touch with me for a long time. I
am glad you (to ring) me up. Where you (to be) all these weeks? I
hope you (not to be) ill.
B: No, I (to be) very well, though I (to have) a slight cold last week.
The fact is I (to be) very busy indeed. I (to ring) up about two days
ago, but I (to get) no answer. I (to think) you (to be) away at the
time, it (to be) Sunday afternoon.

283
A: Yes, on Saturday I (to receive) a call from my aunt. She told me
she (to want) to see me. So I (to go) down to see her on that
Sunday.

Ex.9. Complete the dialogue using the verbs in brackets in the

Past
Indefinite or the Present Perfect:
A: Dan, you (to taste) ever sushi?
B: Yes, I (to eat) sushi at least five times so far.
A: When you (to eat) sushi for the first time?
B: I (to taste) it for the first time on my dad’s 50th birthday. He (to
invite) the whole family to a Japanese restaurant.
A: You (to like) it?
B: Sure. In fact, it (to be) so good that we (to be) to that restaurant
three times already. On my mum’s birthday we (not to go) there,
we just (to order) some sushi and (to have) it at home.

Ex.10. Complete the text using the verbs in brackets in the Past
Indefinite
or the Present Perfect:
Last week I (to be) very busy and I (not to have) the time to
do a lot in the household. On Monday I (to work) three hours
overtime and (to come) home very late in the evening. From
Tuesday to Thursday I (to be) on a business trip. On Friday I (to
go) to a friend’s birthday party and at the weekend I (to visit) my
grandparents. Tomorrow some friends are coming over. I (not to
see) them for ages and they never (to be) at my place before. I just
(to clean) my house so I can show them around. Now everything is
perfect.

Ex.11. Choose a verb and use it in the Present Perfect or the Past
Indefinite: agree, appear, continue, disappear, move,
reach,
show, solve, write

284
 1. Research ____ that cycling can help patients overcome
their illnesses. 2. The rabbit just ____ in my garden one day last
week. 3. With this promotion, I feel that I ____ a turning point in my
career. 4. Oh, no! My car ____! 5. Quite early in the negotiations,
they ____ to lower the prices. 6. In 1788 he ____ his last great
work in Vienna. 7. There’s not much more to do, now that we ____
the main problem. 8. Throughout the summer of 1980 Malcolm
____ to divide his time between London and New York. 9. When
he was 13, his parents ____ to the United States.

Ex.12. Choose a verb that can complete both sentences in each

pair. Use
either the Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite: wear, rise,
see,
survive, stay, be
1. a) The price of houses ____ dramatically in recent years.
b) Unemployment ____ every year until 1985 and then started to
fall. 2. a) At this wedding he ____ a green suit and red tie. b)
These are the glasses I ____ ever since I was 30. 3. a) The
company ____ many setbacks in its 50-year history, but it is now
flourishing. b) Few of the trees in our village ____ the storms
during the winter of 1991. 4. a) This ____ his home for over 20
years and he doesn’t want to leave it. b) When I picked up the
coffee I ____ surprised to find it that it was cold. 5. a) So far it’s
been so cold that we ____ in the house all day. b) We ____ with
Mike and Sue last weekend. 6. a) I last ____ you in Beijing three
years ago. b) I never ______ anyone play so well in my whole life.

Ex.13. Complete the sentences with one of the given verbs. Use
the same
verb for each sentence in the pair. Use either the Present
Perfect
or the Past Indefinite: receive, sell, regret, enjoy, ask, work

285
 1. a) A lot of people ____ about the painting, and I always
say it’s not for sale. b) The police ____ me several questions about
my car before they let me go. 2. a) Until she retired last month, she
____ in the customer complaints department. b) Sullivan ____
hard to change the rules and says that the campaign will go on. 3.
a) I ____ skiing ever since I lived in Switzerland. b) She once ____
the support of the majority of the Democratic Party. 4. a) His father
____ so many complaints about the noise that he told Chris to sell
his drums. b) We ____ over 50 letters of support in the last 10
days. 5. a) The Bible ____ more copies than any other book. b)
When it became clear that we would be moving to Australia, we
____ the house to my brother. 6. a) I ____ moving to London from
the day I arrived. I’d like to go back to Rome. b) At first I ____
inviting them to stay, but we soon became great friends.

Ex.14. Complete these sentences with one of the given verbs in

the
Present Perfect or the Past Indefinite:
rescue, spend, crash, work, wear, be, miss, start, happen
1. Maria hasn’t wanted to drive since she ____ her car. 2. I
____ really hard this morning. Another two shelves to put up and
then I think I’ll have lunch. 3. Since the eruption ____, all the
villages on the slopes of the volcano have been evacuated. 4. So
far this week there ____ three burglaries in our street. 5. I ____ a
committee meeting since 1986, so I don’t want to miss the one
today. 6. It was so hot today that I ____ shorts and a T-shirt at
work. 7. A great deal ____ since I last spoke to you. 8. We ____ £
200 on food this month already. 9. Since he ____ the girl from the
frozen pond, he has been on TV and in the newspapers almost
every day.

286
Ex15. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Present
Perfect with
for or since:
Model: a) It’s years since Sara last spoke Spanish. Sara
hasn’t
spoken Spanish for years:
b) I last was abroad in 2008. I haven’t been abroad since
2008.
1. My father last smoked two years ago. 2. It’s a year since I
had my last holiday. 3. The company last paid the employees three
months ago. 4. It’s a year since he last spoke to me about his
plans. 5. We were last living under one roof a long time ago. 6. I
last mentioned it to him when we met a month ago. 7. When I last
met him he was 24 years old. 8. I last read the book such a long
time ago that I’ve forgotten what it’s about. 9. My uncle last visited
us it seems ages ago. 10. We last met when he came to borrow
some money from me. 11. It’s a month since he was in touch with
me.

Ex.16. Complete the sentences with the correct word or phrase:

1. I have stayed at this hotel (since Sunday/from May/ a
long time ago). 2. My father goes to work (daily/for 20 years/since
he left school). 3. Have you told the manager (yet/already/in the
morning)? 4. We (never had/have never had/never have had) a
radio when I was a child. 5. She’s had something to eat
(already/yet/at home). 6. I’ve bought it (for you/at the shop/an hour
ago). 7. The airline hasn’t cancelled the flight (yet/already/last
time). 8. (Why/When/Where) have you studied English? 9. He
waited for two hours (yesterday/now/since 10.30). 10. We’ve never
been (to Africa/in Africa).

Ex.17. Using the words in brackets complete the text below with
the Past
Indefinite or the Present Perfect:

287
 1. “Do you like the movie Star Wars?” “I don’t know. I never
(to see) that movie.” 2. Sam (to arrive) in San Diego a week ago.
3. My best friend and I (to know) each other for over fifteen years.
We still get together once a week. 4. Stinson is a fantastic writer.
He (to write) ten very creative short stories last year. One day, he’ll
be as famous as Hemingway. 5. I (not to have) this much fun since
I (to be) a kid. 6. Things (to change) a great deal at Coltech, Inc.
When we first (to start) working here three years ago, the company
(to have) only six employees. Since then, we (to expand) to
include more than 2000 full-time workers. 7. I (to tell) him to stay
on the path while he was hiking, but he (to wander) off into the
forest and (to be) bitten by a snake. 8. Listen Donna, I don’t care if
you (to miss) the bus this morning. You (to be) late to work too
many times. You are fired! 9. Sam is from Colorado, which is
hundreds of miles from the coast, so he never (to see) the ocean.
He should come with us to Miami. 10. How sad! George (to dream)
of going to California before he died, but he didn’t make it. He
never (to see) the ocean. 11. In the last hundred years, travelling
(to become) much easier and very comfortable. In the 19th
century, it (to take) two or three months to cross North America by
covered wagon. The trip (to be) very rough and often dangerous.
Things (to change) a great deal in the last hundred and fifty years.
Now you can fly from New York to Los Angeles in a matter of
hours. 12. Jonny, I can’t believe how much you (to change) since
the last time I (to see) you. You (to grow) at least a foot! 13. I never
(to visit) Africa, but I (to travel) to South America several times.
The last time I (to go) to South America, I (to visit) Brazil and Peru.
I (to spend) two weeks in the Amazon, (to hike) for a week near
Machu Picchu, and (to fly) over the Nazca Lines.

Ex.18. Complete each paragraph with one set of verbs, using the
Present
Perfect or the Past Indefinite:
have/not come/tell, become/have/hear, know/meet/start

288
 A. I ___ Laura Palmer since we both ___ work on the same
day at Thames College about five years ago. She is one of the
smartest people I ever ___.
B. You ___ the good news yet? Jenny and Michael just ___
parents! Jenny ___ a baby girl last night.
C. The plumber ___ me this morning, ‘I’ll be back to finish
the work as soon as I ___ some lunch.’ But now it’s past three
o’clock and he still ___ back.

Ex.19. Complete the text with the correct forms of the following
verbs:
to be (x3), to explain, to go, not to eat (x2), not to lock (x2),
to hear, to cook, to suggest, to reach
One of the four-year-olds in the reading group suddenly
said, “This is the silliest story I ever ____!” I ____ in the middle of
reading ‘Goldilocks and the Three Bears’ to the group. We just
____ the part in the story where Goldilocks goes into the bears’
house and eats some of the food from bowls on the table. “Where
____ the bears?” he asked. “Maybe outside or playing in the
woods,” I ____. “And their house was wide open? They even ____
the door before going out?” “Well, in the old days, people ____
their doors.” “And their food was on the table, but they ____ it
before they ____ outside?” “Maybe they ____ it because it ____
too hot.” “If you ____ that meal, you wouldn’t have gone out and
left it, would you?” “Probably not, but it’s just a story,” I ____ rather
weakly.

Ex.20. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.àñï»±Õ »ë ¹ñ»É ³Ûëûñí³ Éñ³·ÇñÁ: ºë ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ ¿Ç
³ÛÝ Ï³ñ¹³É, µ³Ûó áã ÙÇ ï»Õ ã·ï³: –ºë ³ÛÝ ¹ñ»É »Ù ùá
¹³ñ³ÏáõÙ: 2.ø³ÝDZ áõÕÕ³·ñ³Ï³Ý ëË³É »ë ³ñ»É ùá
ûɳ¹ñáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç: – γñÍáõÙ »Ù, ³Ûë ³Ý·³Ù áã ÙÇ ëË³É ã»Ù
³ñ»É: 3.ƱÝã ·ñù»ñ ϳñ¹³óÇñ ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹Ç ųٳݳÏ, »ñµ
·ÛáõÕáõÙ ¿Çñ: 4.ÆÝãáõ±»ë µ³é³ñ³ÝÝ»ñÁ ëË³É ï»ÕáõÙ ¹ñ»É: – ºë

289
¹ñ³Ýù ¹ñ»É »Ù ·ñ³¹³ñ³ÏÇ íñ³, áñ Ñ»ßïáõÃÛ³Ùµ û·ïí»ë:
5.²Ûëûñ ÂáÙÇÝ ï»ë»±É »ë: – ²Ûá, ѳٳÉë³ñ³ÝáõÙ ï»ë³: ØÇ
³Ýѳݷëï³óÇñ: ܳ ³ñ¹»Ý í»ñóñ»É ¿ ³ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ·ñù»ñÁ
·ñ³¹³ñ³ÝÇó ¨ ßáõïáí ³Ûëï»Õ ÏÉÇÝÇ: 6.ºë ¹»é ã»Ù í׳ñ»É
µÝ³Ï³ñ³ÝÇë í³ñÓÁ ¨ ½³ñÙ³ÝáõÙ »Ù, áñ ï³ÝïÇñáõÑÇÝ ãÇ
½³Ý·³Ñ³ñ»É ÇÝÓ ¨ ÑÇß»óñ»É ³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ: 7.гÙá½í³Í »Ù, áñ
ÇÝã áñ Ù»ÏÝ û·ï³·áñÍ»É ¿ Ñáí³Ýáóë: ²ÛÝ ³ÙµáÕçáíÇÝ Ã³ó ¿:
8.²ÉµáÙë ÉÇùÝ ¿ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó Éáõë³ÝϳñÝ»ñáí, áñáÝó
³ÝáõÝÝ»ñÁ »ë µáÉáñáíÇÝ Ùáé³ó»É »Ù: 9.¸åñáó ·Ý³Éáõó Ç í»ñ
»Õµ³Ûñë ÉáõóÏáõ ïáõ÷»ñ ¿ ѳí³ùáõÙ: ܳ ÑÇÙ³ ³ÛÝù³Ý ß³ï ¿
ѳí³ù»É, áñ ã·ÇïÇ, û áõñ ¹ÝÇ ¹ñ³Ýù: 10.²ñ¹»Ý 30 ï³ñÇ ¿,
ÇÝã ѳÛñë ³ß˳ïáõÙ ¿ ³Ûë ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛáõÝáõÙ ¨ áã ÙÇ ³Ý·³Ù ãÇ
áõß³ó»É ³ß˳ï³ÝùÇó: 11.ÐÛáõñ³ÝáóÇ ïÝûñ»ÝÁ Ñ»Ýó Ýáñ
½·áõß³óñ»ó ïճݻñÇÝ, áñ »Ã» Ýñ³Ýù ß³ñáõÝ³Ï»Ý »ñ»ÏáÝ»ñÝ
³ÕÙÏ»É, ëïÇåí³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý Ñ»é³Ý³É: 12.²Ûë ÷áùñ
û¹³Ý³í³Ï³Û³ÝÝ ³ñ¹»Ý 10 ï³ñÇ ¿, ÇÝã ãÇ û·ï³·áñÍíáõÙ,
³ÛÝ ûñí³ÝÇó »ñµ ϳéáõóí»ó Ýáñ û¹³Ý³í³Ï³Û³Ý:

The Past Perfect Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Past Perfect:

1. The secretary had already looked through all the papers
before the boss came. 2. After he had finished the picture he
invited his friends to look at it. 3. By the time I came to the country
cottage most of my friends had already left. 4. The clock had no
sooner struck six than the first guests appeared. 5. The old man
had been ill for weeks when the doctor arrived. 6. More than a year
had passed since I first met him. 7. By the end of the year Ann had
learnt to speak German. 8. When he had told his wife the whole
truth he felt better. 9. He had scarcely entered the room when
there was a loud knock on the door. 10. It was not until they both
had signed the paper than he managed to smile.

Ex.2. Complete the questions in the Past Perfect:

290
 1. (what/Bob/do) that he was kept in after school? 2.
(you/eat) anything before you went to the theatre? 3. (he/live) in
London before he moved to Glasgow? 4. (she/find) a new job by
that time? 5. (they/book) a room before they went to Dublin? 6.
(how often/you/ring) the bell before he answered the door? 7.
(why/they/have) dinner before they came to the party? 8.
(Carla/wash) the dishes when her mum came home? 9. (you/read)
the contract before you signed it? 10. (who/live) in the house
before we moved in?

Ex.3. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Perfect:

When I visited him that evening, he was asleep. The ravages
of the pain he (to endure) during the past week (to deepen and
darken) the lines round his eyes and (to tinge) all his skin with
grey, and he looked defenceless in a way he never did when
awake.
He (not to be) a kind father. I (to spend) most of my
childhood fearing him and most of my teens loathing him, and only
in the past very few years I (to come) to understand him. The
severity with which he (to use) me after all (not to be) rejection and
dislike, but lack of imagination and an inability to love. He (not to
believe) in beating, but he (to hand out) lavishly other punishments
of deprivation and solitude. Being locked in one’s bedroom for
three or four days at a time might not have come under the
heading of cruelty, but it (to dump) me into agonies of humiliation
and shame; and it (not to be) possible, although I (to try), to avoid
committing anything my father could interpret as a fault.
He (to send) me to Eton, which in its way (to prove) just as
callous, and on my sixteenth birthday I (to run) away.
I knew that he never (to forgive) me. An aunt (to relay) to me
his furious comment that he (to provide) me with horses to ride and
(to teach) me obedience, and what more could any father do for
his son?

291
 He (to make) no effort to get me back, and during all the
years of my commercial success we (not to speak) once to each
other. In the end, after fourteen years’ absence, I (to go) to Ascot
races knowing that he would be there and wanting finally to make
peace. (From Bonecrack by D. Francis)

Ex.4. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Perfect or the Past
Indefinite:
1. By the time we (to get) to the cinema the film (to start), so
we missed the first five minutes. 2. When I (to ring) the bell there
was no answer. The neighbour told me that they (to go out) about
half an hour before. 3. I (to see) Casablanca for the first time last
night. I (not to see) it before. 4. I (to spend) a week in Miami
recently. I (not to be) there before. 5. There was so much to see in
Toledo. I (to plan) to see everything but there wasn’t enough time.
6. When I (to get back), nobody (to do) the washing up. I was
furious. 7. She told me she (to buy) a new car. 8. When he (to
arrive), Eve wasn’t there. She (to leave) about five minutes before.
9. When we (to arrive) in Spain, they (to lose) our luggage. We
only had to wait two days to get it back though, and they (to
deliver) it to the house.

Ex.5. Put the verbs in the correct tense (the Past Indefinite or the
Past
Perfect):
1. When he (to wake up), his mother already (to prepare)
breakfast. 2. We (to go) to London because our friends (to invite)
us. 3. He (to hear) the news, (to go) to the telephone and (to call) a
friend. 4. When she (to start) learning English she already (to
learn) French. 5. Jane already (to type) three pages when her
computer (to crash). 6. It (to be) cloudy for days before (to begin)
to rain. 7. Before that day we never (to think) of traveling to Japan.
8. I (to know) him a long time before I (to meet) his family. 9. They
(not to know) where to meet because nobody (to tell) them.

292
Ex.6. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Past
Perfect:
I couldn’t believe I (to get) that apartment. I (to submit) my
application the week before, but I (not to think) I had a chance of
actually getting it. When I (to show up) to take a look around, there
were at least twenty other people who (to arrive) before me. Most
of them already (to fill) out their applications and were already
leaving. The landlord (to say) I could still apply, so I did.
I ((to try) to fill out the form, but I couldn’t answer half of the
questions. They (to want) me to include references, but I (not to
want) to list my previous landlord because I (to have) some
problems with him in the past and I (to know) he wouldn’t
recommend me. I (to end up) listing my father as a reference.
It was total luck that he (to decide) to give me the apartment.
It (to turn out) that the landlord and my father (to go) to high school
together. He decided that I could have the apartment before he (to
look) at my credit report. I really lucked out!

Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite or the Past
Perfect:
1. By the time the train (to reach) the city, he (to make)
friends with many passengers. 2. He (to open) his eyes, (to look)
around and (to try) to remember what (to happen) to him. 3. The
boy (not to know) who (to attack) him in the darkness. 4. The door
suddenly (to open) and an old friend of mine whom I (not to see)
for a very long time (to enter) the room. 5. He (to want) to visit the
place where he (to live) in his childhood. 6. When she (to speak) I
(to understand) that she (not to read) my message. 7. My favorite
TV program (to begin) before I (to come) home. 8. The telegram
(to come) some minutes after he (to leave). 9. The tourists (to
return) to the hotel only late at night as they (to lose) their way in
the fog. 10. The stranger (to speak) a language we never (to hear)
before. 11. No sooner she (to open) the drawer than she (to find)

293
the photo which she (to think) she (to lose) long before. 12. Hardly
he (to touch) the pillow when he (to fall asleep). 13. She (to read)
in his eyes what he (to want) to say before he (to say) it. 14. I (to
refuse) to give a definite answer before I (to receive) a message
from him. 15. We (to complete) all the preparations for the fancy
dress ball by 4 o’clock. 16. I (to turn) the computer off, but forgot
that I (not to save) my work. 17. I only remembered I (not to pay)
the bill when my Internet connection (to stop). 18. When I
(received) the e-mail, I couldn’t understand who (to send) it.

Ex.8. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Indefinite, the Present
Perfect
or the Past Perfect:
1. When I (to arrive) home last night, I discovered that Jane
(to prepare) a beautiful candlelight dinner. 2. Since I began acting,
I (to perform) in two plays, a television commercial and a TV
drama. However, I never even (to speak) publicly before I came to
Hollywood in 1985. 3. By the time I got to the office, the meeting
already (to begin) without me. My boss (to be) furious with me and
I (to be) fired. 4. When I (to turn) the radio on yesterday, I (to hear)
a song that was popular when I was in high school. I (not to hear)
the song in years, and it (to bring) back some great memories. 5.
Last week, I (to run) into an ex-girlfriend of mine. We (not to see)
each other in years, and both of us (to change) a great deal. I (to
enjoy) talking to her so much that I (to ask) her out on a date. We
are getting together tonight for dinner. 6. When Jack (to enter) the
room, I (not to recognize) him because he (to lose) so much weight
and (to grow) a beard. He looked totally different! 7. The Maya
established a very advanced civilization in the jungles of the
Yucatan; however, their culture virtually (to disappear) by the time
Europeans first (to arrive) in the New World. 8. I (to visit) so many
beautiful places since I (to come) to Utah. Before moving here, I
never (to hear) of Bryce Canyon, Zion, Arches, or Canyonlands.

294
Ex.9. Put the verb in brackets in the Past Indefinite, Past
Continuous or
Past Perfect:
1. He (not to tell) me that he (to receive) a telegram from her.
2. She (to say) that they (to give) her the wrong address. 3. When
Jane (to wake) up, it (to be) already nine o’clock. She (to call) her
sister. Nobody (to answer). She already (to leave). 4. He (to learn)
French before he (to go) Paris. 5. When the children (to have)
dinner, they (to go) for a walk. 6. Columbus (to discover) America
500 years ago. He (not to know) that he (to discover) America. 7.
He (to discuss) the problem with a lot of people before he (to take)
a decision. 8. At this time yesterday we (to watch) our favorite
program on TV. 9. It (to be) rather late when I (to return) to the
hotel. When I (to come) up to my room, I (to see) Nelly who (to
stand) at the door of the room. She (to wait) for me as she (to lose)
her key and could not get in. 10. When I (to meet) Tom, he (to eat)
an ice-cream which he (to buy) at the corner of the street.

Ex.10. Circle the right option:

1. Alice felt very pleased with herself. She had found/found
what she was looking for. 2. “Where are the participants?” had
asked/asked Mr Blake. 3. By the time I got back to the bathroom,
the bath had overflowed/overflowed. 4. She walked into the station
only to find that the train had left/left. 5. I was just about to leave
when I had remembered/remembered my briefcase. 6. My
secretary told me that Dr Joel had arrived/arrived the previous
night. 7. He had looked/looked at his watch again and began to
walk even faster. 8. In a surprise move, the Prime Minister had
resigned/resigned last night. 9. I had hardly arrived/hardly arrived
home when the telephone rang. 10. As soon as I heard the
shocking news I left/had left the house hurriedly. 11. The students
completed/had completed all the preparations for the party by 2
p.m. 12. By the time Father came we arranged/had arranged
everything for the trip.

295
Ex.11. Join the following pairs of sentences using the conjunctions
given
in brackets:
Model: The train left. Then they arrived at the station (after).
They arrived at the station after the train had left.
1. I told her who I was. Then she opened the door (after). 2.
She looked at him. He disappeared in the darkness (until). 3. We
made a camp on the bank of the river. Then the sun set (before).
4. I revised some rules. Then I started doing my exercises
(before). 5. I didn’t understand him. He repeated his words twice
(until). 6. Nelly wanted to buy that dictionary for a long time. Then
she bought it (which). 7. My grandfather planted the bushes. Then
he cleaned the gardening tools (after). 8. My little brother wrote
two exercises. Then he ran out to play with his friends (as soon
as). 9. They reached the mountain top. The sun set (as soon as).
10. The Browns left their house. They sold it (when). 11. I got the
tickets for the best ballet. My friend wanted to know how (how). 12.
The students made a lot of mistakes in the test. The teacher
wanted to know why (why). 13. Alice got many presents on her
birthday. She showed me her presents (which). 14. She took some
pictures in Madrid. She showed us the pictures (which). 15. We
didn’t see our friends for a long time. At the theatre we met our
friends (whom). 16. I particularly wanted to visit Paris. I never went
there before (because). 17. She was offended. She was treated
very badly (as).

Ex.12. Supply the beginnings for the following sentences. Use the
con-
junctions hardly … when, scarcely ... when, no sooner …
than:
1.____some strange noise began. 2. ____ the light went
off. 3. ____ the batteries ran out. 4. ____ the door bell rang. 5.
____he split some coffee on the carpet. 6. ____ the door-handle

296
came off. 7. ____it grew dark. 8. ____ the first guests appeared. 9.
____ she began packing hurriedly. 10. ____ the car broke down.
11. ____ there was a knock at the door. 12. ____ he came back.
13. ____ he started to laugh. 14. ____ the tourists started their
journey. 15. ____ the audience applauded. 16. ____ the pipe
started leaking.

Ex.13. Complete the following sentences:

1. By the end of that year ______. 2. She was tired
because she ______. 3. I managed to grasp the main idea of the
article only after I ______. 4. When I met him I understood that
______. 5. He didn’t return to his work until ______. 6. Alan went
downstairs to tell the news to his wife after ______. 7. She called
her family to the dining-room as soon as ______. 8. Tom felt much
better after ______.9. We didn’t meet Lucy because ______. 10.
When we got to the University______.

Ex.14. Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate past-tense

form:
I first (to meet) her when I was late to school on my first day
in the second year of high school. The previous year we (to have)
Mr. Grant and he (not to be) particular about punctuality.
Therefore, when I (to notice) that I (to be) late to class that day, I
(not to hesitate) to knock on the door of the classroom. When I (to
open) the door and (to walk) in I (to see), instead of the
disinterested eyes of Mr. Grant, a pair of steel blue eyes looking at
me as if asking me what right I (to have) to interrupt her class like
that. I (to stammer), “I am sorry, I am late and...” She, still gazing
at me, (to say), “And you are..?”

Ex.15. Use the following pairs of verbs to complete the sentences.

Choose
the Past Perfect where possible; otherwise, use the Past
Indefinite:

297
turn/caught, come/start, eat/pick, check/go, type/give,
collapse/phone
1. After Michael ____ the document, he ____ it to Kay to sign. 2.
When she ____ into the hall, everyone ____ cheering. 3. When
Jenny ____ that the children were asleep, she ____ out to the
concert. 4. A soon as I ____ the ignition key, the engine ____ fire.
5. When Norma ____, I ____ for an ambulance. 6. After they ____
all the food, they ____ up their bags and left.

Ex.16. Use the verbs in brackets in the appropriate past-tense

form:
1. When we (to come) to the station the train already (to
arrive). The passengers (to hurry) to occupy their seats in the
carriage. 2. The concert (to be) a greater success than we (to
expect). 3. They (to tell) me that if no one (to come) to meet me at
the station, I could leave the suitcases in the cloakroom and go to
the hotel where they (to reserve) a room for me. 4. On leaving the
hall the students (to thank) the professor who (to deliver) the
lecture. 5. After we (to walk) about two hours, we arrived at a
picturesque valley covered with fresh grass. 6. We were happy
when the sun (to rise), for the night (to be) very cold. 7. Yesterday I
(to buy) a new pair of gloves, as I (to lose) the old ones. 8. I yet
(not to fall) asleep when the telephone (to ring). 9. The message
(to arrive) five minutes after he (to leave) the house. 10. Hardly I
(to go) out when I (to remember) that I (to forget) to take my
umbrella. 11. By the end of January the students (to take) all the
examinations. 12. When Mrs. Brown (to come) home yesterday,
she (to see) that her daughter (to cook) supper and (to wait) for
her. 13. He (to smoke) three cigarettes and (to look) through all the
books on the shelf, when at last he (to hear) his friend’s steps
approaching the door. 14. The sun (to set) a long time ago, and it
(to begin) to get really cold. 15. When he (to read) the newspaper,
he (to give) it to his brother. 16. They (to leave) for Moscow in
2005 and since then they (to live) there.

298
Ex.17. Translate the following sentences into English:
1.ܳ ·ñ»Ã» ã¿ñ ÷áËí»É ³ÛÝ Å³Ù³Ý³Ïí³ÝÇó, »ñµ »ë
ï»ë»É ¿Ç Ýñ³Ý í»ñçÇÝ ³Ý·³Ù: ´³Ûó ÑÇÙ³ Ýñ³ ¹»ÙùÇÝ ÙÇ Ýáñ,
¹³Å³Ý ³ñï³Ñ³ÛïáõÃÛáõÝ Ï³ñ, áñ ³é³ç ã¿ñ »Õ»É: 2.ºë
ã·Çï»Ç, û ݳ áõñ ¿ñ ·Ý³ó»É: ºë ÝáõÛÝÇëÏ ã·Çï»Ç, û ݳ ÇÝãáõ
¿ñ Ñ»é³ó»É ï³ÝÇó: 3.ºñµ ²ÝÝ³Ý ë»ÝÛ³Ï Ùï³í, ï»ë³í, áñ Çñ
µáÉáñ Çñ»ñÝ ³ÛÝï»Õ ¿ÇÝ, áñï»Õ ݳ ¹ñ³Ýù ÃáÕ»É ¿ñ: 4.ºë
ѳ½Çí ÙÇ »ñÏáõ Ù»ïñ ¿Ç Ñ»é³ó»É ï³ÝÇó, »ñµ ëïÇåí³Í »Õ³
í»ñ³¹³éݳÉ, ù³ÝÇ áñ Ùáé³ó»É ¿Ç í»ñóÝ»É µçç³ÛÇÝ Ñ»é³Ëáëë:
5.ºñµ »ñ»ÏáõÛÃÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ³í³ñïí»É ¿ñ, ¨ ÑÛáõñ»ñÁ Ñ»é³ó»É ¿ÇÝ,
Ñá·Ý³Í ï³Ýï»ñ»ñÁ ëÏë»óÇÝ Ï³ñ·Ç µ»ñ»É ÑÛáõñ³ë»ÝÛ³ÏÁ:
6.Ðáñ¹³é³ï ³ÝÓñ¨ ¿ñ ·³ÉÇë, ¨ »ë ãÝϳï»óÇ ³íïáµáõëÇ
ѳٳñÁ: ºñµ ³Ýó»É ¿Ç ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ Ï³Ý·³é, Ýáñ ÙdzÛÝ Ñ³ëϳó³,
áñ ëË³É áõÕÕáõÃÛ³Ùµ ¿Ç ·ÝáõÙ: 7.ºñµ ÁݹÙÇçáõÙÇó Ñ»ïá
·ñ³ë»ÝÛ³Ï »Ï³Ýù, ϳé³í³ñÇãÝ ³ñ¹»Ý í»ñ³¹³ñÓ»É ¿ñ ¨
½ñáõóáõÙ ¿ñ ÙÇ ³Ûó»ÉáõÇ Ñ»ï: 8.Þ³ï å³ïÙáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ ¿ñ ݳ
Éë»É ³Û¹ Í»ñáõÝáõ Ù³ëÇÝ, áñÁ ïáõÝ ¿ñ ϳéáõó»É ·ÛáõÕÇ Í³ÛñÇÝ ¨
³åñáõÙ ¿ñ ³ÛÝï»Õ ٻݳÏ: 9.ºë Éáõë³ÙáõïÇó ¹áõñë ݳۻóÇ ¨
ï»ë³, û ÇÝãå»ë ÙÇ ³Ýóáñ¹ ѳݹÇÙ³ÝáõÙ ¿ñ ѳñ¨³ÝÇë
»ñ»Ë³ÛÇÝ, áñÁ ·Ý¹³Ï ˳ճÉÇë Ïáïñ»É ¿ñ å³ïáõѳÝÇ
³å³ÏÇÝ: 10. 18 ï³ñÇ ¿ñ ³Ýó»É ³ÛÝ ûñí³ÝÇó, ÇÝã ݳ ³é³çÇÝ
³Ý·³Ù áïù ¹ñ»ó ³Û¹ ïáõÝÁ: 11.öáùñÇÏÁ ѳ½Çí ¿ñ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ
µ³é ³ë»É, »ñµ µáÉáñÁ åáéÃϳóÇÝ ÍÇͳÕÇó: 12.îÝûñ»ÝÁ Ù»½
ѳñóñ»ó, û ÇÝã ¹Åí³ñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ ¿ÇÝù áõÝ»ó»É ³ÛÝ ûñí³ÝÇó,
ÇÝã ³ß˳ïáõÙ ¿ÇÝù ³Û¹ ݳ˳·ÍÇ íñ³: 13.¸»é ã¿Ç ѳëóñ»É
Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ Ëݹñ»É, »ñµ ݳ Ååï³ó áõ ѳٵáõñ»ó ÇÝÓ:
14.æáÝÁ µ³½Ï³ÃáéÇÝ Ýëï³Í Ùï³ÍáõÙ ¿ñ: ܳ áõß ¿ñ
³ñÃݳó»É ³Û¹ ûñÁ ¨ ³Ýïñ³Ù³¹Çñ ¿ñ: êÇñ³Í ³ÕçÇÏÁ Ñ»é³ó»É
¿ñ Ýñ³ÝÇó ݳËáñ¹ ûñÁ:

The Future Perfect Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Future Perfect:

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 1. Thousands of people will have seen this exhibition by the
end of the month. 2. They will have built this hotel long before the
end of the year. 3. I hope it will have stopped snowing by tomorrow
morning. 4. How many pages will you have read by 6 o’clock
tomorrow? 5. She is leaving on Saturday, but I think she will have
made all her purchases by then. 6. Will you have finished the
washing up by the time the film begins? 7. He will have forgotten
about it by the end of the day.

Ex.2. Make the following sentences interrogative and negative:

1. By the end of the autumn they will have built a new
stadium in this district. 2. Tom will have painted the fence by 5
o’clock. 3. She will have cooked the dinner before I come home. 4.
The plane will have landed when we get to the airport. 5. If you
come at 4, I’ll have translated the article.

Ex.3. Put the verbs in brackets in the Future Perfect:

1. I (to send) the money to you without any delay by next
week. 2. By the end of his tour the professor (to give) exactly the
same lecture 22 times. 3. His father left him a lot of money, but he
lives so extravagantly that he (to spend) it all before he’s 30. 4. In
two months’ time he (to finish) his preliminary training and will be
starting work. 5. I hope they (to repair) this square by the time we
come back next summer. 6. By the end of next year he (to work)
for the company for 40 years. 7. We’ve got 6 days in London: we
are leaving on Sunday, but I am sure that we (to see) everything of
importance by then. 8. Eric and Mary (to be married) for five years
tomorrow. 9. What you (to do) by the time I come back? 10. These
houses are very old. They (to demolish) them by the time you
come to our city again. 11. By the time you get here, I (to finish)
watching the movie. 12. By the time he graduates, Tom (to take)
all the necessary classes. 13. By this time next year, Nancy (to
move) to a new apartment. 14. By this time tomorrow, we (to put)
all the furniture in the basement. 15. By the time my wife gets

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home, I (to prepare) supper. 16. By this time next week, we (to
buy) all the Christmas presents. 17. Next year he (to be) here for
exactly 3 years.

Ex.4. Complete the following sentences:

1. When my parents come home ______. 2. By the end of
the academic year ______. 3. Before the end of his holiday
______. 4. When this term is over ______. 5. When they get to the
airport _____. 6. Before the end of this year______. 7. By the end
of the week ______. 8. By the time he comes ______.

Ex.5. What do you think will have happened on Earth by 2050?

Use the
ideas given below, and think of your own ideas, too:
1. to find a cure against cancer. 2. to design a common
language. 3. to solve hunger problem. 4 to stop global heating. 5.
to learn to predict earthquakes. 6. to construct colonies on the
Moon/Mars. 7. to make the world a peaceful place. 8. to invent
artificial food. 9. to use all the fossil fuel on Earth. 10. to learn to
grow food on the sea-bed.

Ex.6. Fill in the blanks with the correct verbs in the Future Perfect:
1. I am writing a book. By this time next month, I ____ the
book. 2. Maria is preparing a report. By this time tomorrow, Maria
____ the report. 3. Martha is learning German. By this time next
year, Martha ____ German. 4. They are inviting all their friends. By
this time tomorrow, they ____ all their friends. 5. We are bringing
our stuff to our new apartment. By this time tomorrow, we ____ all
our stuff to our new apartment. 6. I am fixing my computer. By this
time next week, I ____ my computer. 7. My mother is making
dinner. By the time the guests arrive, my mother ____ dinner.8.
Peter is reading a magazine. By the time his flight lands, Peter
____ the magazine. 9. My sister and I are painting our apartment.
By this time tomorrow, my sister and I ____ our apartment. 10.

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John is cleaning the house. By the time his parents arrive, John
____ the house.

Ex.7. Complete the sentences with one of the given verbs using
the Future
Perfect: learn, graduate, repair, arrive, see, pack, read,
leave,
complete, write
1. When you call after me I ____. 2. By the time you get in
touch with them ____. 3. Before he telephones me ____. 4. By the
end of the month they ____. 5. By the next time I see you, I ____.
6. By the time we get to the airport, our plane ____. 7. By the end
of their vacation, they ____. 8. This book is too thick. I don’t think
____. 9. When you wake up in the morning, I ____. 10. Tomorrow
by 2 o’clock the students ____.

Ex.8. Give negative answers using the given verbs in the Future
Perfect:
decorate, complete, retire, finish, arrive, leave
Model: Will your sister still be studying at the University next
term?(graduate)
No, she won’t. She will have graduated by then.
1. Will you be in if I drop in at your place in the afternoon? 2. Will
the children be decorating the fir-tree when the guests arrive? 3.
Will you still be working on your thesis in summer? 4. Will your
grandfather still be working for this company in a few years? 5. Will
you be discussing this problem when I come back? 6. Will you still
be on board the ship on Saturday?

Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets in the Future Indefinite or the

Future
Perfect:
1. “Do you think everything will be finished when I get back
from the store?” “Don’t worry. By the time you get back, I (to pick)

302
up the living room and (to finish) washing the dishes. Everything
will be perfect when your parents arrive.” “I hope so. They (to
arrive) around 6 o’clock.” “Everything (to be) spotless by the time
they get here.” 2. “I just have two more courses before I graduate
from university. By this time next year, I (to graduate), and I will
already be looking for a job.” “Does that scare you? Are you
worried about the future?” “ Not really. I (to go) to a career
counselor and get some advice on how to find a good job.” “That’s
a good idea.” “I am also going to do an internship so that when I
leave school, I not only (to complete) over 13 business courses,
but I also (to work) in the real world.” 3. “Did you hear that
Christine (to take) a vacation in South America this winter?” “I can’t
believe how often she goes abroad. Where exactly does she want
to go?” “She (to visit) Peru, Bolivia and Ecuador.” “At this rate, she
(to visit) every country in the world by the time she’s 50.”

Ex.10. Complete the following sentences, using the Future Perfect

or the
Future Continuous:
1. At 9 on Monday ______. 2. By 13:30 on Monday
______. 3. At 6 on Tuesday ______. 4. By 10 on Tuesday ______.
5. By 20:30 on Wednesday ______. 6. At 10:30 on Friday ______.
7. At 16:00 on Thursday ______. 8. By 23:00 on Saturday. 9. At
8:15 on Wednesday ______.10. By 15:00 on Sunday______.

Ex.11. Complete the text using the Present Indefinite, the Present
Perfect
or the Future Perfect of the verbs in brackets:
We (to consume) small amounts of food daily. But when
you (to make) calculations, the amount a single person (to
consume) in his life time turns out to be amazing, even frightening.
Let’s give an example. I (to be) 30 years old now, and I (to
drink) a liter of water a day. That (to mean) I drink 365 liters a year.
So far, I (to drink) 10,950 liters, i.e. more than ten tons of water. By

303
the time I (to be) 60, I (to drink) 22 tons of water and by the time I
(to be) 90, this (to reach) 33 tons.
Another example is eggs. If you (to eat) 2 eggs a week, that
(to make) 104 eggs a year. Again I (to eat) about 3,120 eggs up to
now. By the time I (to reach) 60, I (to consume) 6,240 eggs. Great
consumers we are, aren’t we?

Ex.12. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.γñÍáõÙ »Ù` ³í³ñï³Í ÏÉÇݻ٠³ß˳ï³Ýùë ÙÇÝ㨠ùá
·³ÉÁ, ¨ Ñ»ïá Ù»Ýù ÙdzëÇÝ Ï·Ý³Ýù ½µáëÝ»Éáõ: 2.ì³ÕÁ Éñ³ÝáõÙ
¿ 10 ï³ñÇÝ ³ÛÝ ûñí³ÝÇó, ÇÝã Ø»ñÇÝ ³ß˳ïáõÙ ¿ ³Ûë
ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛáõÝáõÙ: 3.Üñ³Ýù ³í³ñï³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý ¹åñáóÇ
ßÇݳñ³ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ÙÇÝ㨠ë»åï»Ùµ»ñ, ³ÛÝå»ë 㿱: 4.ºë
ѳÙá½í³Í »Ù, áñ ¹áõ áãÇÝã ¿É ã»ë ѳëóÝÇ ³Ý»É ÙÇÝ㨠ÇÙ ·³ÉÁ:
5.Üñ³Ýù ³ñ¹»Ý ÁݹáõÝ»±É »Ý áñáßáõÙ ³é³çÇÝ Ñ³ñóÇ
í»ñ³µ»ñÛ³É: – àã, Ýñ³Ýù ¹»é ùÝݳñÏáõÙ »Ý ³ÛÝ: 6. ºë ã»Ù
ϳëϳÍáõÙ, áñ Ù»Ï ß³µ³Ã Ñ»ïá Ýñ³Ýù ³ñ¹»Ý Ùáé³ó³Í
ÏÉÇÝ»Ý ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã ¨ Ïѳßïí»Ý Çñ³ñ Ñ»ï: 7.¶ÇïݳϳÝÝ»ñÁ
µ³½áõÙ ·Çï³÷áñÓ»ñ Ïϳï³ñ»Ý ݳËù³Ý µ³í³ñ³ñ
³ñ¹ÛáõÝùÝ»ñ Ó»éù µ»ñ»Ý: 8.ØÇÝ㨠Ýáñ³åë³ÏÝ»ñÇ
í»ñ³¹³éݳÉÁ º·ÇåïáëÇó, ÍÝáÕÝ»ñÁ ϳѳíáñ³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý
Ýñ³Ýó µÝ³Ï³ñ³ÝÁ: 9.ܳ ѳÙá½í³Í ¿, áñ ÇÝùÁ ѳÕóѳñ³Í
ÏÉÇÝÇ ßÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ý¹»å Çñ í³ËÁ ݳËù³Ý ·ÛáõÕáõÙ µÝ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝ
ѳëï³ï»ÉÁ: 10.ì³ÕÝ ³Ûë ųÙÇÝ ½µáë³ßñçÇÏÝ»ñÝ ³ñ¹»Ý
Å³Ù³Ý³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý ºñ¨³Ý: 11.ºÏáÕ ï³ñÇ ³Ûë Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Ù»Ýù
Ýáñ Ù»ù»Ý³ ·Ý³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ýù: 12.ØÇÝ㨠³åñÇÉÇ í»ñç
áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ·ñ³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý Çñ»Ýó ¹ÇåÉáÙ³ÛÇÝ
³ß˳ï³ÝùÝ»ñÁ: 13. ºñµ Ù»Ýù ÏñÏÇÝ Ñ³Ý¹Çå»Ýù ³Ùé³ÝÁ, »ë
³ñ¹»Ý ³í³ñï³Í ÏÉÇݻ٠ѳٳÉë³ñ³ÝÁ: 14.È»éݳ·Ý³óÝ»ñÁ
ѳë³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý É»é³Ý ·³·³ÃÁ ÙÇÝ㨠ÙáõÃÝ ÁÝÏÝ»ÉÁ: 15.²Ûë
³Ùëí³ í»ñçÇÝ Ý³ Ù³ñ³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ Çñ µáÉáñ å³ñïù»ñÁ:

Ex.13. Put the verbs in brackets in the Future Indefinite in the Past
or the

304
 Future Perfect in the Past:
1. Your sister (to agree) to come to my party if I invited her?
2. We (to tell) you the truth if we hadn’t been afraid of your
reaction. 3. If our team hadn’t been so tired, they (to win) the
match. 4. You (to recognize) your first teacher if you saw her after
so many years? 5. The children (to find) this story interesting if you
had told them. 6. The children (to find) this story interesting if you
told them. 7. He (not to lose) the map if he wasn’t so absent-
minded. 8. Mom said she (not to let) us order a pizza, she (to
make) one herself. 9. If Alice were here she (to know) what to do.
10. If Alice had been here she (to know) what to do. 11. If we had
known you were so short of time, we (to begin) the discussion at
once. 12. If I had known I could submit the article on Friday, I (not
to stay) up all night working on it.

Ex.14. Translate the sentences, using the Future Perfect in the

Past:
1.ºë Ñáõëáí ¿Ç, áñ ÙÇÝ㨠ϻëûñ Ýñ³Ýù Å³Ù³Ý³Í ÏÉÇݻݣ
2.ºë ã·Çï»Ç, ³ñ¹Ûá±ù Ýñ³Ýù ÙÇÝ㨠ÏÇñ³ÏÇ ³í³ñï³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý
ݳ˳å³ïñ³ëï³Ï³Ý ³ß˳ï³ÝùÝ»ñÁ£ 3.èÇã³ñ¹Ý ³ë³ó,
áñ ÙÇÝ㨠³ß˳ï³Ýù³ÛÇÝ ûñí³ ³í³ñïÁ ù³ñïáõÕ³ñáõÑÇÝ
áõÕ³ñÏ³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ µáÉáñ Ññ³íÇñ³ïáÙë»ñÁ: 4. γñÍáõÙ ¿Ç, áñ
ݳ ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ å³ïÙ³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ ÙÇÝ㨠ٻñ ųٳݻÉÁ£ 5.ܳ
³ë³ó, áñ ÙÇÝ㨠³Ùëí³ í»ñç Ññ³ï³ñ³Ï³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ Çñ
å³ïÙí³ÍùÝ»ñÇ Ýáñ ÅáÕáí³ÍáõÝ£ 6. ºë í³Ë»ÝáõÙ ¿Ç, áñ ÙÇÝã¨
Ù»ñ û¹³Ý³í³Ï³Û³Ý ѳëÝ»ÉÁ ÑÛáõñ»ñÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ųٳݳÍ
ÏÉÇݻݣ 7.γé³í³ñÇãÝ ³ë³ó, áñ í³ÕÝ ³Ûë ųÙÇÝ ÉáݹáÝÛ³Ý
å³ïíÇñ³ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³ñ¹»Ý Å³Ù³Ý³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ Ù»ñ ù³Õ³ù£
8.îÝûñ»ÝÁ íëï³Ñ ¿ñ, áñ ÙÇÝ㨠߳µ³Ãí³ í»ñç Ù»ñ
ÁÝÏ»ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ ³í³ñï³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ µ³Ý³ÏóáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ£ 9. ºë
ϳñÍáõÙ ¿Ç, áñ ÙÇÝ㨠ûñí³ í»ñç Ù»Ýù ÏÝù³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ýù ³Û¹ ß³-
ѳí»ï å³Ûٳݳ·ÇñÁ£ 10. ´ñ³áõÝÝ»ñÁ ³ë³óÇÝ, áñ ÙÇÝã¨
³Ù³é í»ñ³Ýáñá·³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý Çñ»Ýó ÑÇÝ ïáõÝÁ£ 11.ºë Ñáõëáí ¿Ç,
áñ ³ÝÓñ¨Á ¹³¹³ñ³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ ÙÇÝ㨠ٻñ ïÝÇó ¹áõñë ·³ÉÁ£

305
 THE PERFECT CONTINUOUS FORMS

The Present Perfect Continuous Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Present Perfect Continuous:

1. The ground is wet because it has been raining. 2. He has
been playing chess since he was ten. 3. The students have been
writing their test since the lesson began. 4. You have been talking
without stopping for almost half an hour. 5. Who has been playing
with the remote control? It doesn’t work. 6. Our grandparents have
been staying with us for a fortnight. 7. You look tanned. Have you
been working in the garden a lot recently? 8. How long have you
been working for this firm? – For two years. 9. Since when have
you been sitting here? 10. Have you been waiting for me long?

Ex.2. Complete the following sentences using the Present Perfect

Continuous:
1. The child’s eyes are red and watery. He (to cry). 2.
Margaret speaks French very well, she (to learn) French since she
was seven. 3. My uncle has got a bad cough. He (to smoke) since
he was a teenager. 4. We know this place very well. We (to travel)
around a lot. 5. The girl has to go to the dentist. She (to eat) a lot
of sweets lately. 6. The boys are very tired. They (to play) football
for 2 hours. 7. He is impatiently looking at his watch. He (to wait)
for a long time. 8. She doesn’t remember her mother’s words, she
(to daydream). 9. My father’s hands are stained with paint. He (to
paint) the fence since morning. 10. My sister is pale and has no
appetite. She (not to feel) very well recently.

Ex.3. Ask questions to the underlined words:

1. Ronny has been driving for 4 hours without any rest. 2.
Someone has been looking through my things. 3. The secretary

306
has been answering the manager’s questions since morning. 4. I
have been playing with the child the whole day. 5. Arthur has been
packing his suitcase since breakfast. 6. Edward has been walking
his dog in the park for an hour.

Ex.4. Paraphrase the following sentences using the words in

brackets and
conjunction for or since:
1. Betty is travelling around Europe (June). 2. The children
are watching TV (two hours). 3. They are looking for a new house
(the last few months). 4. My grandfather is sitting on the bench and
reading (breakfast). 5. Linda is learning Japanese (two years). 6.
Harry is working hard (he entered the University). 7. Nelly is sitting
before the computer and writing to her friend in Manchester (she
came home). 8. Bill is working at this office (he left college).

Ex.5. Answer the following questions:

1. How long have you been writing your report? 2. How long
did it take you to write the introductory part? 3. Have you lost
something? When did you lose it? Have you looked for it
everywhere? How long have you been looking for it? 4. What are
they doing in the hall? Have they already completed all the
preparations for the party? When did they start the preparations?
Since when have they been decorating the hall? 5. What have you
done to improve your English? How long have you been practicing
in the language laboratory? 6. Have you found the article or are
you still looking through the journals? Have you been looking
through them long?

Ex.6. Put the verb in brackets in the Present Continuous or the

Present
Perfect Continuous:
1. Sorry but you (to stand) on my foot. 2. I (to train) for the
Olympic games at the moment. 3. How long you (to work) as a

307
teacher? 4. You (to go) to the cinema next Sunday? 5.
Unemployment (to rise) at an alarming rate. The government
should do something about it. 6. How long you (to teach) English?
7. I (to travel) widely since I was 12. 8. Why you (to look) at me like
that? 9. Don’t disturb me. I (to write). 10. ‘What’s her brother doing
now?’ ‘He (to work) in a hospital I think.’ 11. The weather is
terrible. It (to rain) for days. 12. It (to snow) since early this
morning. 13. He (to talk) for hours about nothing. 14. Why you (to
wear) that terrible hat? 15. I (to try) to phone her all day. 16. Max
(to date) her since he met her. 17. What you (to think) about? You
look very worried. 18. I’m very tired today. I (to work) all day. 19. I
don’t understand you. What you (to talk) about?

Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present Continuous or the

Present
Perfect Continuous:
Mr. Smith: So tell me a little bit about yourself, Mr. Harris. I would
like to find out a little bit more about your background.
Mr. Harris: I (to work) in the insurance industry for over ten years. I
worked for Met Life for six years and World Insurance for four and
a half. During that time, I heard many good things about Hollings
Life Insurance and that’s why I (to apply) for the new sales
position. In my spare time, I hike in the mountains outside the
town, volunteer at the Sierra Club and play tennis. In fact, I (to
compete) in a tennis tournament this weekend.
Mr. Smith: Really, how long you (to play) tennis?
Mr. Harris: I (to play) since high school. I love that sport.
Mr. Smith: Great! We like dedication here at Hollings Life. You
mentioned you volunteer at the Sierra Club. I (to work) currently
with them on the sea turtle project. We (to try) to create a wildlife
sanctuary near the bay.
Mr. Harris: Do you know Frank Harris? He’s my brother. He (to
work) presently on the same project.

308
Mr. Smith: I know Frank quite well. Any brother of Frank’s would
be a welcome addition to Hollings Life. Just one more thing, we (to
look) for somebody who is fluent in Spanish; many of our clients
are from Mexico.
Mr. Harris: No problem. I (to study) Spanish since elementary
school.
Mr. Smith: Sounds like you are the perfect candidate.

Ex.8. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Perfect or the

Present Perfect Continuous:
1. We can go home. We (to mend) three cars today. 2. We (to
mend) cars since 1 o’clock and we (not to finish). 3. Fortunately, I
(to find) my credit card. Here it is. 4. I (to look for) my keys since
we came home. Where are they?! 5. She (to make) puddings all
day. How many puddings she (to make)? 6. What you (to do)? You
are so dirty! 7. “Why are you crying?” “I (to watch) a film.” 8. Jeff
(to send) you a bouquet. Look! 9. I (to clean) windows since lunch
time. It’s so exhausting. 10. I can see that you (to clean) the
windows in the hall and in the kitchen. 11. You (to work) in the
garden so long. You should take a rest now. 12. How many years
he (to have) this car?

Ex.9. Complete the sentences using the verbs in brackets in the

appropriate tense (the Present Perfect or the Present Perfect
Continuous):
“I think the waiter (to forget) us. We (to wait) here for over
half an hour and nobody (to take) our order yet.” “I think you’re
right. He (to walk) by us at least twenty times. He probably thinks
we already (to order).” “Look at that couple over there, they only
(to be) here for five or ten minutes and they already have their
food.” “He must realize we (not to order) yet! We (to sit) here for
over half an hour staring at him.” “I don’t know if he even (to
notice) us. He (to run) from table to table taking orders and serving
food.” “That’s true, and he (not to look) in our direction once.”

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Ex.10. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Perfect or the
Present
Perfect Continuous:
1. “How long (to be) in Canada?” “I (to study) here for more
than three years.” 2. I (to have) the same car for more than ten
years. I’m thinking about buying a new one. 3. I (to love) chocolate
since I was a child. You might even call me a “chocoholic.” 4. Matt
and Sarah (to have) some difficulties in their relationship lately, so
they (to go) to a marriage counselor. I hope they work everything
out. 5. John (to work) for the government since he graduated from
Harvard University. Until recently, he (to enjoy) his work, but now
he is talking about retiring. 6. Lately, I (to think) about changing my
career because I (to become) dissatisfied with the conditions at my
company. 7. I (to see) Judy for more than five years and during
that time I (to see) many changes in her personality. 8. Carol (to
work) in the library for the last three hours. 9. She (to read) this
book for 2 days and (to read) 400 pages already. 10. My sister (to
do) her room since morning and she (not to finish) yet. 11. They (to
pull down) the old houses in this street for the last few years, but
they (not to touch) the one at the corner. 12. Don’t tell me any
more lies. I’m sick and tired of them. I (to listen) to you too long.
13. How long you (to learn) English? I (to learn) since I was eight,
but can’t avoid mistakes. 14. What you (to talk) about since I left?
15. I (to stand) here in the rain for ten minutes or so. Why are you
late? 16. She (to clean) the flat since morning and there is still very
much to do. 17. “You (to cry), Alice?” “No, I (to peel) onions.” 18.
He (to solve) this problem too long. It must be very difficult. 19.
The children (to look forward) to this holiday for months. 20. The
doorbell (to ring) for some time. Why don’t you open the door?

Ex.11. Rewrite each sentence using for or since and the verbs
below in

310
 the Present Perfect Continuous: go on, invest, run, serve,
suffer
Model: Henry moved to California three years ago.
Henry has been living in California for three years.
1. Local authorities began to invest heavily in new computer
systems at the beginning of the 1990s. 2. The project to send
astronauts to Mars began in 1991. 3. Campbell began a life
sentence for murder in 1992. 4. Colin James took over as head of
the company six months ago. 5. Graham’s knee was injured earlier
this year.

Ex.12. Complete the sentences with the following verbs, using the
same
for each sentence in the pair.Use the Present Perfect in
one
sentence and the Present Perfect Continuous in the other:
claim, disappear, give, move, stop
1. a) An important file ____ from my office. b) Plants and
vegetables ____ from my garden since we had new neighbours.
2. a) Dr Fletcher ____ the same lecture to students for the last ten
years. b) Mr. Goldman ____ nearly a million pounds to the charity
this year.
3. a) With their win yesterday, Italy ____ into second place in the
table. b) As house prices in the cities have risen, people ____ into
the countryside.
4. a) For years he ____ that he is related to the royal family. b) The
earthquake ____ over 5000 lives.
5. a) All day, the police ____ motorists to question them about the
accident. b) Good, the noise ____. I can concentrate on my work
again.

Ex.13. Choose the appropriate sentence ending:

1. I’ve swum… a) and I feel exhausted.
2. I’ve been swimming… b) thirty lengths of the pool.

311
 a) to visit them for ages, but I’ve
3. They have asked me…
never had the time.
4. They have been asking
b) to join the company on a number of
me…
occasions.
5. I have visited Vienna… a) three or four times before.
6. I’ve been visiting b) since 1990 and I’ve always felt very
Vienna… safe here.
a) at this hotel a couple of times
7. We’ve stayed…
before.
8. We’ve been staying…
b) at a small hotel near the sea.

Ex.14. Complete the sentences with an appropriate verb in the

Present
Perfect Continuous:
1. The situation continues to be serious, and troops _____
their lives to rescue people from the floods. 2. Mary hasn’t been at
work for a while. She _____ her husband get over a serious
illness. 3. I _____ very hard for this term. I hope I do well. 4.
Because the children are older, we _____ of moving to a bigger
house. 5. I _____ this suitcase around with me all day, and it’s
really heavy. 6. For several years now, Glasgow _____ citywide
festivals to celebrate the cultures of other countries. This year the
focus is on Sweden.

Ex.15. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Perfect, the

Present
Continuous or the Present Perfect Continuous:
1. It (to rain) all week. I hope it stops by Saturday because I
want to go to the beach. 2. “Where is Gary?” “He (to study) at the
library for his German test on Wednesday. In fact, he (to review)
for the test every day for the last week.” 3. You look really great!
You (to exercise) at the fitness center? 4. Frank, where have you
been? We (to wait) for you since 1 p.m. 5. “What is that sound?” “A
car alarm (to ring) somewhere down the street. It (to drive) me

312
crazy. I wish it would stop! It (to ring) for more than twenty
minutes.” 6. Joseph’s English really (to improve). He (to watch)
American television programs and (to study) his grammar every
day since he first arrived in San Diego. Soon he will be totally
fluent. 7. “You look a little tired. You (to get) enough sleep lately?”
“Yes, I (to sleep) relatively well. I just look tired because I (to feel)
a little sick for the last week.” “I hope you feel better soon.”
“Thanks. I (to take) currently some medicine, so I should feel better
in a couple of days.”

Ex.16. Put the verbs in brackets in one of the following tenses: the
Present Indefinite, the Present Continuous, the Present
Perfect,
and the Present Perfect Continuous:
1. I (to stay) with some American friends in Chicago. I (to
stay) with them for three weeks now. I (to have) a great time here.
I (to take) the opportunity to improve my English. I already (to see)
the towering skyscrapers of Chicago. I just (to take) a picture of
Chicago’s Sears Tower which (to rise) 1.707 feet and (to provide)
a panoramic view from the sky deck. 2. I (to wait) for an answer
from my cousin for a month already, but I (not to receive) it yet. 3.
“I (to go) to give that cat some food. I (to be) sure it (to starve).”
“But Jane already (to feed) the cat. You needn’t do it.” 4. She (to
speak) over the telephone long enough, it (to be) time for her to
stop talking. 5. Since you (to keep) late hours this week you (to
look) tired and worn out. 6. They (to discuss) these questions ever
since I (to be) here and they (not to come) to any definite
conclusion yet. 7. She (to work) at her English all the time and (to
make) great progress. Her pronunciation (to be) good, only a slight
accent (to remain). 8. The actors (to rehearse) since early
morning, now they (to go over) the first scene as they (not to be)
satisfied with their acting. 9. I (to try) to get into contact with them
for a long time, but now I (to give) it up as hopeless. 10. The pilot

313
(to ask) for permission to take off for a quarter of an hour already,
but he (to get) no answer yet.

Ex.17. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.²ñ¹»Ý »ñ»ù ï³ñÇ ¿, ÇÝã êÛáõ½³ÝÝ áõë³ÝáõÙ ¿
гñí³ñ¹Ç ѳٳÉë³ñ³ÝáõÙ: 2.²é³íáïÇó Ç í»ñ ݳ Ýëï³Í ¿
³Ûë Ýëï³ñ³ÝÇÝ ¨ ÍËáõÙ ¿: î»ëÝ»ë DZÝã ¿ å³ï³Ñ»É: 3.²ñ¹»Ý
ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ Å³Ù ¿, ÇÝã ´ÇÉÁ ÷áñÓáõÙ ¿ ϳñ·Ç ·ó»É ѳٳϳñ·ÇãÁ,
µ³Ûó ¹»é ãÇ Ï³ñáÕ³ÝáõÙ: 4.²Ûë ÁÝï³ÝÇùÁ ·³ñݳÝÇó ³åñáõÙ ¿
Ù»ñ óճٳëáõÙ: Üñ³Ýù ³ñ¹»Ý ѳëóñ»É »Ý íÇ×»É µáÉáñ
ѳñ¨³ÝÝ»ñÇ Ñ»ï: 4.ì»ñç³å»ë »Ï³ù: Ø»Ýù Ñ»Ýó Ýáñ Ó»ñ
Ù³ëÇÝ ¿ÇÝù ËáëáõÙ: 5.àõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÁ ùÝݳñÏáõÙ »Ý ³Û¹ ѳñóÁ
³ÛÝ å³ÑÇó, »ñµ ¹³ë³ËáëÁ ¹áõñë »Ï³í Éë³ñ³ÝÇó: 6.àñù³±Ý
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ¿, ÇÝã ¹áõù ÷ÝïñáõÙ »ù ³Û¹ ÃÕûñÁ: ØÇû± ã»ù
ÑÇßáõÙ, û áñï»Õ »ù ¹ñ³Ýù ¹ñ»É: 7.ºë Ýáñ µÝ³ÏÇã »Ù ³Ûë
óճٳëáõÙ: Àݹ³Ù»ÝÁ Ù»Ï ³ÙÇë ¿, ÇÝã ³åñáõÙ »Ù ³Ûëï»Õ:
8.ijÙÁ ÑÇÝ·Çó Ó»½ »Ù ½³Ý·³Ñ³ñáõÙ, µ³Ûó Ó»ñ ѳٳñÝ
³ÝÁÝ¹Ñ³ï ½µ³Õí³Í ¿: àõ±Ù Ñ»ï ¿Çù ³Û¹ù³Ý »ñϳñ ËáëáõÙ:
9.¸áõñë ³ñÇ áõ ÙÇ ùÇã Ù³ùáõñ û¹ ßÝãÇñ: ²ÙµáÕç ûñÁ ùá
ë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ Ýëï³Í ϳñ¹áõÙ »ë: 10.àñù³±Ý Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ¿, áñ
³ß˳ïáõÙ »ù ³Ûë ûٳÛÇ íñ³: ¸áõù ¹»é ã»±ù ³í³ñï»É ³ÛÝ:
11.Ø»ñ ¹³ë³ñ³Ý ·³Éáõ ûñí³ÝÇó ÂáÙÁ ÷áñÓáõÙ ¿
³Ý³ËáñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ ëï»ÕÍ»É: 12.ÐÇÝ· ñáå» ¿, ÇÝã ݳÛáõÙ »Ù
³Û¹ Éáõë³ÝϳñÇÝ, µ³Ûó ù»½ ã»Ù ϳñáÕ³ÝáõÙ ·ïÝ»É ³ÛÝï»Õ:

The Past Perfect Continuous Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Past Perfect Continuous:

1. It had been freezing for the last few days, but it had not
snowed. 2. Mark saw that Helen had been weeping, but he didn’t
say anything. 3. They had been driving for an hour before his
companion spoke. 4. He dropped out of the race after he had been
running for only ten minutes. 5. They had been living in that city for
about four years when their children came to live with them. 6.

314
When the test was over, the students looked really tired. They had
been writing for three hours. 7. When Mother came home she
understood that Jack and Mary had been quarreling. 8. The old
woman rose from the armchair in which she had been sitting and
came up to the window. 9. How long had you been waiting before
he came? 10. I thought that Larry had come to talk about the
problem which we had already been discussing for hours.

Ex.2. Put the verbs in brackets in the Past Perfect Continuous:

1. Arthur returned from Spain where he (to study) Spanish.
2. The boys were wet and muddy. They (to play) football in the
rain. 3. The doctor carefully examined the child who (to shiver) for
the last ten minutes. 4. My father’s birthday was the only thing
anybody (to talk) at home for the last two weeks. 5. The landlady
greeted us and walked back to where she (to sit) with her little son.
6. She (to sit) at the table only five minutes when a stranger
entered the cafe. 7. The manager said that the firm (to export)
cigarettes since 1985. 8. I didn’t know that he (to live) in Belfast for
such a long time. 9. He (to walk) about an hour when at last he
saw a little cottage near the river. 10. My grandfather (to work) at
that factory for only two years when the war broke out. 11. They
went to the theatre to see the play which (to run) for a week. 12.
Philip came home at last. He (to wander) about for a long time. 13.
When she came back we pretended that we (not to speak) about
her.

Ex.3. Use the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous of the
verbs in
brackets:
1. He said he (not write) to me because he (to work) on the
new book. 2. It was cold and dark in the room because it (to snow)
for two days. 3. Kate said she (not to see) her friends since she
graduated from the University. 4. I told him I (to be) in all evening. I
(to wait) to talk with him. 5. He said frankly that he (to think) about

315
the offer for a long time now but he (not to discuss) it with his wife
yet. 6. The noise in the garden woke Father who (to sleep) in his
study. 7. She was aware that they (to get) on each other’s nerves
lately. 8. I knew they (to know) each other since childhood and
now (to correspond) for years. 9. As far as I knew her name was
Linda. She (to be) a widow for sixteen years and had no children.
10. I didn’t remember much about the Jacksons, whom I (not to
see) for about twelve years. 11. Andrew died last week. He (to
suffer) from cancer for some time. 12. I (to see) the view many
times before, but it never failed to impress me. 13. The opposing
sides in the war (to fight) since the president was overthrown. 14. I
(to know) Megan since we were at school together. 15. For years
we (to talk) about buying new carpets, and last weekend we finally
went out and ordered some. 16. My car was once again in the
garage for repairs. This was the third time it (to break down) since I
got it.

Ex.4. Complete the text with the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect
Continuous forms of the verbs in brackets:
I’m sorry I left without you last night, but I told you to meet
me early because the show started at 8:00. I (to try) to get tickets
for that play for months, and I didn’t want to miss it. By the time I
finally left the coffee shop where we were supposed to meet, I (to
have) five cups of coffee and I (to wait) over an hour. I had to leave
because I (to arrange) to meet Kathy in front of the theater.
When I arrived at the theater, Kathy already (to pick) up the
tickets and she was waiting for us near the entrance. She was
really angry because she (to wait) for more than half an hour. She
said she almost (to give) up and (to go) into the theater without us.
Kathy told me you (to be) late several times in the past and
that she would not make plans with you again in the future. She
mentioned that she (to miss) several movies because of your late
arrivals. I think you owe her an apology. And in the future, I
suggest you be on time!

316
Ex.5. Complete the text with the following verbs in the Past Perfect
or the
Past Perfect Continuous: be, break, catch, have, live, make,
plan,
take, remove, worry, throw
The telephone call from the police was a shock, but not a
complete surprise. Molly _____ constantly about the old house
lying empty during the two months since her mother went into
hospital. She _____ to go round and check the empty place, but
she _____ extra busy at work recently. According to the police, a
homeless man _____ into the house. They _____ him one
morning as he was leaving the building with one of her mother’s
large paintings. When Molly walked into the house, it was obvious
that the man _____ there for quite a while. He _____ food from the
cupboards and _____ empty tins and packages all over the floor.
He ____ quite a mess. He also _____ several paintings from the
walls. Molly decided not to tell her mother because she already
_____ enough pain in recent weeks and really didn’t need any
more bad news.

Ex.6. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Perfect, the Present
Perfect
Continuous, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous:
1. It is already 9:30 p.m. and I (to wait) here for over an hour.
If John does not get here in the next five minutes, I am going to
leave. 2. I was really angry at John yesterday. By the time he
finally arrived, I (to wait) for over an hour. 3. Did you hear that Ben
was fired last month? He (to work) for that import company for
more than ten years and he (to work) in almost every department.
4. I (to see) many pictures of the pyramids before I went to Egypt.
5. Sarah (to climb) the Matterhorn, (to sail) around the world, and
(to go) on safari in Kenya. She is such an adventurous person. 6.
Sarah (to climb) the Matterhorn, (to sail) around the world and (to

317
go) on safari in Kenya by the time she turned twenty-five. She (to
experience) more by that age than most people do in their entire
lives. 7. When Melanie came into the office yesterday, her eyes
were red and watery. I think she (to cry).

Ex.7. Put the verb in brackets into the Past Indefinite, the Past
Continuous, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect Continuous:
1. She (to take) the package from me and (to sit) on the sofa
to open it. Her yes (to smile) now. She (to take) out the doll and (to
look) at me. 2. There (to be) only one sound to be heard in the
street, but no sooner Mr. Black (to hear) it than he (to quicken) his
pace at once. 3. For a moment after the door (to close) softly
behind their son, Mr. Smith and Mrs. Smith merely (to stand) and
(to look) at each other. 4. We (to sit) around silently for a moment
each trying to think of some possibility we (to overlook). 5. The
secretary (to take) the paper from the table where he (to put) it,
and (to go) out. 6. It (to be) near midnight when they (to come) in
from dinner, still laughing at something he (to say) in the dining-
room. 7. There (to be) a silence. Andrew (to sit) still for a moment.
The situation (to be) worse even than he (to imagine). 8. John (to
be) happier than he (to be) since he (to land) in New York three
and a half years ago. 9. Between Ann and himself there (to be)
little talk; they (to resume) the silence which (to fall) when they (to
sit) in the dark under the old oak.

Ex.8. Use the verbs in brackets in the Present Continuous, the

Past
Indefinite, the Present Perfect Continuous or the Past
Perfect
Continuous:
My English is really getting better. I (to try) to learn the
language since 1985, but only recently have I been able to make
some real progress. By the time I started high school in 1988, I (to
study) the language for almost three years; however, I was only

318
able to introduce myself and utter a few memorized sentences. For
a couple more years, I (to struggle) through grammar and
vocabulary lessons, which (to make) absolutely no difference.
Nothing (to work), so I decided to study abroad.
I (to find) an exchange program in England that sounded like
the perfect answer. I (to stay) with a host family for one month. It
was a huge disappointment! I (to sit) there the whole time staring
at the host mother and father hoping that there would be some
breakthrough. Nothing.
When I returned, I mentioned to a friend that I (to have)
problems with the language for years. He recommended that I
spend a year in an English speaking country. I decided to go
abroad again. I (to research) exchange programs for a couple of
weeks and finally decided on a school in the United States.
Well, it worked. I (to live) and (to study) in the U.S. for more
than two years. I (to stay) here for at least another year before I
return home. By then, I should be completely fluent.

Ex.9. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.ÈÇݹ³Ý ÙÇ ÏáÕÙ ¹ñ»ó ·ÇñùÁ, áñ ³ñ¹»Ý Ù»Ï Å³Ù
ϳñ¹áõÙ ¿ñ ¨ ³ñ³· ¹áõñë »Ï³í ë»ÝÛ³ÏÇó: 2.ºë ѳÙá½í³Í ¿Ç,
áñ Ýñ³Ýù ÇÙ Ù³ëÇÝ ¿ÇÝ ËáëáõÙ, áñáíÑ»ï¨ Ýñ³Ýù Áݹѳï»óÇÝ
Çñ»Ýó ½ñáõÛóÁ, Ñ»Ýó áñ »ë Ý»ñë Ùï³: 3.¸åñáóÇó
í»ñ³¹³éݳÉáõó Ç í»ñ ÈÇÉÇÝ Ë³ÕáõÙ ¿ñ ѳٳϳñ·ãáí ¨ ã¿ñ
ϳñáÕ³ÝáõÙ Ïïñí»É ¹ñ³ÝÇó: 4.²é³íáïÇó áõÅ»Õ ù³ÙÇ ¿ñ
÷ãáõÙ, ¨ Ù³ÛñÁ ÃáõÛÉ ãïí»ó »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÇÝ ¹áõñë ·³É:
5.гñ¨³ÝáõÑÇÝ ³ë³ó, áñ ïÕ³Ý Ýëï³Í ¿ñ å³ñ﻽áõÙ í³Õ
³é³íáïÇó Ç í»ñ: 6.¼µáë³ßñçÇÏÝ»ñÝ ³ÙµáÕçáíÇÝ Ãñçí»É ¿ÇÝ,
ù³ÝÇ áñ Ùáï Ï»ë ų٠ù³ÛÉ»É ¿ÇÝ ³ÝÓñ¨Ç ï³Ï: 7.ºñµ ïáõÝ
»Ï³, Ýϳï»óÇ, áñ Ù³Ûñë ã³÷³½³Ýó Ñá·Ý³Í ¿ñ, ù³ÝÇ áñ
³é³íáïí³ÝÇó ÑÛáõñ»ñ ¿ñ ÁݹáõÝ»É: 8.سñ½ÇÏÁ ųٻñ
ß³ñáõÝ³Ï í³½áõÙ ¿ñ, ÙÇÝ㨠áñ ѳë³í »½ñ³·ÍÇÝ: 9.îÝûñ»ÝÁ
üñ»¹ÇÝ ³½³ï»ó ³ß˳ï³ÝùÇó, ù³ÝÇ áñ ݳ í»ñç»ñë ϳñ·ÇÝ

319
ã¿ñ ³ß˳ïáõÙ: 10.àñáß Å³Ù³Ý³Ï »ë Ù»Ý³Ï Ýëï³Í ¿Ç
Ñ»éáõëï³óáõÛóÇ ³é³ç, ÙÇÝ㨠áñ »Õµ³Ûñë Ùdzó³í ÇÝÓ:

The Future Perfect Continuous Tense

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the Future Perfect Continuous:

1. I shall have been working for two hours by the time you
come back. 2. The engineers will have been trying to solve this
problem for a year by 2012. 3. By twelve o’clock the students will
have been writing an essay for a whole hour already. 4. Mary will
have been playing the piano for an hour by 12. When is she going
to stop? 5. I shall have been watching this film for an hour already
when you come.

Ex.2. Use the verbs in brackets in the Future Perfect Continuous:

1. The pupils already (to rehearse) for an hour when the
teachers come. 2. My father (to work) in this company for ten years
next August. 3. By next year he (to write) the novel for two years.
4. The thieves are sure that they (to drive) for 4 hours when the
police discover the robbery in the morning. 5. They (to negotiate)
for an hour when you come.

Ex.3. Put the verbs in brackets in the Present Indefinite or the

Future
Perfect Continuous:
1. My brother (to learn) English for four years already when
he (to enter) this college. 2. By March we (to live) in this town for
ten years. 3. When you (to enter) the University you (to study)
languages for more than eight years. 4. The painter (to work) on
this landscape for almost three months by Christmas. 5. They (to
travel) for almost six months by July, but they (not to want) to
return. 6. Dave and Nelly (to quarrel) for more than an hour when
their parents (to come). 7. The students (to read) up for their exam
for more than two hours already by the time we (to come) to the

320
library and (to join) them. 8. The boys (to ask) me silly questions
for half an hour by ten. Why they (not to stop)?

Ex.4. Use the verbs in brackets in the Future Perfect or the Future
Perfect Continuous:
1. By the time we get to Chicago this evening, we (to drive)
more than three hundred miles. We are going to be exhausted. 2.
When Sarah goes on vacation next month, she (to study) German
for over two years. She should be able to communicate fairly well
while she is in Austria. 3. I have not travelled much yet; however, I
(to visit) the Grand Canyon and San Francisco by the time I leave
the United States. 4. By the time you finish studying the verb tense
tutorial, you (to master) all twelve tenses including their passive
forms. 5. Drive faster! If you don’t hurry up, she (to have) the baby
by the time we get to the hospital. 6. I came to England six months
ago. I started my economics course three months ago. When I
return to Australia, I (to study) for nine months and I (to be) in
England for exactly one year. 7. Margie just called and said she
would be here at 8 o’clock. By the time she gets here, we (to wait)
for her for two hours. 8. Frank has just changed jobs again. If he
keeps this up, he (to change) jobs at least four or five times by the
end of the year. 9. Come over to my house around 9 o’clock. By
then, I (to complete) my history essay and we can go and see a
movie. 10. In June, my grandmother and grandfather (to be)
married for fifty years.

Ex.5. Use the verbs in brackets in the Future Perfect or the Future
Perfect Continuous:
1. “When are going to get your bachelor’s degree, Anne?” “I
am going to finish my degree next June. By the time I graduate, I
(to go) to four different colleges and universities, and I (to study)
for more than seven years. And I plan to continue on to get a
Ph.D.” “Really? How long is that going to take?” “By the time I
finally finish studying, I (to be) a student for over 13 years.” 2.

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“Sarah has been in the kitchen all day long. She (to cook) for over
seven hours by the time everyone arrives for dinner this afternoon.
Hopefully, she (to finish) everything by then.” “Maybe we should
help her out.” 3. “It’s 6:00, and I have been working on my essay
for over three hours.” “Do you think you (to finish) by 10:00?
There’s a party at Donna’s tonight.” “I probably (to complete) the
essay by 10:00, but I (to work) on it for more than seven hours,
and I don’t think I am going to feel like going to a party.”4. “By the
time they finish their trip across Yosemite National Park, they (to
hike) for more than six days. And they (not to be) in a bed or (to
have) a shower in almost a week!” “When we pick them up, they
(to eat) camping food for days, and I am sure they will be starving.”

Ex.6. Use the verbs in brackets in the Future Continuous or the

Future
Perfect Continuous:
1. “Margaret is really going to speak Spanish well when she
gets back from that language school in Mexico.” “Hopefully! She
(to take) classes for more than six months.” “She is going to be
able to speak Spanish with some of our Latin American clients.” “
Good. Two clients from Peru (to visit) us next month when
Margaret returns. We need someone to entertain them while they
are here.” 2. “What are you going to be doing tomorrow at five?” “I
(to paint) my living room walls.” “Still? How long have you been
working on your living room?” “Forever. By the time I finish, I (to
redecorate) the living room for over a week.” “Too bad. I was going
to ask if you wanted to see a movie. What about the day after
tomorrow?” “Sorry, I (to move) furniture and (to put) up drapes.”

Ex.7. Use the verbs in brackets in the Future Continuous, the

Future
Perfect or the Future Perfect Continuous:
1. When you return from your business trip we (to sign) a
new agreement. 2. His secretary is so slow that I’m sure in an hour

322
she still (to type) the documents. 3. Tomorrow morning Mr Cook
(to sail) across the English Channel. 4. This time tomorrow the
students (to have) their written examination. 5. I suppose that by
the end of the week Father (to repair) his car. Next week we (to
have) a rest at the seaside. 6. By the time we meet again I (to
graduate) from the University. 7. By next January we (to travel)
about Egypt for three months already. 8. Tomorrow morning the
Browns (to move) to a new flat in the suburbs of London. 9. By the
end of the term the students (to study) Spanish for 3 years. 10. By
the time the guests arrive we (to finish) preparations. 11. By the
end of the year Edward (to publish) his new novel. 12. By the end
of the school year the pupils (to learn) a lot of English words and
expressions. 13. By next September I (to work) at this office for 20
years.

Ex.8. Translate the sentences, using the Future Perfect

Continuous:
1.Þ³ï Ñá·Ý³Í ï»ëù áõÝ»ë: ØÇ ù³ÝÇ ñáå»Çó ÏÉñ³Ý³
»ñ»ù ųÙÁ, ÇÝã ¹áõ ³ß˳ïáõÙ »ë å³ñ﻽áõÙ: ØÇ ùÇã
ѳݷëï³óÇñ: 2.ºñµ ¹áõ ·³ë, Ù»Ýù ³ñ¹»Ý »ñÏáõ ųÙ
½í³ñ׳ݳÉÇë ÏÉÇÝ»Ýù: âÙáé³Ý³ë Ýáñ ëϳí³é³ÏÝ»ñ µ»ñ»É:
3.ØÇÝ㨠߳µ³Ãí³ í»ñç Ù»Ýù Ñ³×³Ë³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ýù ³Ûë
¹³ëÁÝóóÁ í»ó ³ÙÇë: гçáñ¹ ß³µ³Ãí³ÝÇó Ýáñ, ³í»ÉÇ
Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ ¹³ëÁÝóó »Ýù ëÏë»Éáõ: 4.ì³ÕÝ ³é³íáïí³ÝÇó
Ýáñ ݳ˳·ÇÍÝ »Ýù ùÝݳñÏ»Éáõ: ºñµ ¹áõ ·³ë, ³ñ¹»Ý ãáñë ųÙ
ùÝݳñÏ»ÉÇë ÏÉÇÝ»Ýù áõ ùÇã Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ÏáõݻݳÝù: ²ÛÝå»ë áñ
ËݹñáõÙ »Ù ùá ³é³ç³ñÏÝ»ñÁ ·ñ³íáñ Ó¨³Ï»ñåí³Í
Ý»ñϳ۳óÝ»ë: 5.²Ûë ³Ùëí³ í»ñçÇÝ ÏÉñ³Ý³ ï³ëÁ ï³ñÇÝ, ÇÝã
³ß˳ïáõÙ »Ù ³Ûë Ó»éݳñÏáõÃÛáõÝáõÙ: 6.ÌÝáÕÝ»ñë ÑÇÙ³
º·ÇåïáëáõÙ »Ý: ØÇ ù³ÝÇ ûñÇó ÏÉÇÝÇ Ù»Ï ³ÙÇë, ÇÝã Ýñ³Ýù
׳Ù÷áñ¹áõÙ »Ý: 7.²ÛëåÇëÇ ß³ï³Ëáë ³Õçϳ ÏÛ³ÝùáõÙë »ñµ»ù
ã»Ù ï»ë»É: Þáõïáí ÏÉñ³Ý³ Ù»Ï Å³ÙÁ, ÇÝã ݳ ³Ý¹³¹³ñ
ËáëáõÙ ¿:

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Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets in one of the Future in the Past
tenses:
1. If you spoke English, you (to try) to make them understand
you for already half an hour. 2. If they had gone for a walk, they (to
turn) the lights off. 3. If they had invited me, I (not to say) no. 4. If
you helped me, I (to pack) up since morning. 5. If I didn’t carry out
this task, nobody (to do) it. 6. If we had sneaked out quietly,
nobody (to notice). 7. If we had known about your problem, we (to
help) you. 8. We (to arrive) earlier if we had not missed the bus. 9.
If I didn’t have a mobile phone, my life (to be) difficult. 10. If she
had been another five minutes late I (to wait) for her for almost an
hour. 11. If I told you a secret, you (to be) sure to leak it. 12. She
(to go) out with you if you had only asked her. 13. I (not to read)
your diary if you had not hidden it in such an obvious place. 14. If
Jim didn’t like rock music, he (not to enjoy) the party so much now.

REVISION OF TENSES

Ex.1. Use the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tenses:

1. When he (to reach) James, whom he (to see) from half
way down the street, he (to give) a theatrical start of recognition. 2.
She (to look) at him with those pleasant eyes of hers, which (to be)
as sympathetic as they (to be) more than fifteen years before. 3.
He (to say) that he (to worry) about his position in the company for
the last few months. 4. While they (to dine), Henry (to tell) his
sister that he (to feel) very depressed recently. 5. They (to walk)
for less than an hour when the moon suddenly appeared between
the heavy clouds. 6. Tomorrow by the time Michael (to arrive) they
(to discuss) Mr Lincoln’s proposal for 3 hours already. 7. By the
end of the week the tourists (to visit) a great number of places of
interest. 8. It (to snow) steadily the whole week and it still (to
snow). If it (to go) on like this nobody will be able to reach the
camp. 9. He decided to read nothing but the dictionary until he (to

324
master) every word of it. 10. Margie asked if I would wait until the
doctor (to see) the patient. 11. He said we’d better leave this little
chat until I (to make) coffee.

Ex 2. Use the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tenses:

1. Jack told him not to come back until he (to talk) to her on
the telephone first. 2. “They (to make) up their quarrel?” “I (not to
know). I only (to know) that they (not to be) on speaking terms
since May.” 3. “You (to find) your notebook?” “No. I still (to look) for
it. I already (to look) for it for half an hour, but (not yet to find) it.” 4.
My sister already (to do) her homework for two hours, but she (not
to do) half of it yet. 5. I sat there for another 10 minutes, until my
eyes (to begin) to close and my head to nod with sleep. 6. When
he (to find) the photo, I took the album back to the shelf. 7. Tony
said he’d tell me all about it when he (to get) back. 8. Carol took
her manicure set and (to begin) to do her nails waiting till her
husband (to finish) reading. 9. Now that the film (to appear)
everybody can see what thorough work the producer and the
cameraman (to do).

Ex.3. Use the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tenses:

1. “You seem energetic!” “Really, I (to exercise) for some
time.” 2. “What you (to do) when the robbery took place?” “I (to
change) a light bulb that had burnt out.” 3. Mike (to use) the same
PC for more than three years. He is thinking of upgrading it. 4. If it
(to snow) tomorrow, we (to go) skiing near Vesuvius. 5. This is the
second pill I (to take) to make me sleep. 6. Sam started his
business in Spain three months ago. When he returns to London
next July, he (to spend) nine months there. 7. Mary (not to call) me
since she (to leave) the city. 8. Karen (to live) in Hong Kong for
more than two years. In fact, she (to live) there when the political
takeover occurred. 9. By the time the police (to arrive), the robbers
(to run) away. 10. The book says that the Maya tribes (to found) an
advanced civilization in the forests of the Yucatan; nevertheless,

325
their culture (to disappear) by the time Europeans first (to arrive) in
the New World. 11. Hey! Be quiet! The boss (to come). 12. Do not
forget that if you (to need) to contact me sometime next week, I (to
stay) at the Hilton.13. Listen Ed, I don’t care whether you (to miss)
the bus this morning. You (to be) late for meetings too many times.
This is my last warning. 14. We are fed up with storm and those
dark clouds! We expect, when we (to wake) up tomorrow morning,
the sun (to shine). 15. When Hal arrived at the cafe, I (to wait) for
him for half an hour. 16. When Ted (to arrive) home last night, he
discovered that Hilary (to prepare) a beautiful candle-lit dinner.

Ex.4. Complete the sentences with the appropriate tenses:

1. When Carol (to call) last night, I (to watch) my favorite
show on television. 2. I (to work) for this company for more than
thirty years, and I intend to stay here until I (to retire). 3. Sharon (to
love) to travel. She (to go) abroad almost every summer. Next
year, she (to plan) to go to Peru. 4. Thomas is an author. He (to
write) mystery novels and travel memoirs. He (to write) since he
was twenty-eight. Altogether, he (to write) seven novels, three
collections of short stories and a book of poetry. 5. We were late
because we had some car problems. By the time we (to get) to the
train station, Susan (to wait) for us for more than two hours. 6.
Sam (to try) to change a light bulb when he (to slip) and (to fall). 7.
Every day I (to wake) up at 6 o’clock, (to eat) breakfast at 7 o’clock
and (to leave) for work at 8 o’clock. However, this morning I (to
get) up at 6:30, (to skip) breakfast and (to leave) for work late
because I (to forget) to set my alarm. 8. Right now, Jim (to read)
the newspaper and Kathy (to make) dinner. Last night at this time,
they (to do) the same thing. She (to cook) and he (to read) the
newspaper. Tomorrow at this time, they (to do, also) the same
thing. She (to prepare) dinner and he (to read). They are very
predictable people! 9. By this time next summer, you (to complete)
your studies and (to find) a job. I, on the other hand, (not to
accomplish) anything. I (to study, still) and you (to work) in some

326
new high paying job. 10. The students (to be, usually) taught by
Mrs. Monty. However, this week they (to be) taught by Mr. Tanzer.

Ex.5. Put the verbs in brackets into the proper tense:

1. It (to snow) steadily the whole week and it still (to snow).
2. He (to solve) the crossword puzzle for an hour and he (to say)
he (to be) about to solve it as he (to think) over the last word. 3.
Why your hair (to be) wet? You (to swim)? 4. Do you see what the
child (to do) with your hat? Take it from him. 5. They still (to
discuss) the article? But they (to do) it since 2 o’clock. 6. The
prices (to go up). They (to rise) since 1998. 7. “You ever (to work)
as interpreter?” “Yes, that is what I (to do) for the last four months.”
8. Ever since you (to go) to bed, I (to sit) downstairs. 9. I (to find)
the old man in the garden. He (to talk) to some children who (to
stand) around listening to him. 10. Jack (to leave) the house before
I (to have) time to ask him anything. 11. We (to have) rather a
difficult time at the moment. – I (to be) sorry to hear that. 12.
Something awful (to happen). Her little daughter (to swallow) a
coin. 13. What a smell! I expect something (to burn). 14. The
teacher who (to walk) past the door now, (to teach) us maths. 15. I
(to hear) a beautiful voice. Somebody (to sing) in the hall. 16. “I (to
see) that you (to put) on your best suit. You (to go) to a party?”
“No, I (to go) to a wedding.” 17. My family (to live) in the same
house for 33 years now. 18. He (to do) this odd job since last year.
19. The boys are tired because they (to work) in the garden since
morning. 20. He (to talk) to the director for a quarter of an hour.

Ex.6. Complete the text using the following verbs in the proper
tense:
to believe, to keep, to hold, to let, to experience, to happen,
to
have, to be, to change, to create
The world is getting warmer and the oceans are rising. Why
this ____? One answer is that it could simply be part of a natural

327
process. After all, there ____ ice ages and long periods of warmth
in the past, so we could just ____ another warming trend. This kind
of answer ____ more supporters a few years ago. What scientists
now_____ is that human activity is the cause. For more than two
hundred years, humans (gradually ____ the atmosphere, mainly
as a result of industrial pollution. We _____ an atmosphere around
the earth that, like a giant glass container, _____ heat from the sun
through and then _____ it in. temperatures and sea levels ____
rising? The general answer is unfortunately yes.

Ex.7. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct tense:

It all (to happen) a very long time ago ... or at least it (to
seem) a very long time. So much (to happen) since then. Late
September. I ( (to remember) it was then because the leaves just
(to begin) to fall outside our bedroom window. In fact, it (to be)
Saturday 29th. We (to be) to a party the night before and I (to feel)
a little under the weather. Suddenly she (to turn) to me and said –
totally out of the blue – “You (not to love) me ... you (not to like) me
... in fact I (not to believe) you ever (to like) me.”
I (not to know) what to say. It was as if someone just (to kick)
me in the stomach. I (to know) then what I (to think) for a long time.
I (to know) that we (not to understand) each other and in fact we
never (to understand). When you (to live) with someone for a long
time, the little unimportant things often ( to blind) you. They (to
keep) your attention occupied and away from the things that really
(to matter). Up until that morning in September there (to be) a
truce between us. But it wasn’t long before one of us (to have to)
leave. Neither of us really (to try) to do anything about it. We (to
decide) a long time before not to have a family, so there wasn’t
that to sort out.
A month later she (to leave), and we (not to meet) since. No,
I (to tell) a lie: we (to meet) in Boots yesterday. She (to look)
happier. While we (to talk), I (to keep) thinking that perhaps if we
had been older at the time, we (to try) a bit harder.

328
Ex.8. Complete the text with the appropriate tenses of the verbs in
brackets:
Maxwell (not to hold) a steady job in almost two years.
Today was a big day, because he (to go) to a job interview that he
(to feel) good about. The secretary he (to talk) to on the phone (to
sound) friendly and encouraging.
Maxwell (to be) a typist. His fingers danced on the keyboard.
However, his people skills (not to be) nearly as good as his typing
skills. Sometimes his mouth (to get) in the way of his employment.
At his last steady job, his boss (to tell) him to start making coffee
every morning. Maxwell (to laugh). “I (not to make) coffee,” he (to
say). “It (not to be) part of my job description.”
“Read the employee manual again,” his boss (to say). “Your
job description (to be) anything I (to say) it is.”
“That (to be) a woman’s job,” said Maxwell. “Do it yourself.”
His boss still (to yell) as Maxwell (to walk out) of the building.
He (to feel) great about telling off the boss. A few days later, the
reality of not having a job (to hit) home. He had to pay the rent and
utility bills, and he had to eat. What was he going to do?
He (to think) about apologizing and asking for his job back.
But how that (to look)? Then again, who (to care) how it (to look)
when you’re almost broke? After thinking about it for another week,
he finally (to call) his boss and (to apologize). His boss (to accept)
his apology, but (to say) that he already (to hire) a replacement.

Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets in the appropriate tense:

Twenty years ago Datca (to be) a small town with a
population of 900. It (to be) small, clean and pretty. People (to
know) each other and they (to be) friendly towards the visitors and
tourists who (to be) mostly foreigners.
There (to be) very few restaurants, no cafes or bars. The
road (to be) gravel and it (to scare) everybody because it (to twist)

329
and (to turn) a lot. As a result, only a few tourists (to come) to the
town.
Today Datca (to grow) considerably. Its population (to reach)
6,000 in winter. However, in summer the population (to go) up to
20,000. Most of those people are holiday makers who (to own)
houses in and around Datca. The town (to develop) so much that
there (to be) many cafes, bars and restaurants there now. It even
(to have) a three-star hotel. But (to be) it better now? I (to have) to
say no because many people from other towns and cities (to
come) to Datca and (to start) businesses. Nobody (to know)
anybody now and the new buildings (to look) awful.
They (to build) a three-lane road now and it is about to finish.
When the road (to be ready), a lot more people (to come) to that
seaside town and they (to build) more summer houses and (to
open) more cafes and bars. I believe it (to be) good for the locals,
but people who (to know) the past of the town may not welcome
the change.

Ex.10. Use the verbs in brackets in the proper tense:

My aunt was very much upset by the death of her dear
husband. Perhaps now she (to be) sorry that she (to make) him
take so much medicine and (to feel), perhaps, that he (to be) the
victim of her kindness. Anyhow, she (to do) all that a widow could
do to honour his memory. She (to spend) very much money on her
mourning dress, she (to wear) a miniature of him about her neck
as large as a small clock; and she (to have) a full-length portrait of
him always hanging in her bedroom. All the world (to praise) her
conduct. “A woman who (to do) so much to honour the memory of
one husband, (to deserve) soon to get another,” (to say) my aunt’s
friends. (From The Adventure of My Aunt by W. Irving)

Ex.11. Complete the text with the appropriate tenses of the verbs
in
brackets:

330
 One evening, the Viscount (to go) to the theatre with two
ladies, friends of his, whose husbands (to be) also of the party,
and after the performance he (to invite) them to take ices at
Tortoni’s.
They (to sit) there for a few minutes when he (to notice) that a
gentleman at a neighbouring table (to stare) obstinately at one of
the ladies of the party. She (to seem) embarrassed and ill at ease,
and (to bend) her head. At last she (to say) to her husband:
“There’s a man staring at me. I (not to know) him; do you?”
The husband, who (to see) nothing, (to raise) his eyes, but (to
declare):
“No, not in the least.”
Half smiling, half in anger, she (to reply):
“It (to be) very annoying; that creature (to spoil) my ice.”
Her husband (to shrug) his shoulders.
“Don’t appear to notice it. If we (to have) to deal with all the
discourteous people we (to meet), we (to have) no time for
anything else.”
But the Viscount (to rise) abruptly. He could not permit this
stranger to spoil an ice of his giving. It (to be) to him that the insult
(to be addressed), since it was at his invitation and on his account
that his friends (to come) to the cafe. The affair was no business of
anyone but himself.
He (to go up) to the man and (to say):
“You (to have) a way of looking at those ladies, sir, which I
cannot stomach. Please be so good as to set a limit to your
persistence.”
“You hold your tongue,” replied the other.
“Take care, sir,” (to retort) the Viscount, clenching his teeth;
“you (to force) me to overstep the bounds of common politeness.”
(From A Coward by Guy de Maupassant)

Ex.12. Complete the text with the appropriate tenses of the verbs
in

331
 brackets:
“You (not to have) to be French to enjoy a decent red wine,”
Charles Jousselin de Gruse used to tell his foreign guests
whenever he (to entertain) them in Paris. “But you (to have) to be
French to recognize one,” he (to add) with a laugh.
After a lifetime in the French diplomatic corps, the Count de
Gruse (to live) with his wife in an elegant townhouse. He (to be) a
likeable man, cultivated of course, with a well deserved reputation
as a generous host and an amusing raconteur.
This evening’s guests (to be) all European and all equally
convinced that immigration was at the root of Europe’s problems.
Charles de Gruse (to say) nothing. He always (to conceal) his
contempt for such ideas. And, in any case, he never (to care) for
these particular guests.
The first of the red Bordeaux (to be served) with the veal,
and one of the guests (to turn) to de Gruse.
“Come on, Charles, it (to be) simple arithmetic. You must’ve
had bags of experience of this sort of thing. What do you say?”
Without another word, de Gruse (to pick up) his glass and (to
introduce) his bulbous, winey nose. After a moment he (to look up)
with watery eyes.
“A truly full-bodied Bordeaux,” he (to say) warmly, “a wine
among wines.”
The four guests (to hold) their glasses to the light and (to
study) their blood-red contents. They all agreed that it was the best
wine they ever (to taste). (From The Winepress by J. Essberger)

Ex.13. Complete the text with the appropriate tenses of the verbs
in
brackets:
She (to walk) lazily, for the fierce April sun was directly
overhead. Her umbrella (to block) its rays but nothing (to block) the
heat – the sort of raw, wild heat that (to crush) you with its energy.

332
A few buffalo (to stand) under coconuts. Occasionally a car (to go)
past. Otherwise it (to be) quiet, and she (to see) no one.
In her long white Sunday dress you might have taken Ginnie
for fourteen or fifteen. In fact she (to be) twelve, a happy,
uncomplicated child with a nature as open as the red hibiscus that
(to decorate) her black, waist-length hair. Generations earlier her
family (to come) to Trinidad from India. Her father (to have) some
success through buying and clearing some land and planting it
with coffee.
On the dusty verge twenty yards ahead of Ginnie a car (to
pull up). She (to notice) it cruise by once before but she (not to
recognize) it and could not make out the driver through its dark
windows. As she (to walk) past it, the driver’s glass (to start) to
open.
“Hello, Ginnie,” she (to hear) behind her.
She (to pause) and (to turn). A slight colour (to rise) beneath
her dusky skin. (From The Chapel by J. Essberger)

Ex.14. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.²ñ¹»Ý »ñÏáõ ï³ñÇ ¿, ÇÝã Ýñ³Ýó ³í³· áñ¹ÇÝ
ٳûٳïÇϳ ¿ ¹³ë³í³Ý¹áõ٠гñí³ñ¹Ç ѳٳÉë³ñ³ÝáõÙ.
2.ØDZû ¹áõù ã·Çï»ù, áñ ²É»ùëÁ ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ï³ñÇ ¿, ÇÝã ³åñáõÙ
¿ ÜÛáõ-ÚáñùáõÙ: 3.²ÙµáÕç ûñÁ Ó»½ »Ù ÷ÝïñáõÙ: àñï»±Õ ¿Çù
³Ûëù³Ý ųٳݳÏ: 4.Ø»ñÇÝ ³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ ÇÝùÁ ß³ï ³Ý·³Ù ¿
ѳ·»É ³Û¹ ½·»ëïÁ: 5.سÛùÁ Ù»ÏÝ»É ¿ ÈáݹáÝ ³Ûë ß³µ³Ã:
ºñÏñáñ¹ ³Ý·³ÙÝ ¿, ÇÝã ݳ ³Ûó»ÉáõÙ ¿ ÈáݹáÝ: 6. àÕçáõÛÝ,
سñÏ, áñï»±Õ ¿Çñ: ²ÙµáÕç »ñ»Ïá ù»½ ¿Ç ÷ÝïñáõÙ: Ø»ñÇÝ áõ
²ÉÇëÁ Ùáï Ù»Ï Å³Ù ¿, ÇÝã ¹ÇëÏáï»ÏáõÙ »Ý: ØÛáõëÝ»ñÝ ¿É ßáõïáí
ÏųٳݻÝ: Þï³åÇ°ñ: Ø»Ýù áõß³ÝáõÙ »Ýù: 7. ê»ÙÝ áõ æ»ÛÝÁ
í»ñç»ñë Ýáñ µÝ³Ï³ñ³Ý »Ý ·Ý»É, µ³Ûó ¹»é ã»Ý ï»Õ³÷áËí»É:
²ñ¹»Ý Ù»Ï ³ÙÇë ¿, ÇÝã Ýñ³Ýù í»ñ³Ýáñá·áõÙ »Ý ³ÛÝ:
лï³ùñùÇñ ¿, »±ñµ ϳí³ñï»Ý: 8.²ñ¹»Ý ùë³Ý ñáå» ¿ ÉëáõÙ »Ù
ù»½, µ³Ûó ³ÝÏ»ÕÍ ³ë³Í` áãÇÝã ã»Ù ѳëϳÝáõÙ: ƱÝã »ë
÷áñÓáõÙ ÇÝÓ µ³ó³ïñ»É: 9. ÆÝãáõ± ¿Çù ÍÇͳÕáõÙ, »ñµ »ë Ý»ñë

333
Ùï³: 10.ºë »ñµ»ù ã»Ù ï»ë»É ÝÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³é ¨ ³ÝϳÝ˳ï»ë»ÉÇ
Ù³ñ¹: 11.´ÇÉÝ ³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ ³Û¹ Ñá¹í³ÍÝ»ñÁ ϳñ¹³Éáõ
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ¹»é ãÇ áõÝ»ó»É: 12.²Ù»Ý ³Ý·³Ù ѳݹÇå»ÉÇë, Ýñ³Ýù
ùÝݳñÏáõÙ »Ý ³Û¹ ÝáõÛÝ Ñ³ñóÁ: 13.ºñµ ÷áùñ ¿ÇÝù, »ë ëÇñáõÙ ¿Ç
½í³ñ׳ÉÇ å³ïÙáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñ å³ïÙ»É, ÇëÏ »Õµ³Ûñë ã¿ñ
ó³ÝϳÝáõÙ ¹ñ³Ýù Éë»É: 14 .ºë ï»ë³ ÂáÙÇÝ Ù»Ï-»ñÏáõ ñáå»
³é³ç: ܳ ½ñáõóáõÙ ¿ñ ÁÝÏ»ñáç Ñ»ï ÙÇç³ÝóùáõÙ: 15.Èë»±É »ù
ÝáñáõÃÛáõÝÁ: ÈÛáõëÇÝ ³ÙáõëݳÝáõÙ ¿ ³Ûë ß³µ³Ã: 16.ºë ÑÇß»óÇ,
áñ áñ¹áõë Ëáëï³ó»É ¿Ç ·Ý»É ³Û¹ ·ÇñùÁ: 17.î»ëÝáõ±Ù »ë ³ÛÝ
µ³ñÓñ³Ñ³ë³Ï »ñÇï³ë³ñ¹ÇÝ, áñ Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿ ϳݷ³éáõÙ: ܳ
ѳ·»É ¿ ëåÇï³Ï ·Í³íáñ í»ñݳ߳åÇÏ áõ ϳåáõÛï ï³µ³ï,
Ó»éùÇÝ ¿É ·»Õ»óÇÏ Í³ÕÏ»÷áõÝç ϳ: ²Û¹ Ë»Õ× ïÕ³Ý Å³ÙÁ 12-
Çó Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿ ³Û¹ï»Õ áõ ëå³ëáõÙ ¿ ÁÝÏ»ñáõÑáõÝ: ØÇ ù³ÝÇ
ñáå»Çó ÏÉñ³Ý³ Ù»Ï Å³ÙÁ, ÇÝã ݳ ëå³ëáõÙ ¿: Üñ³ ÷á˳ñ»Ý
»ë í³Õáõó ·Ý³ó³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ç: î³Ý»É ã»Ù ϳñáÕ³ÝáõÙ, »ñµ
ųٳ¹ñáõÃÛáõÝÇó áõß³ÝáõÙ »Ý:

THE PASSIVE VOICE

Ex.1. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice

without
mentioning the doer of the action:
1. People drink a lot of tea in England. 2. When will the
secretary mail these letters? 3. The crowd cheered the football
players in the stadium yesterday. 4. They will call on the rebels to
stop fighting. 5. Why didn’t they tell me the truth about the
situation? 6. The boy fell into the water because somebody pushed
him. 7. They gave me five shillings change at the shop. 8. Before
the conference we had drawn up a plan to stop drug trafficking. 9.
Somebody recommended me another doctor. 10. Did anybody
teach him foreign languages? 11. I assure you I will arrange
everything in time. 12. They broke off their engagement just two
days before the wedding.

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Ex.2. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice
mentioning
the doer of the action:
1. Their team will win the prize by all means. 2. Even the
best students frequently make this mistake. 3. Did the plan interest
you? 4. The stress of the last few weeks has broken me down. 5.
This event will build up his confidence. 6. Did the noise in the next
room disturb you last night? 7. The hurricane severely damaged
the houses on the shore. 8. Who is going to prepare the
refreshments? 9. The compensation made up for the
inconvenience. 10. The draught blew out the candle. 11. The
horror film badly affected my little brother. 12. Johnny Ball is
training our local football team.

Ex.3. Change the following sentences into the Passive Voice:

1. They brought her up in a friendly atmosphere. 2. We have
thought of all eventualities. Nothing can surprise us. 3. I’ll pay off
my bank loan in five years time. 4. The chairman put forward an
idea for discussion. 5. They probably recycle some of the solid
wastes regularly. 6. The milkman will deliver two bottles of milk to
your door. 7. The orchestra is going to perform Beethoven’s Fifth
Symphony next weekend. 8. Who will speak Japanese at the
meeting? 9. Haven’t they released the exam results yet? 10.
Someone has told me that you still go out with Billy. 11. They had
finished the preparations by the time the guests arrived. 12. The
students will have finished the course by July. 13. They are
repairing the streets this month. 14. The designers have finished
the new product design. 15. My sisters were cooking dinner when I
arrived. 16. The police let her off with a fine.

Ex.4. Use the following sentences in the Passive Voice:

1. If you wish to achieve good results, you should do the
work yourself. 2. Someone ought to wash those dishes right away.

335
3. You should plant these flowers in a sunny place. 4. He is so
good at tennis. Nobody can beat him. 5. You have to hand in the
essays on Monday. 6. The government must deal with
unemployment. 7. This scandal could bring down the government.
8. You should take care when working on electrical equipment. 9.
Anyone can do this activity very easily. 10. People must not leave
bicycles in the driveway. 11. They must return these books within a
fortnight. 12. Craftsmen can make many beautiful objects of paper
in Japan.

Ex.5. Use passive constructions in two ways where possible:

1. John gave a bar of chocolate to Jill. 2. I lent my new car to
Graham. 3. Fiona told the whole truth to Julian. 4. The board
offered the manager’s job to Simon. 5. The boss showed the new
computer to Ann, his secretary. 6. Julie taught English grammar to
university students. 7. I sent a humorous e-mail to my friend John.
8. Lucy threw the ball to the child. 9. Sophia sold her old car to a
Fred. 10. I asked David some questions. 11. Michael has not sent
me a text message. 12. The waiter brought Fred a big steak.

Ex.6. Answer the questions in the Past Indefinite Passive, paying

particular attention to the prepositions:
Model: Did you send for the doctor? – Yes, the doctor was
sent for.
1. Did they object to your proposal? 2. Did they wait for him?
3. Did they take care of him? 4. Did the press comment upon that
event? 5. Did they really depend on this man? 6. Did they look into
this matter? 7. Did the students listen to the professor with
interest? 8. Did the guests really laugh at him? 9. Did everyone
find fault with her? 10. Did they put an end to this useless talk?

Ex.7. What has recently been done in your city? Answer the
question using the Present Perfect Passive of the following verbs:
to build, to open, to reconstruct, to publish, to close, to improve.

336
Ex.8. Match the achievements and the people. Use the following
verbs:
to discover, to invent, to write, to compose, to design, to
build.
Model: ‘Hamlet’ was written by W. Shakespeare.

the telephone Columbus

St. Paul’s Cathedral Walt Disney
Mickey Mouse Sir Christopher Wren
the Pyramids Verdi
Oliver Twist The Ancient Egyptians
America Alexander Bell
the law of gravity W. Shakespeare
Mona Lisa Ch. Dickens
Hamlet Isaac Newton
Aida Leonardo da Vincé

Ex.9. Put the verbs in brackets in the proper Passive Voice form:
1. All the texts (to look) through yesterday and not a single
mistake (to find). 2. Two new engineers just (to introduce) to the
head of the department. 3. Nick said that Grandmother’s parcel (to
receive) the day before. 4. It was ten o’clock. We (to tell) to hurry
up because we (to wait) for. 5. She showed me the picture which
(to paint) by her husband. 6. Excellent shelters (to build) for
tourists in these mountains. 7. This e-mail (to receive) after his
departure. 8. It seems to me that the music (to hear) from the next
room. 9. Don’t speak in a loud voice: we (to listen) to. 10. If you (to
ask) about it, will you be able to answer? 11. The money (to lend)
to him two months ago, but it (not to give) back yet.

Ex.10. Change the following sentences into the Active Voice:

1. The fisherman’s boat was overturned by a huge wave. 2.
Several houses were washed away by the flood. 3. The phone was

337
answered by the director himself. 4. This composer’s symphonies
are performed everywhere. 5. That beautiful shawl was
embroidered by her grandmother. 6. The party is looked forward to
by everybody. 7. This fact will be taken notice of. 8. The classes
are attended regularly. 9. Purchases are paid for at the door. 10.
This student’s report will be discussed in a week. 11. My
neighbor’s garden is choked by weeds. 12. That joke has been
laughed at for many days. 13. Was he ever taught good manners?
14. After the facts had been thoroughly explained to her, she no
longer felt worried. 15. He has been told everything, so he knows
what to do now. 16. He was fined for crossing the street in the
wrong place. 17. The fence was knocked down by the horses. 18.
The hall was decorated with candles and flowers.

Ex.11. Rewrite the text in the active voice:

Last summer our house was painted by me. The job took
about two weeks. First, the exterior was washed using warm water
and a mild detergent. Then all the chinks and pores in the walls
were sealed with putty. After the putty had had a chance to dry, the
exterior could be painted. A latex paint was used because it is
easy to apply and cleans up with water. A whole week was needed
to finish this part of the job.
I was very careful to apply the paint evenly because I did
not want to have to apply two coats. A color was used that was
very close to the original color. Our house is a two-story house,
which meant that a ladder was needed to do the second storey.
The paint bucket had to be balanced on the top rung of the ladder
while I worked.
When the job was finished, a great deal of satisfaction was
felt by me. I had to pat myself on the back. Even my dad said that
a good job was done.

338
Ex.12. Complete the gaps using the question words and the verbs
in the
table. Use passive constructions:

VERBS
QUESTION WORDS
transfer—finish—advertise—
how many—where—how
redecorate—destroy—
often—whose—when—
water—break into—hold—
why—who—which—where—
pay—take —inform—write—
what—how much
sweep

1. ____ rainforests ____ so cruelly for years? –To make grazing

land for cattle.
2. ____ the 2008 Summer Olympics ____? – In Beijing, China.
3. ____ the plants in the living room usually ____? – Twice a week
in summer, but not so often in winter.
4. ____ the building work on the new shopping centre ____? – At
the beginning of next month.
5. ____ pupils ____ of the changes of the timetable so far? – All of
them, I think.
6. ____ ____to hospital last night? – Nora. She had a really bad
stomach pain.
7. ____ branch ____ Miss Judith ____ to? – I’m not sure, but it’ll
probably be the one in the city.
8. ____ house ____ last Saturday? – Vicky’s. They took nearly
everything.
9. ____ our products ____ at the moment? – Mainly in magazines
and newspapers.
10. ____ you ____ for this kind of work? – About $2000.
11. ____ it ____ with? – With a matchstick dipped in blood.
12. ____ this play ____ by? I can’t remember his name. – By
Shakespeare, I reckon.
13. ____ room ____ today? – Nora’s room.
14. ____ this street ____? – Every day.

339
Ex.13. Rewrite the sentences in a passive form, beginning your
sentences
with the words in italics.
Model: It was claimed that the drug produced no
undesirable
side-effects.
The drug was claimed to produce no undesirable side-
effects.
1. It was proved that the statements he had made were
false. 2. It is said that he is an honest, hard-working man. 3. It is
considered that this surgeon is a brilliant practitioner. 4. It was
believed that the explosion had been caused by a mine. 5. It was
later admitted that the information had been obtained from
unreliable sources. 6. It is expected that the brewers will raise the
price of beer in the near future. 7. It was understood that Mr. Smith
was willing to meet the British Prime Minister.

Ex.14. Change the sentences into Passive. Begin each sentence

with the
words in italics:
Model: They believe that she will win a gold medal.
She is believed to win a gold medal.
1. People know that she is a good swimmer. 2. They say
that Francis is in hospital. 3. They think that the children are in
bed. 4. People believe that the robber has worked in the bank. 5.
People believe that nuclear power stations are dangerous. 6. His
colleagues thought that he was on holiday. 7. People know that
cars pollute the environment. 8. They suppose that the new
product will come out soon. 9. They found that the mission was
impossible.

Ex.15. Read the sentences choosing the correct verb-form:

340
 1. Millions of dollars’ worth of damage has been caused by
a storm which swept/was swept across the north of the United
States last night. 2. The River Reiner burst/was burst its banks
after a heavy rain. 3. Many people rescued/were rescued from the
floods by fire-fighters. 4. Firefighters received/were received
hundreds of calls for help. 5. Wind speeds reached/were reached
ninety miles an hour in some places. 6. Roads blocked/were
blocked by fallen trees. 7. Electricity lines brought/were brought
down, leaving thousands of homes without electricity. 8.
“Everything possible is doing/is being done to get things back to
normal,” a spokesman said. 9. One young girl took/was taken to
hospital after she broke her leg. 10. She has now sent/been sent
home.

Ex.16. Give advice using the auxiliary get:

Model: My battery is dead! –You should get it recharged.
1. My hair is grey. 2. My glasses are broken. 3. My coat is
stained. 4. My eyes hurt. 5. My hair is too long. 6. My TV is broken.
7. My teeth hurt. 8. My shoes are too tight. 9. The roof leaks. 10.
My gas tank is empty. 11. My knife is dull. 12. My shirts are
wrinkled. 13. My license has expired. 14. My skirt is too short.
Helpful vocabulary: stretch, repair, shorten, iron, color/dye,
check, lengthen, sharpen, renew, dry-clean, cut, fill

Ex.17. Change the sentences into the Passive Voice using the
auxiliary
get. You may need to make other changes:
1. My boss told me to send the check to a Nigerian bank
account. 2. The mechanic rotated the wheels. 3. A driver using a
cell phone rear-ended Alex (hit in the rear of his car). 4. He was
very irresponsible and his boss fired him. 5. They selected that
actress as the American Idol. 6. His words badly hurt Alice! 7. A
truck hit the cyclist. 8. A policeman stopped Father for speeding. 9.
Ted invited Angela to the restaurant.

341
Ex.18. Choose the correct option to complete the sentences:
1. My boyfriend asked me to marry him. We...
a) got engaged b) got divorced c) got done
2. I heard a strange noise last night, and I...
a) got invited b) got scared c) got tired
3. After my shower, I...
a) got crowded b) got lost c) got dressed
4. I wanted to go to the party, but I didn’t...
a) get killed b) get invited c) get worried
5. In the freeway accident some people...
a) got crowded b) got sunburned c) got hurt
6. Unfortunately, two people...
a) got confused b) got dressed c) got killed
7. I thought the book would be dull, but I really...
a) got interested b) got acquainted c) got tired
8. Jack didn’t understand the teacher. He...
a) got crowded b) got married c) got confused
9. I can go to the movies after my homework...
a) gets finished b) gets involved c) gets crowded

Ex.19. For each sentence, use the passive with get whenever
possible:
1. I don’t know why this class is always so dirty. It (to clean)
every morning. 2. The murder suspect told the police a
complicated alibi but it (not to believe) by them and he (to charge)
with the murder. 3. “Whose is that computer in the corner of the
office?” “I don’t know – it never (to use) by anyone.” 4. When
foreign films are dubbed into English, usually a lot of the original
meaning (to lose) in the translation. 5. Humans (to think) to have
originated in the east of Africa. 6. If my car (to damage) by you,
you will pay for the repairs. 7. Glenn Miller (to kill) in an air crash in
England in the 1940s. 8. If you (to pay) for a job you enjoy doing ,
you will be happy. 9. The films of Charlie Chaplin (to love) all over

342
the world. 10. The new factory will open next July and the
company says that over 250 employees (to need) initially. 11. Did
you hear that Jane (to promote) to a management position at work!
What great news.

Ex.20. Decide whether to use be or get in the following passive

sentences.
Underline the correct option:
1. I was going to meet my friend in downtown San
Francisco. I don’t know how it happened, but I was lost/got lost. 2.
I called my friend on my cell phone and was getting directions,
when suddenly the connection was lost/got lost. 3. Later that night,
I received a call from my friend. I got invited/was invited to a party
at the Greek Embassy where he worked. 4. I told him I couldn’t go
because I was picked /got picked by my boss to give a
presentation early in the morning and I had a lot of work to do. 5.
He assured me that we wouldn’t be out too late, so I quickly was
dressed/got dressed and left the hotel. 6. Fortunately, I was
given/got given a map before I left the hotel. 7. As I was leaving
the hotel, I almost was hit/got hit by a taxi. 8. At the embassy, I had
to go through a metal detector. I was stopped/got stopped because
I had keys in my pocket. 9. After I was past/got past security, I
went in and joined the party. 10. It was a grand party. I was
introduced/got introduced to a lot of very interesting people. 11. A
beautiful young woman was walking by me with a glass of wine in
her hand. Suddenly, she tripped on the edge of the carpet and I
was splashed/got splashed with the red wine in her glass. 12. The
woman was embarrassed/got embarrassed and apologized. I
assured her it wasn’t her fault. 13. I was cleaned up/got cleaned up
in the restroom and was able to wash off some of the wine and
cover up the rest with my jacket. 14. Later that night I was
seated/got seated next to the same woman. We talked for a long
time and had a great time. 15. Six months later, we were

343
married/got married. 16. The early bird catches the worm, but it is
the early worm that is caught/gets caught.

Ex.21. Fill in the gaps with the correct tenses of the verbs in
brackets
(active or passive voice):
In the year 122 AD, the Roman Emperor Hadrian (to visit)
his provinces in Britain. On his visit, the Roman soldiers (to tell)
him that Pictish tribes from Britain’s north (to attack) them. So
Hadrian (to give) the order to build a protective wall across one of
the narrowest parts of the country. After 6 years of hard work, the
Wall (to finish) in 128. It (to be) 117 kilometres long and about 4
metres high. The Wall (to guard) by 15,000 Roman soldiers. Every
8 kilometres there (to be) a large fort in which up to 1,000 soldiers
(to find) shelter. The soldiers (to watch) over the frontier to the
north and (to check) the people who (to want) to enter or leave
Roman Britain. In order to pass through the Wall, people (to have
to) go to one of the small forts that (to serve) as gateways. Those
forts (to call) milecastles because the distance from one fort to
another (to be) one Roman mile (about 1,500 metres). Between
the milecastles there (to be) two turrets from which the soldiers (to
guard) the Wall. If the Wall (to attack) by enemies, the soldiers at
the turrets (to run) to the nearest milecastle for help or (to light) a
fire that (can/to see) by the soldiers in the milecastle.
In 383 Hadrian’s Wall (to abandon).
Today Hadrian’s Wall (to be) the most popular tourist
attraction in northern England. In 1987 it (to become) a UNESCO
World Heritage Site.

Ex.22. Complete the text using the Present or the Past Indefinite,
Active
or Passive Voice:

344
 The Statue of Liberty (to give) to the United States by
France. It (to be) a present on the 100th anniversary of the United
States.
The statue (to design) by Frederic Auguste Bartholdi. It (to
complete) in France in July 1884. Then it (to ship) to New York,
where it (to arrive) on 17 June 1885. Its 350 pieces (to put)
together and the opening ceremony (to take) place on 28 October
1886.
The Statue of Liberty (to be) 46 m high (93 m including the
base). It (to represent) the goddess of liberty. She (to hold) a torch
in her right hand and a tablet in her left hand. On the tablet you (to
see) the date of the Declaration of Independence (July 4, 1776).
Every year, the Statue of Liberty (to visit) by many people from
all over the world.

Ex.23. Complete the text using the Present or the Past Indefinite,
Active
or Passive Voice:
Portal dolmens (to be) ancient tombs. They (to build) about
6000 years ago. In order to build such a tomb, ancient people (to
put) up big stones. These standing stones then (to form) the walls.
Another huge stone, the cap stone, (to place) on top of the other
stones. Finally, the tomb (to have) the form of a little chamber. In
that chamber, the dead person (to bury). Then the entrance to the
tomb (to close) with another stone.
Nowadays, portal dolmens (can/ to see) in Ireland, Wales and
Scotland. They (to call) portal dolmens because they (to look) like
a huge doorway (or portal).

Ex.24. Translate the sentences into English:

1.Ø»Ýù ϳñÍáõÙ »Ýù, áñ ÙÇÝ㨠»ÏáÕ ³ßáõÝ
í»ñ³Ï³éáõóÙ³Ý ³ß˳ï³ÝùÝ»ñÝ ³í³ñïí³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ý ¨
½µáë³ßñçÇÏÝ»ñÇÝ ÏÃáõÛɳïñíÇ ï»ëÝ»É å³ïÏ»ñ³ëñ³ÑÁ:
2.ø»½ íñ³ ÏÍÇͳջÝ, »Ã» ѳ·Ý»ë ³Û¹ ·É˳ñÏÁ: 3.سÛñÇÏÝ

345
³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ ÙÇÝ㨠ٻÝù í»ñ³¹³éݳÝù ³ñÓ³Ïáõñ¹Çó, ïáõÝÁ
í»ñ³Ýáñá·í³Í ÏÉÇÝÇ: 4.ÂáÙÁ ã·Ý³ó ÁÝÏ»ñáç ѳñë³ÝÇùÇÝ,
áñáíÑ»ï¨ Ññ³íÇñí³Í ã¿ñ: 5.æáÝ ø»ÝÝ»¹ÇÝ ëå³Ýí»ó
¸³ÉɳëáõÙ` 1963Ã: 6.Ø»ñ ïÝÇó áã Ñ»éáõ ÙÇ Ýáñ ëñ׳ñ³Ý ¿
µ³óí»É, ¨ Ù»Ýù Ñ³×³Ë »Ýù ³ÛÝï»Õ ÉÇÝáõÙ. 7.سñïÇÝÁ ß³ï
×Ýßí³Í ¿ñ Çñ»Ý ½·áõÙ: Üñ³ Ñ»ï ¹»é áã áù ³Û¹å»ë ã¿ñ í³ñí»É:
8.ºñµ Ýñ³Ýù Ùï³Ý ³×áõñ¹Ç ëñ³Ñ, ÝϳñÝ»ñÁ ¹»é í³×³éíáõÙ
¿ÇÝ: 9.ºë ѳÙá½í³Í »Ù, áñ ³Û¹ ѳñóÇ í»ñ³µ»ñÛ³É í³Õ û áõß
ѳٳӳÛÝáõÃÛáõÝ Ó»éù ϵ»ñíÇ: 10.Ø»½ ³ë³óÇÝ, áñ Ýáñ
Ññ³ï³ñ³Ïí³Í ·ñù»ñÁ ÏáõÕ³ñÏí»Ý ¹åñáó Ñݳñ³íáñÇÝë
ßáõï:

Ex.25. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.γ½Ù³Ï»ñåáõÃÛáõÝÁ Ëáëï³ÝáõÙ ¿, áñ É³í³·áõÛÝ
Ù³ëݳ·»ïÝ»ñÇÝ Ï³é³ç³ñÏíÇ µ³ñÓñ ³ß˳ï³í³ñÓ:
2.лï³ùñùÇñ ¿, Ýñ³Ý áñù³Ý í׳ñ»óÇÝ ³Û¹ ³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ
ϳï³ñ»Éáõ ѳٳñ: 3. ºñµ ÑÇí³Ý¹Ç íÇ׳ÏÝ ³í»ÉÇ
í³ï³ó³í, ³ÝÙÇç³å»ë µÅÇßÏ Ï³Ýã»óÇÝ£ ÐÇí³Ý¹ÇÝ ïñí»ó
³ñÑ»ëï³Ï³Ý ßÝã³éáõÃÛáõÝ, ë³Ï³ÛÝ ¹³ ¿É ãû·Ý»ó: 4.ØÇ°
³Ýѳݷëï³óÇñ, ³Û¹ ϳÝáÝÁ ѳçáñ¹ ¹³ëÇÝ ù»½ ÝáñÇó
ϵ³ó³ïñ»Ý: 5.ØDZû Ó»½ ãËáëï³ó³Ý ³ß˳ï³í³ñÓÇ
µ³ñÓñ³óáõÙ ï³ñ»ëϽµÇÝ: 6.ÂáÙÇÝ å»ïù ¿ ³ë»É, áñ »ñµ»ù
ÝÙ³Ý µ³Ý ã³ÝÇ ÝáñÇó: 7.ºë ³åß»óÇ, »ñµ ÇÙ³ó³, áñ ùñáçë
µÝ³Ï³ñ³ÝÁ ÏáÕáåï»É »Ý: ¶áÕ»ñÁ ï³ñ»É ¿ÇÝ ·áõÙ³ñ,
½³ñ¹»Õ»Ý ¨ áñ ß³ï ½³ñٳݳÉÇ ¿, ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ßÇß ÏáÝÛ³Ï áõ
íÇëÏÇ: Þ³ï ßáõïáí Ýñ³Ýù µéÝí»óÇÝ áõ Ó»ñµ³Ï³Éí»óÇÝ:
¶áõÙ³ñÁ í»ñ³¹³ñÓí»ó, µ³Ûó ½³ñ¹»ñÇ ÙÇ Ù³ëÁ í³×³éí»É ¿ñ:
8.Ø»Ýù ã¿ÇÝù ëå³ëáõÙ, áñ Ù»ñ å³ïíÇñ³ÏáõÃÛ³Ý ³ÛóÁ
ÏÑ»ï³Ó·íÇ: 9.ì³ñÏ í»ñóÝ»Éáõ Ýñ³ Ëݹñ³ÝùÁ Ù»ñÅí»ó µ³ÝÏÇ
ϳé³í³ñãÇ ÏáÕÙÇó: 10.´áÉáñÇÝ Ñ»ï³ùñùñáõÙ ¿ñ, û ÇÝãå»ë
Ó»éù ϵ»ñí»ñ ó³ÝϳÉÇ ³ñ¹ÛáõÝùÁ: 11.ò³íáù ÅáÕáíÇ
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ÝÙ³Ý Ñ³ñó»ñ ãµ³ñÓñ³óí»óÇÝ: 12.Ø»Ýù Ϸݳ±Ýù
ù³Õ³ùÇó ¹áõñë, »Ã» í³ÕÁ ³ÝÓñ¨Ç: – ²Ûá, Ù»Ýù å»ïù ¿ ·Ý³Ýù:

346
Ø»½ ëå³ë»Éáõ »Ý ³ÛÝï»Õ: 13.Ò»½ á±í ³ë³ó, áñ ³Û¹
÷³ëï³ÃáõÕÃÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ëïáñ³·ñí»É ¿:

MODAL VERBS

Ex.1. Comment on the use of the modal verbs can/could:

1. My brother can come and help you in the garden. 2. My
grandmother can knit very well. 3. We can finish this work in a day
or two. 4. You could have said at least that you did not agree with
them. 5. You can’t have forgotten that you assured me that nothing
would make you change your mind. 6. Learning a foreign language
can sometimes be difficult. 7. I could help you if I weren’t so busy.
8. Because of fire regulations you can’t smoke in movie theatres.
9. Because the report was in French, she couldn’t read it. 10. He
couldn’t be at work today. He’s in hospital. 11. Could I use your
mobile phone for a minute? 12. How could she be so silly and trust
him? 13. We could have cancelled the meeting in the morning, but
it’s too late now. 14. She can’t have failed to notice the mistake.
15. He cannot deceive me. He can’t be that dishonest.

Еx.2. Express your surprise and disbelief using can/could:

A. Model: They are in France now. – Can/could they be in
France
now?
1. Her sister has been practicing the piano for 6 years. 2. They will
go to the Canaries next summer. 3. Her children are stubborn. 4.
He has broken his leg. 5. Jack made an interesting report
yesterday.
B. Model: He forgot about the meeting. – He couldn’t have
forgotten about the meeting.
1. Mr. Smith is a reliable person. 2. The Jones are making a cruise
now. 3 He bought a new car two months ago. 4. He had an
accident last week. 5. You are mistaken.

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Ex.3. Fill in the blanks with can/can’t or (not) to be able to in the
proper
form:
1. He did not want to go there, but we ____ persuade him. 2.
He has never ____ speak in public. 3. You ____ marry her, but
you ____ make her love you. 4. ____ you give me a lift to the
airport, please? 5. He ____ speak German rather fluently now, but
that time he ____ say a word. 6. Luckily I ____ find a taxi. 7. You
____ use my telephone whenever possible. 8. I ____ visit him
yesterday because I fell ill. 9. She ____ to get her degree next
year. 10. I ____ drive when I was fifteen.

Ex.4. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.Ðݳñ³íáñ ã¿, áñ ݳ ï³ÝÁ ÉÇÝ»ñ »ñ»Ï ³Ûë ųٳݳÏ:
2.ܳ ϳñáÕ ¿ñ ¹³ ³Ý»É, µ³Ûó ãó³Ýϳó³í: 3.Ðݳñ³íáñ ã¿, áñ
ݳ Ó»½ ³Û¹å»ë å³ï³ë˳ݻñ: 4.¸Åí³ñ û ݳ Ùáé³ó³Í ÉÇÝÇ
Çñ ËáëïáõÙÁ: ºë »ñ»Ï »Ù Ýñ³Ý ÑÇß»óñ»É ³Û¹ Ù³ëÇÝ: 5.¸Åí³ñ
û Ýñ³Ýù ³Ùáõëݳó³Í ÉÇÝ»Ý: Üñ³Ýù Ùdzݷ³Ù³ÛÝ ï³ñµ»ñ
Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ »Ý: 6.ØDZû áñ¨¿ Ù»ÏÁ ϳñáÕ ¿ñ Ùï³Í»É, áñ ݳ
³Û¹åÇëÇ µ³Ý ϳݻñ: 7. ØDZû ݳ Ññ³Å³ñí»ó Ó»½ û·Ý»É:
8.Ðݳñ³íáñ ã¿, áñ ݳ µ³Ëí»ñ áõñÇß Ù»ù»Ý³ÛÇ: ܳ ß³ï
áõß³¹Çñ í³ñáñ¹ ¿:

Ex.5. Comment on the use of the modal verbs may/might:

1. May I tell you of what it reminded me? 2. Tom might often
be seen sitting in the garden, contemplating. 3. Nelly said that I
might use the guest rooms in her village cottage. 4. My brother
said that I might take his car whenever I wanted it. 5. There was so
much they had shared together and so much more they might
have shared. 6. I asked if she might bring her children down next
Sunday. 7. The dog is not here. Ronny may have taken it round for
a walk in the park. 8. They may travel by sea. It may be cheaper,
but it takes a long time. 9. You might have let me know you weren’t
coming. 10. “What are you going to do tonight?” “I haven’t made

348
up my mind yet. I might go to the library or I might visit some
friends.” 11. It may be that she was merely bored with her husband
and went to George out of curiosity. She may have had no
particular feeling for him. 12. Might I see Mr Blake for a minute?
13. After all I’ve done for them they might be more thankful.

Ex.6. Use the correct form of the infinitive with may/might:

1. ___ I (to leave) the office half an hour earlier tonight? 2.
Don’t tell Mum about that incident. She ___ (to get) annoyed. 3.
You ___ (to tell) us this an hour ago. 4. She asked me if she ___
(to keep) the film CDs for another week. 5. Don’t be angry with
Jenny. She ___ (to do) it by mistake. 6. When you finish the test
you ___ (to leave). 7. I can’t find my sunglasses. I ___ (to leave)
them at the café. 8. Why are my eyes bothering me? I ___ (to
have) the wrong prescription in my glasses. They ___ (to be) too
strong. 9. Why didn’t you warn me you weren’t coming. You ___
(to leave) a message for me. 10. The children aren’t back yet.
They ___ (to lose) their way.

Ex.7. Fill in the blanks with may, might, or be (not) allowed to:
1. You ____ go home if you like. 2. As soon as the boy ____
leave the room, he smiled and ran out to join his friends outside. 3.
He asked if he ____ bring his sister to the party. 4. Our teacher
said that everybody____ take part in the picnic. 5. The students
____ stay in the classroom till 6 o’clock. 6. After they had finished
their homework the children ____ watch TV. 7. Take your camera.
There you ____ come across something worth remembering.

Ex.8. Fill in the blanks with may (might), can (could):

1. Something was wrong with the car: he ____ not start it. 2.
A fool ____ ask more questions than a wise man ____ answer. 3.
The school was silent: nothing ____ be heard in the long dark
corridors. 4. Take your umbrella with you: it ____ rain today. 5.
“What time is it?” “It ____ be about 5 o’clock, but I am not sure.” 6.

349
He ____ be right or he ____ be wrong. 7. Let’s wait a little. He____
come.

Ex.9. Paraphrase the following sentences using the verbs

can/could and
may/might:
1. Perhaps he will come in an hour. 2. It is impossible, I
think, to cross this river: it is too wide. 3. Perhaps she was busy
yesterday and couldn’t finish the task in time. 4. Is it possible that
she has followed her parents’ advice? 5. Perhaps he will be invited
too as he is a friend of Harry’s. 6. Is it possible that he is a good
tennis player? I have never known him to be a sportsman. 7.
Maybe they didn’t know that the problem was so urgent. 8. Would
you mind my smoking here? 9. This is possibly the reason why
they have refused to join us. 10. It is possible he did not have her
phone number. 11. Maybe she thinks the salary is too low. 12.
Perhaps there’s a traffic jam. 13. It is quite possible that the
performance is over as there are many people leaving the theatre.

Ex.10. Choose the correct modal verb (affirmative or negative) to

fill the
gap (can/could, may/might):
1. They ____ be away for the weekend but I’m not sure. 2.
He ____ be French, judging by his accent. 3. He ____ be from the
USA. He doesn’t speak English. 4. With luck, tomorrow ____ be a
sunny day. 5. You ____ be right but I’m going to check anyway. 6.
The exam ____ be easy. You never know. 7. It ____ be true about
a dinosaur living in the Congo. It’s impossible. 8. Dave reckons
she’s from the States but I think she ____ be from Scandinavia. 9.
I ____ go to the party but I’m not sure yet. 10. This ____ be the
right answer but we’ll have to check with your teacher to make
sure. 11. She ____ steal things from shops. She’s rich and
famous. 12. I really think Real Madrid ____ lose the final of the
King’s Cup. 13. She’s been revising 10 hours a day for 3 weeks.

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She ____ be exhausted. 14. Nobody’s answering. They ____ be
out.

Ex.11. Fill in the gaps with the modal verbs couldn’t or might not:
1. Unfortunately James and Michelle had already made
plans, so they ____ come with us to the exhibition at the Museum
of Contemporary Art. 2. I ____ have left my keys at Simon’s
house. I wouldn’t have been able to drive home if I had done that.
3. It ____ be a bad idea to get a car alarm for your new sports car.
New cars tend to attract thieves. 4. In order to win the pie eating
contest, Norman would have to eat sixteen pies in ten minutes. He
____ possibly eat that many pies – he would explode! 5. That
concert has been sold out for weeks. You ____ get tickets even if
you knew the band personally. It’s impossible! 6. Susan ____ hear
the speaker because the crowd was cheering so loudly. 7. I heard
that band is really popular, and tickets sell out quickly. You ____
get tickets if you wait too long. 8. Jerry might be angry, or he ____.
You never really know with him because he’s so temperamental. 9.
Jerry ____ be angry at me. I’ve never done anything to upset him.
10. You ____ do the job if you didn’t speak Arabic fluently. 11.
That ____ possibly be Mr. Jones. He’s lost so much weight that he
looks like a completely different person. 12. She ____ possibly be
the winner of the talent show! The other acts were much better
than hers.

Ex.12. Rewrite the sentences using the verbs can, may or must:
1. Don’t park your car on bends. It is illegal. – You ____ park your
car on bends.
2. Perhaps she will agree with it. Who knows? – She ____ agree
with it.
3. I want you to tidy the classroom. – You ____ tidy the classroom.
4. I need your help. It’s too much work for me. – You ____ help
me.
5. Look at that balloon. It’s over there. – ____ you see the balloon?

351
6. Don’t worry about dinner. I’ll make it. – You ____ worry about
dinner.
7. It is necessary to be there. – We ____ be there.
8. Why don’t you stay with us? No problem! – You ____ stay with
us.

Ex.13. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.ØÇ·áõó» ¹»é ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã Ïáñ³Í ã¿, ¨ Ýñ³Ýù
ÏϳñáÕ³Ý³Ý ½·áõß³óÝ»É ïÕ³ÛÇÝ: 2.¸áõù ã»ù ϳñáÕ
íÇñ³Ñ³ï³ñ³Ý ÙïÝ»É: ØdzÛÝ íÇñ³µáõÛÅÝ»ñÁ ¨ µáõÅùáõÛñ»ñÁ
ϳñáÕ »Ý ³ÛÝï»Õ ÙïÝ»É: 3.Ðݳñ³íáñ ¿, áñ ݳ ·Çï»ñ ³Û¹
Ù³ëÇÝ, µ³Ûó óáõÛó ã¿ñ ï³ÉÇë: 4. Ðݳñ³íáñ ¿, áñ ÂáÙÇÝ ¿É
Ññ³íÇñ»Ý ׳ßÏ»ñáõÛÃÇ: ì»ñç»ñë ݳ Ñ³×³Ë ¿ Ýñ³Ýó ï³ÝÁ
ÉÇÝáõÙ: 5.ÂíáõÙ ¿, û ³ÝÓñ¨ Ï·³, µ³Ûó áí ·ÇïÇ, Ñݳñ³íáñ ¿,
áñ í³ÕÁ É³í »Õ³Ý³Ï ÉÇÝÇ: 6.¶Ý³óùÁ Ñݳñ³íáñ ¿ áõ߳ݳ ³Û¹
ë³ñë³÷»ÉÇ ÓݳµùÇó Ñ»ïá: 7.àõß³¹Çñ »Õ»ù: ¸áõù ϳñáÕ »ù
ϳÃÁ ó÷»É, »Ã» ³Û¹å»ë ï³Ý»ù: 8.ܳ ѳñóñ»ó, ³ñ¹Ûáù
ϳñáÕ ¿ñ û·ïí»É ÇÙ Ñ»é³ËáëÇó:

Ex.14. Comment on the use of the modal verbs must, to be to and to

have to:
1. You must always think twice before you say anything. 2.
It must be very difficult to learn Chinese. 3. She must have been
studying at that moment, that’s why she did not answer our
telephone call. 4. You mustn’t tell anybody about this incident. 5.
Just as she appeared on the stage, she must trip on something
and fall down. 6. You are not to utter a word in the presence of
these people. 7. Now will you please show me the office where I
am to work? 8. I had to feel my way down the stairs as there was
no light. 9. You don’t have to be in a hurry: the flight was delayed.
10. This medicine is to be taken three times a day before meals.
11. He had to work hard to make both ends meet. 12. When he
was leaving his study, he didn’t know he was never to work there
again.

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Ex.15. Supply the correct form of the infinitive:
1. She must (to be) angry with me. She left without saying
good-bye. 2. Mary must (to be) ill, otherwise she would have
come. 3. His mind turned to the accident. It was a kind of thing
which must (not to occur) again. 4. It is lovely to have you home
again. We must (to have) a party to celebrate your arrival. 5. Lucy
came home late in the evening, wet to the skin. She must (to wait)
for Mike since the rain started. 6. The old lady must (to be) a
beauty once. 7. Look! People are hurrying along the street with
collars and umbrellas up. It must (to rain) hard. 8. I must (to sit)
there for a quarter of an hour waiting and thinking about it before I
saw the note. 9. “I must (to get) old,” she said, “to be talking like
that.” 10. Christine must (to fall) ill. She looked so pale and tired
last night.
Ex.16. Paraphrase the sentences using the verb must:
1. The boy was evidently reading something funny. He was
smiling all the time. 2. He has surely found out the real reason for
their silence. 3. It was clear the family were expecting some
guests: the mother was bustling about the house tidying up the
rooms. 4. I shan’t bother you any longer; no doubt you are tired of
my talking. 5. They have most likely realized what opportunity they
were losing. 6. She is obviously upset by something. I have never
seen her so unbalanced.

Ex.17. Complete the sentences using must or have to (affirmative

or
negative form):
1. I ____ be at the meeting by 10:00. I will probably ____
take a taxi if I want to be on time. 2. You ____ submit the
application if it has not been completely filled out. Check that the
name, address, and background information are correct.
Otherwise you will be rejected and you will ____ reapply at a later
date. 3. “Look at these flowers – they’re beautiful! But, there’s no

353
card. Who could have sent them?” “It ____ have been David.” 4.
You ____ forget to pay the rent tomorrow. The landlord is very
strict about paying on time. 5. When I was a child my grandmother
was continually correcting our manners. She used to say, “One
____ eat with one’s mouth open.” Or, she would correct us by
saying, “One ____ rest one’s elbows on the table.” And every time
I wanted to leave the table, she would say, “One ____ ask to be
excused.” 6. If you are over 18 in California, you ____ take a driver
training course to get a driver’s license. You can have a friend or a
family member teach you instead. But remember, you ____ still get
your permit before you start practising. 7. Ingrid received a
scholarship to Yale University which will cover 100% of the tuition.
She ____ worry at all about the increasing cost of education. 8.
“My car broke down in Death Valley last week. I ____ have it
towed more than a hundred miles to the nearest mechanic.” “That
____ have cost a fortune!” 9. I’ve redone this math problem at
least twenty times, but my answer is wrong according to the
answer key. The answer in the book ____ be wrong! 10. I ____ go
to work tomorrow because it is Memorial Day. The best thing about
a day off from work is that I ____ get up at 6:00; I can sleep till
noon if I want to.

Ex.18. Fill in the blanks with the correct form of to be to, to have to
or
must:
1. There was nothing strange in what he did. It ___ (to be)
expected. 2. The teacher ___ (to repeat) the question three times
before one of the pupils answered. 3. Henry ___ (to make) a
speech at the conference. 4. David said he had missed the train
and ___ (to wait) for the next one. 5. Why are you late? You ___
(to come) an hour ago. 6. Remember that we ___ (to be) at her
place not later than eight. 7. It was too late to change the plan, and
it ___ (to remain) as it was. 8. I ___ (to do) it all by myself? 9. They
hoped to spend the summer together but that ___ (not to be). 10.

354
You ___ (to be) careful while crossing the street. 11. ___ I (to get)
in touch with him myself, or the secretary ___ (to do) this? 12. I
don’t know what I ___ (to do) in this situation. 13. Linda ___ (to
take) care of her younger sisters and brothers while her parents
are away.

Ex.19. Fill in the blanks with to have to or to be to:

1. Why didn’t you tell me that I ______ to buy the books? 2.
I ______ to wear glasses as my eyesight is very weak. 3. Do you
know this man? He ______ to be our new teacher of Geography.
4. You ______ to learn all the new words for the next lesson. 5. As
we had agreed before, we ______ to meet at two o’clock to go the
exhibition together. 6. “Where ______ the lecture to take place?” “I
suppose in the assembly hall.”

Ex.20. Translate the following sentences into English using must,

to have
to, to be to:
1.¸áõù ãå»ïù ¿ Ùáé³Ý³ù Ó»ñ å³ñï³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÇ
Ù³ëÇÝ: 2.ºë ëïÇåí³Í »Ù ï³ÝÁ ÙÝ³É ÙÇ ù³ÝÇ ûñ: ´ÅÇßÏÝ
³ëáõÙ ¿, áñ »ë ãå»ïù ¿ ¹áõñë ·³Ù ï³ÝÇó, ù³ÝÇ ¹»é
ç»ñÙáõÃÛáõÝë ãÇ Çç»É: 3.ºÏáÕ ï³ñÇ Ù»Ýù å»ïù ¿
áõëáõÙݳëÇñ»Ýù ³ëïÕ³·ÇïáõÃÛáõÝ: 4.ºë ëïÇåí³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ù
Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ Ëݹñ»É, û¨ ¹³ ß³ï ïÑ³× ÏÉÇÝÇ ÇÝÓ Ñ³Ù³ñ:
5.Ø»Ýù ëïÇåí³Í ã¿ÇÝù ½µáë³ßñçÇÏÝ»ñÇÝ áõÕ»Ïó»É ÑÛáõñ³Ýáó:
Üñ³Ýù ß³ï É³í ·Çï»ÇÝ ×³Ý³å³ñÑÁ: 6.ØÇû± ÙÇ íñÇå³ÏÇ
å³ï׳éáí ëïÇåí³Í åÇïÇ í»ñÁÝûñó»Ù ³ÙµáÕç ¿çÁ:
7.²ÛÉÁÝïñ³Ýù ãϳñ, ¨ ݳ ëïÇåí³Í ¿ñ ѳٳӳÛÝí»É:
8.îÝûñ»ÝÁ ½µ³Õí³Í ¿, ËݹñáõÙ »Ù ëå³ë»É Ýñ³Ý ³Ûëï»Õ:
γñÍáõÙ »Ù, ¹áõù ëïÇåí³Í ã»ù ÉÇÝÇ »ñϳñ ëå³ë»É:
9.â³÷³½³Ýó áõß ¿ñ ÷áË»É Íñ³·ÇñÁ: ²ÛÝ å»ïù ¿ Ùݳñ
³ÛÝå»ë, ÇÝãå»ë ϳñ: 10.²Û¹ ³ÙµáÕç ³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ »ë ٻݳ±Ï
å»ïù ¿ ³Ý»Ù:

355
Ex.21. Comment on the use of the modal verbs should and ought
to:
1. I think you ought to let your parents know that you are
here. 2. Andrew did not see why he should not discuss the matter
with his chief. 3. Your parents ought to know about your financial
failure: they are always ready to help you. 4. You should not give
the child so much care. It may make him dependent on your
attention. 5. You should not have done it yourself: all you had to do
is ask me. 6. I am sorry, I should not have told you that: it has
upset you so much! 7. How should I know when he is coming? 8.
Anything we can do to clear up this miserable affair ought to be
done. 9. You ought to have told me about it earlier. 10. You should
have seen Nancy on horseback: she looks like a born queen.

Ex.22. Give a piece of advice using the modal verb should with the
accompanying words:
1. I have a slight irritation in my throat (to smoke less). 2.
She makes a lot of spelling mistakes (to copy passages out of a
book). 3. The students are unable to follow what I am saying (not
to speak so fast). 4. My son is a little pale (to play out of doors). 5.
I am afraid you will miss the train (to take a taxi). 6. The child
doesn’t want to eat soup (not to give him sweets before dinner).

Ex.23. Comment on the following actions using the modal verbs

should,
shouldn’t or needn’t:
1. What will you say to the person who: a) crossed the
street under the red light? b) doesn’t want to cross the street by
the subway? c) didn’t attend a very important lecture? d) has a
splitting headache? e) apologized for asking you a question? f)
watered the garden, and it is raining now? g) copied the whole text
into his exercise-book? h) doesn’t take off his hat when entering a
room?

356
Ex.24. Fill in the blanks with should or have to:
1. I ____ (to take) a taxi, otherwise I should have missed
the train. 2. You walked all the way here carrying this heavy
suitcase. You ____ (to take) a taxi. 3. He was out when we came,
and we ____ (to wait) for over an hour. 4. How can you work in this
noise? You ____ (to tell) the children to stop. 5. I could not stand
that noise any longer. I ____ (to go) out and (to tell) them to stop.

Ex.25. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.ä»ïù ã¿, áñ ¹áõù ³Û¹ù³Ý »ñϳñ Ùݳù ³Û¹ï»Õ: 2.¸áõù
å»ïù ¿ Ñ»Ýó ÑÇÙ³ ¹ÇÙ»ù µÅßÏÇ: Ò»ñ íÇ׳ÏÁ ·Ý³Éáí
í³ï³ÝáõÙ ¿: 3.â»Ù ѳëϳÝáõÙ, ÇÝãáõ± »ë å»ïù ¿ ³Ý»Ù ¹³:
¸³ ùá ·áñÍÝ ¿: 4.ÂíáõÙ ¿ñ, û áã ÙÇ å³ï׳é ãϳñ, áñ ݳ Éù»ñ
Çñ ÏÝáçÁ ¨ »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÇÝ: 5.Þ³ï ½³ñٳݳÉÇ ¿, û ÇÝãáõ ݳ
å»ïù ¿ ë»ÝÛ³Ï í³ñÓÇ: Üñ³ ùáõÛñÝ áõÝÇ Ñ³ñÙ³ñ³í»ï
µÝ³Ï³ñ³Ý ù³Õ³ùÇ Ï»ÝïñáÝáõÙ: 6.ÆÝãáõ± ã»ë ³í³ñï»É
óñ·Ù³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ: ¸áõ å»ïù ¿ ³ÛÝ ³Ý»Çñ Ù»Ï ß³µ³Ã ³é³ç:
7.²ÝÑñ³Å»ßï ¿, áñ »ë Ýñ³Ý ѳݹÇå»Ù ÙÇÝ㨠³ñï³ë³ÑÙ³Ý
Ù»ÏÝ»ÉÁ: γñ¨áñ ѳñó»ñ Ï³Ý ùÝݳñÏ»Éáõ: 8.γñ¨áñ ¿, áñ Ýñ³
Ù³ÛñÁ ãÇٳݳ ³Û¹ å³ï³Ñ³ñÇ Ù³ëÇÝ: ¸³ ͳÝñ ѳñí³Í
ÏÉÇÝÇ Ýñ³ ѳٳñ: 9.¾É áñï»±Õ å»ïù ¿ ÉÇÝ»ñ »ñ»Ë³Ý, »Ã» áã
˳ճë»ÝÛ³ÏáõÙ: ܳ ¹áõñë ã¿ñ ·³, áñáíÑ»ï¨ ¹áõéÁ ÷³Ï ¿:
10.Ø»Ýù åݹ»óÇÝù, áñ Ý»ñϳ۳óÙ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ ³Ù»Ý³É³í
ï»Õ»ñÇ ïáÙë»ñÁ ï³ÛÇÝ Ù»½:

Ex.26. Complete the sentences using the modal verbs below

(affirmative
or negative form). Some gaps may have more than one
correct
answer (can, could, have to, must, might, should):
1. Ted’s flight from Amsterdam took more than 11 hours.
He ____ be exhausted after such a long flight. He ____ prefer to
stay in tonight and get some rest. 2. If you want to know the city
better, you ____ walk downtown and explore the waterfront. 3. I

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was reading the book last night before I went to bed. I never took it
out of this room. It____ be lying around here somewhere.
Where____ it be? 4. When you have a small child in the house,
you ____ leave small objects lying around. Such objects ____ be
swallowed, causing serious injury or even death. 5. ____ you hold
your breath for more than a minute? 6. Jenny’s engagement ring is
enormous! It____ have cost a fortune. 7. “____ I borrow your
lighter for a minute?” “Sure, no problem. Actually, you ____ keep it
if you want to. I’ve given up smoking.” 8. Oh no! Frank’s wallet is
lying on the coffee table. He ____ have left it here last night. 9.
The book is optional. My professor said we ____ read it if we
needed extra credit. But we ____ read it if we don’t want to. 10.
“Where is the spatula? It____ be in this drawer but it’s not here.” “I
did a load of dishes last night and they’re still in the dish washer. It
____ be in there. That’s the only other place it ____ be.” 11.
You____ take your umbrella along with you today. The
weatherman on the news said there’s a storm north of here and it
____ rain later on this afternoon. 12. I ____ believe she said that to
Megan! She ____ insult her cooking in front of everyone at the
party last night. She ____ have just said she was full or had some
salad if she didn’t like the meal.

Ex.27. Complete the sentences using the modal verbs might, must
or
should (affirmative or negative form):
1. Nancy said you didn’t need to buy her anything for her
birthday, but I really think you ____ at least get her some flowers
or a nice bottle of wine. 2. Debbie said she was really busy this
week, but I think she ____ show up at the party if she doesn’t have
to work overtime on Friday. 3. Nina said she would come over right
after work, so she ____ be here by 6:00. 4. Oh my God, he’s
unconscious. Don’t move him – he ____ have internal injuries.
Somebody call an ambulance. 5. You ____ be kidding! That can’t
be true. 6. “Where’s the remote control? I want to change the

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channel.” “I don’t know. It ____ be under the couch. Or, perhaps I
absent-mindedly took it into the kitchen.” 7. I would love to go on
the cruise to Tahiti. But such a luxurious trip ____ cost a fortune. I
doubt I could afford something like that. 8. New research suggests
that exercise can reduce the chance of heart disease as well as
cancer. That’s why I told my father that he ____ start walking once
a day. 9. We ____ invite Sally and her husband to come to the
picnic on Saturday. We haven’t seen them in weeks, and they
____ really enjoy a nice day at the beach. 10. You ____ worry so
much. It doesn’t do you any good.

Ex.28. Complete the sentences with the correct modal verb

(may/might,
have to, shall). Some gaps may have more than one
correct
answer:
1. I know it’s rather rude, but ____ I ask you where you
purchased that pocket watch. I have been looking for one like that
for my father. 2. ____ I have a look at that necklace there in the
display case? It’s exactly what I’ve been looking for. 3. I ____ be at
work tomorrow by 7:00. I ____ give a marketing presentation to
one of our clients. 4. You ____ be joking! If you think I’m going to
give you a tip after you mixed up the meal orders, spilled wine on
me and insulted my wife, you ____ get your head examined!!! 5.
You ____ leave the table once you have finished your meal and
politely excused yourself. 6. We ____ no longer suffer the injustice
of oppression. We ____ never give up the struggle for freedom! 7.
____ I try a little of your Black Forest cake? It looks absolutely
delicious. I ____ taste it! 8. You’d better take along some cash.
The restaurant ____ not accept credit cards. 9. You ____ take
along some cash. The restaurant doesn’t accept credit cards. 10.
____ we move into the living room? It’s more comfortable in there.
11. I’m not really sure if Susan is going to go snowboarding with us
or not. She ____ decide to stay here and study for her Japanese

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final. She ____ get a good score on the test if she wants to qualify
to study abroad in Tokyo next semester.

Ex.29. Choose the correct form of the infinitive in brackets:

1. I’m not really sure where Beverly is. She might (to sit) in
the living room, or perhaps she’s in the backyard. 2. Doug must (to
return) the video we rented on his way to work. It was on the table,
but now it’s gone. 3. You ought (to check) the air pressure in your
tires. You don’t want to get a flat tire on your trip. 4. The computer
isn’t working. It should (to damage) during production. 5. The
package should (to deliver) tomorrow afternoon. It was sent by
express mail this morning. 6. You have (to book) the tickets for the
play in advance – they sell out quickly. 7. You can’t mean that! You
must (to joke). 8. If Debbie hasn’t come home yet, she must still (to
wait) for us in the coffee shop. 9. Mike decided not to join us for
lunch. He had (to stay) at work to finish the marketing report. 10. If
I had gone with my friends to Jamaica, I could (to take) scuba
diving lessons. 11. Margaret agreed to meet us at the entrance to
the theater. She ought (to wait) for us when we get there. 12. The
machine can (to turn) on by flipping this switch. 13. That painting
might (not to paint) by Picasso. It could (to be) a forgery. 14. Your
diving equipment must (to clean) regularly if you want to keep it in
good condition.

Ex.30. Fill in the blanks with suitable modal verbs:

1. The medicine ____ be kept in the refrigerator. 2. Don’t
disturb her. She ____ be reading. 3. The fire-fighters ____ brave
the raging fire. 4. You ____ not buy me a new dress. I already
have one. 5. You ____ see the boss immediately. It is very urgent.
6. He ____ lift heavy weights. 7. My father said, “You ____ go and
play.” 8. You ____ obey your elders. 9. He looks familiar. I ____
have seen him somewhere. 10. ____ I take leave of you? 11. You
____ do it, if you tried hard. 12. They ____ rather die than
surrender.

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Ex.31. For each sentence, choose between can’t, might, should or
must
to fill each space:
1. Your mother ____ be a great cook. You are always so
keen to get back home to eat! 2. John ____ have gone on holiday.
I saw him this morning downtown. 3. Do you know where Carl is?
He ____ be out – his car keys are on the table. 4. Nobody
answered the phone at the clinic. It ____ have closed early. 5. To
give the promotion to Harold was silly. He ____ know much about
this company after only a year working here. 6. Go and look in the
kitchen for your gloves. They ____ be in there. 7. Oh, the phone is
ringing. Answer it. It ____ be Kate. She always rings at this time. 8.
I ____ have revised more for my exams. I think I’ll fail! 9. That
couple ____ think much of this film. They’re leaving already – after
only 20 minutes! 10. Sarah looks really pleased with herself. She
____ have passed her driving test this morning. 11. I didn’t know
you were going to Phil’s party yesterday. You ____ have told me!
12. I can’t believe Jim hasn’t arrived yet. He ____ have caught the
wrong train. 13. Don’t lie to me that you were ill yesterday. You
____ have been ill – Don said you were at the ice hockey match
last night.

Ex.32. Choose the correct option:

1. I don’t want to go out now. I may/must dust the furniture
first. 2. I can’t/may not carry all this luggage on my own. You need
not/must help me! 3. Could/May you open the window a bit,
please? 4. Don’t panic. You must/may pass the exam next time. 5.
May/Can you play the piano? 6. Listen, please. You may not/might
not speak during this exam. 7. They can’t/may not still be out! 8.
Be careful! You must not/need not fall over again. 9. It’s not
obligatory to take a tie. You mustn’t/don’t have to wear one. 10.
Slow down or we’re going to have an accident. You
shouldn’t/oughtn’t to drive so fast. 11. “Are you going to the party?”

361
“I’m not sure. I might/have to go.” 12. You shouldn’t/mustn’t be
horrible to your sister. It makes her very sad. 13. Tomorrow’s a
holiday. We don’t have to/ mustn’t get up early. 14. You should
take an umbrella. It might/must rain. 15. If you go sailing, you
might/should wear a life jacket. The sea is very dangerous. 16. On
the plane you need not/must not wear a seat belt all the time. 17.
You must/must not revise English words if you want to speak
English. 18. You must not/need not take me to the station. I know
the way. 19. You need not/may not stop in front of my garage. I
can’t get out. 20. Is your telephone all right now? May/Can you
hear me again?

Ex.33. Comment on the use of the verb need:

1. Don’t forget to bring the book tomorrow; I need it for my
report. 2. You may keep the money I’ve given you. I don’t need it
yet. 3. Must I go there right now? – No, you needn’t. Wait till I ring
you up. 4. Do you need my help? 5. You needn’t have gone into so
many details. 6. You needn’t be afraid of telling him the truth. 7.
You needn’t pay attention to his words. 8. Does she need to pay
the money in cash? No, she can pay by credit card. 9. Do we need
to leave right now? 10. I wonder if you need go there now. It’s late.
I don’t think if Robert need take his passport with him.

Ex.34. Fill in needn’t or mustn’t:

1. You ____ wash these fruits. I’ve already washed them.
2. You ____ translate that. I understand what you say. 3. You ____
tell Sandra. She can’t keep a secret. 4. You ____ lend me your
umbrella. I love walking in the rain. 5. I can go on my own. You
____ come with me. 6. I have to go now. I ____ be late for work. 7.
I know what you mean. You ____ explain further. 8. We ____ walk
all the way home. We can take a taxi. 9. We have enough food at
home. We ____ go shopping today. 10. Tom has broken his leg.
He ____ walk a lot. It is not good for him. 11. There’s plenty of time
for you to make up your mind now. You ____ decide now. 12. The

362
last bus is at eleven. I ____ miss it or else I won’t be able to get
home. 13. That’s not a secret. You ____ whisper. 14. That’s a
secret. You ____ tell anybody. 15. Take your time. You ____ be
back before eight.

Ex.35. Paraphrase the following sentences using the modal verb

need:
1. I see no reason why we should argue. 2. Why do you
want to press the skirt? It is not creased at all. 3. It was not
necessary for you to remind me about her birthday. I remember
the date very well. 4. There is no use worrying about her; she is
quite able to take care of herself. 5. What’s the use of reproaching
yourself? 6. It was quite unnecessary for you to do the work
instead of him. 7. There was no necessity for her to do the whole
translation herself.

Ex.36. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.î»ùëïáõÙ µáÉáñ µ³é»ñÁ ÇÝÓ Í³Ýáà ¿ÇÝ ¨ µáÉáñáíÇÝ Ï³ñÇù
ãϳñ µ³é³ñ³ÝÇó û·ïí»É: 2.ä³ñáÝ ´ñ³áõÝÁ ß³ï
³ñ¹³ñ³ÙÇï Ù³ñ¹ ¿: γñÇù ãϳ í³Ë»Ý³É Ýñ³ÝÇó ¨ Ã³ùóÝ»É
×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ: 3.γñÇù ãϳñ, áñ ¹áõù ¹Çï³ñÏ»Çù
Ù³Ýñ³Ù³ëÝ»ñÁ: ØǨÝáõÛÝ ¿ ¹³ µáÉáñáíÇÝ ãû·Ý»ó: 4.²ÛÝ, ÇÝã
²Ýç»É³Ý ³ñ»ó ³ÝÙïáõÃÛáõÝ ¿ñ ¨ ϳñÇù ãϳ, áñ Ù»Ýù ÑÇÙ³ ¹³
ùÝݳñÏ»Ýù: 5. γñÍáõÙ »Ù ϳñÇù ãϳ áõß³¹ñáõÃÛáõÝ ¹³ñÓÝ»É
Ýñ³ Ëáëù»ñÇÝ: 6. гñÏ ãϳñ, áñ ¹áõù ³Ý·Çñ ³Ý»Çù ³ÙµáÕç
ï»ùëïÁ: ¸áõù å³ñ½³å»ë å»ïù ¿ å³ïÙ»É ëáíáñ»Çù ³ÛÝ:
7.гñÏ ãϳñ, áñ ¹áõù ³Û¹ù³Ý ³Ýѳݷëï³Ý³ÛÇù: ºë ·Çï»Ç,
áñ ݳ ˻ɳóÇ ¿ ¨ ·ÇïÇ, û ÇÝã ¿ ³ÝáõÙ: 8.гñÏ Ï³±, áñ Ù»Ýù
³Û¹ ³Ù»ÝÁ å³ïÙ»Ýù Ýñ³Ý: 9.ä³ïÙ»±Ù, û ÇÝãå»ë ³Û¹ ³Ù»ÝÁ
å³ï³Ñ»ó: – àã, ϳñÇù ãϳ: ºë ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã ·Çï»Ù: 10.ºë
ѳëϳÝáõÙ ¿Ç, áñ ϳñÇù ãϳñ Ý»ñϳ ÉÇÝ»É Ýñ³Ýó
Ëáë³ÏóáõÃÛ³ÝÁ:

Ex.37. Translate the following sentences into English:

363
1.ºë ã»Ù ѳٳñÓ³ÏíáõÙ ÝÙ³Ý Ñ³ñó ï³É Ýñ³Ý: 2.ÆÝãå»±ë
ѳٳñÓ³Ïí»óÇñ Ýñ³ÝÇó å³ñïùáí ÷áÕ Ëݹñ»É:
3.ÎѳٳñÓ³ÏíDZ ݳ ³ñ¹Ûáù ·³É ³Û¹ »ñ»ÏáõÛÃÇÝ ³é³Ýó
Ññ³í»ñÇ: 4.ÆÝãå»±ë »ë ѳٳñÓ³ÏíáõÙ ³Û¹å»ë ÏáåÇï Ëáë»É
ùñáç¹ Ñ»ï: 5.лï³ùñùÇñ ¿, ÏѳٳñÓ³ÏíDZ ³ñ¹Ûáù ïÕ³Ý
ÉáÕ³Éáí ³ÝóÝ»É ³Ûë ·»ï³ÏÁ:

THE MOOD

Ex.1. Translate the sentences into Armenian and define the type of
the
mood:
1. Live as if you were to die tomorrow. Learn, as if you were
to live forever. 2. Had you informed us earlier, we would have
taken necessary steps. 3. Never explain – your friends don’t need
it and your enemies will not believe you anyway. 4. It is cruel to
discover one’s mediocrity when it is too late. 5. Long live peace
and freedom! 6. He suggested that they should think very carefully
before taking any actions. 7. Respect yourself, or no one else will
respect you. 8. Put your hand on a hot stove for a minute, and it
seems like an hour. Sit with a pretty girl for an hour, and it seems
like a minute. That’s relativity. 9. By all means marry. If you get a
good wife you will become an exception, and if you get a bad one
you will become a philosopher. 10. Love one another, but let’s not
try to possess one another. 11. It was very hot in the train and no
breeze came through the open window. 12. Be slow in choosing a
friend, but slower in changing him. 13. If he had dared he would
have asked them to go away. 14. You are not going to take him
away with you, are you? Leave him here, he is happy. 15. You
sing as if you knew all about the pains of love.

Ex.2. Translate the following Imperative sentences into English:

1.àõñ³Ë³óÇ°ñ ÏÛ³Ýùáí, áñáíÑ»ï¨ ³ÛÝ ù»½ ï³ÉÇë ¿
ëÇñ»Éáõ, ³ß˳ï»Éáõ, ˳ճÉáõ ¨ ³ëïÕ»ñÇÝ Ý³Û»Éáõ Ñݳñ³íá-

364
ñáõÃÛáõÝ: 2.гí³ï³° Ýñ³Ýó áíù»ñ ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝ »Ý
÷ÝïñáõÙ: γëϳÍÇ°ñ Ýñ³Ýó, áíù»ñ ·ïÝáõÙ »Ý ³ÛÝ: 3.ºÃ»
×Çßï ã¿, ÙÇ° ³ñ³: ºÃ» ×ßÙ³ñÇï ã¿, ÙÇ° ³ë³: 4.Âá°Õ ³Ù»Ý Ù³ñ¹
½µ³ÕíÇ Çñ å³ñï³Ï³ÝáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí£ 5.ºÕÇ°ñ µ³ñÇ, ³ñ¹³ñ ¨
³½ÝÇí: ¸³ ¿ »ñç³ÝÏáõÃÛáõÝÁ: 6.àã û ³ë³` »ë ·ï»É »Ù
×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ, ³ÛÉ ³ë³` »ë ·ï»É »Ù ÙÇ ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝ: 7.Âá°Õ
³ß˳ñÑÇ µáÉáñ Ù³ñ¹ÇÏ ³åñ»Ý ˳ճÕáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç£ 8.ºñµ»ù áã
Ù»ÏÇÝ ÙÇ° ³ë³ ùá ûñáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñÁ. ùá ÷á˳ñ»Ý ¹³ ϳݻÝ
ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñ¹: 9.ºñµ»ù Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ ÙÇ° ËݹñÇñ ½·³óÙáõÝù
³ñï³Ñ³Ûï»Éáõó: ºñµ ¹³ ³ÝáõÙ »ë, Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ »ë ËݹñáõÙ
×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛ³Ý Ñ³Ù³ñ: 10.êÇñÇ°ñ µáÉáñÇÝ, íëï³ÑÇ°ñ ùã»ñÇÝ:
ì³ïáõÃÛáõÝ ÙÇ° ³ñ³ áã áùÇ: 11.ØÇ° ³ÕÙÏ»ù »ñ»Ë³Ý»°ñ, Ë»Éáù
Ùݳó»°ù£ ´áÉáñ¹ Éí³óí»°ù ¨ »Ï»°ù ׳߻Éáõ£ 12.ÂáõÛÉ ïáõñ
ϳå»Ù í»ñù¹£ ØÇ° í³Ë»Ý³, ãÇ ó³íÇ£ 13.Êݹñ»°ù ï³ÝïÇ-
ñáõÑáõݪ ó³Í Ççݻɣ Þáõïáí ÑÛáõñ»ñÁ ÏųٳݻÝ: 14.ÂáÕ
»ñ»Ë³Ý ³ñ¨Ç ï³Ï »ñϳñ ãÙݳ, û 㿠ϳñ¨³Ñ³ñíÇ£

Ex.3. Translate the sentences into Armenian. State the type of the
subordinate clause:
1. His demand was that a clarification should be given why
the contract wasn’t signed. 2. It’s time you made up your mind
about that affair and took the bull by the horns. 3. It was suggested
that a committee should be set up to examine such questions. 4. Is
it possible that he should have given up composing? 5. But for the
beer I had had at the tavern I would never have done such a silly
thing. 6. Why treat it as if it was a serious dilemma? 7. If my
turquoise evening dress wasn’t at the cleaner’s, I could wear it. 8.
His romance would have ended harmlessly if he hadn’t made a
stupid mistake. 9. He hid the revolver carefully in order that the
children shouldn’t take it. 10. I wish you would give me one more
chance. 11. I don’t see why he should lie on the couch all day
when I am up and about. 12. When she came in from the rainstorm
she looked as if she had taken a shower with her clothes on.

365
Ex.4. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form (simple,
continuous,
passive) so as to have the Present Subjunctive:
1. They demand that he (to submit) a report. 2. I suggest that
you (not to take) the job after renegotiating the salary. 3. We
request that you (to be) here tomorrow. 4. We suggested that you
(to admit) to the organization. 5. Christine demanded that I (to
allow) to take part in the negotiations. 6. It is important that you (to
stand) there when he gets off the plane. 7. God (to save) me from
such friends. 8. They requested that she (to arrive) early. 9. The
monk insisted that the tourists (to enter) the temple only after they
had removed their shoes. 10. Jake recommended that Susan (to
hire) immediately. 11. It is important that they (to be) present at the
meeting. 12. It is crucial that a car (to wait) for the boss when the
meeting is over. 13. The demand that he (to provide) identification
will create a delay. 14. I demand that she immediately (to
apologize) for what she just said. 15. Mrs. Finkelstein demanded
that the heater (to repair) immediately. Her apartment was
freezing. 16. The boss insisted that Sam (not to be) at the meeting.
17. I propose that we all (to wait) in Tim's apartment when he gets
home. 18. It's important that she (to remember) to take her
medicine twice a day. 19. Far (to be) it from me to impose anything
on you but I think you'd better have a talk with him. 20. I know
you're in trouble, but (to be) that as it may, I can't find the money
for tomorrow morning!

Ex.5. Put the verbs in brackets in the correct form so as to have

the Past
Subjunctive:
1. If I (to know) her well, I would tell you about her. 2. People
would believe my story if I (to be) not so young. 3. If I (to know)
how to ski, I would have joined you. 4. If he (to go over) his
lessons yesterday, he would have passed the exam now. 5. If you
(to help) him, he would be happy now. 6. If only I (to be) a rich

366
man! 7. If I (to have) more time, I would show you my office. 8. If
she (to be) my girlfriend, I would buy her roses every day. 9. I’d
rather you (to come) another time. 10. Horatio would rather people
(not to know) about his test monkeys. 11. It’s about time William
(to retire). 12. It’s high time that you and I (to have) a chat about it.
13. If only he (to be) less stubborn, we could find a solution. 14. If I
(to be) you, I wouldn’t resign. Jobs aren’t so easy to find
nowadays. 15. She wishes he (not to be) not so clumsy: so many
mistakes would be avoided. 16. (to be) I in your place, I would not
be so easy-going with him. 17. You would have succeeded if you
(to keep on) trying. 18. He talks as if he (to know) everything. 19. I
wish my brother (to be) here. 20. My mother would know what to
do. Oh, how I wish that she (to be) here with us now! 21. If only
Hugh (to be) a little more responsible in his choice of courses! 22.
If Mrs. Lincoln (to be) ill that night, the Lincolns would not have
gone to Ford Theatre. 23. Her employees treated Mrs. Greenbelt
as though she (to be) a queen. 24. If his parents (to be) more
careful in his upbringing, Holden Caulfield would have been quite
different.

Ex.6. Use the correct form of the infinitive so as to have the

Subjunctive
Mood in the subject clause. Translate the sentences into
Armenian:
1. It’s doubtful that Emily (to tell) you the whole truth. 2. It
was best that she (not to be left) alone that night. 3. It is necessary
that all boys (to know) how to drive a car. 4. It is desirable that our
first album (to have) a great success. 5. It was important that he
(not to recognize) the voice talking to him on the phone. 6. It is
obligatory that all the books borrowed from the library (to be
returned) in time. 7. It was right that some of her friends (to stay)
with her. 8. It was requested that the customers (to pay) only in
cash.

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Ex.7. Use the correct form of the infinitive so as to have the
Subjunctive
Mood in the object clauses.Translate the sentences into
Armenian:
1. Sam wished the car (to stop) making that strange noise.
He feared lest it (to break down) before he got home. 2. If you wish
to submit any of your work to the BBC, may I suggest you (to get)
it typed out and also, (to retain) a copy for yourself. 3. I had to put
my foot down and insist that he (to buy) some fresh fruit and salad.
4. I wish you (not to call) me names. 5. I wish it (not to rain) right
now. 6. Lucy suggested that we all (to spend) the weekend at her
country-house. 7. We feared lest the storm (to burst out) before we
got to some shelter. 8. I wish I (to understand) what I want.

Ex.8. Use the correct form of the infinitive so as to have the

Subjunctive
Mood in the predicative clause. Translate the sentences into
Armenian:
1. Our suggestion is that you (to write) a really good play and
we (to stage) it. 2. After the tornado the town looked as if a giant
bulldozer (to drive) down its streets. 3. His dream was that he (to
find) a decent job and (to be able) to support his family. 4. The
matter is that everybody (to take part) in the discussion. 5. Ben felt
as if he never (to fly) before. 6. The request was that all the guests
(to leave) the keys with the reception clerk. 7. My wish is that you
(to be) more punctual. 8. The young scientist’s aim was that he (to
invent) a time-machine.

Ex.9. Use the correct form of the infinitive so as to have the

Subjunctive
Mood in the attributive clauses. Translate the sentences into
Armenian:
1. It’s time you (to roll) up your sleeves and (to start) to work
properly. 2. Your advice that I (to apply) to several universities was

368
helpful. 3. Her anxiety that she (to be late) for her interview settled
down as soon as she got off the taxi. 4. It’s time I (to fall) in love,
after all I am 14 years old! 5. They said it was time he (to tell) us
what he was for and against. 6. His aim that there (to be) peace
among nations was never to come true. 7. Miss Tracy’s suggestion
that they (to have) a picnic was accepted with joy. 8. His idea that
the novel (to be turned) into a film was greeted.

Ex.10. Use the correct form of the infinitive so as to have the

Subjunctive
Mood in the adverbial clauses. Translate the sentences into
Armenian:
1. Please, fasten your seatbelts so that you (not to be hurt)
when the plane lands. 2. I’ll come to your wedding, whenever it (to
be fixed). 3. They shut the windows lest the neighbours (to hear)
their voices. 4. Wherever you (to want) to go, I’ll give you a lift. 5.
Wherever he (to hide), I’ll find him and pay him off. 6. Sam writes
as though he (to be) left-handed. 7. His father gives orders as if he
(to be) a general in the army. 8. You are telling me all this as if it
(to happen) to you. 9. However badly he (to behave) you must
forgive him. 10. However seriously he (to speak) his words made
us laugh. 11. No matter how hard you (to try) you’ll never be able
to open this safe. 12. Whoever you (to be), I’m not afraid of you.

Ex.11. Use the correct form of the infinitive so as to have the

Subjunctive
Mood in the following conditional sentences.Translate the
sentences into Armenian:
1. Brandon said he (to give up) smoking gladly if he (can).
2. If I (to get) a racing bike for Christmas instead of this lousy
alarm clock, none of this (to happen). 3. If I (to be) you I (to do)
exactly the same. 4. If Linda (to be) here yesterday, she (to settle)
the problem. 5. If you (to listen) to your parents you never (to get)
into so much trouble. 6. The child (not to cry) if her mother (to be)

369
here. 7. If there (to be) another world war, nobody (to survive), I
am sure. 8. I never (to succeed) if you (not to help) me last year. 9.
If I (to have) no friends and family, life (to be) lonely for me. 10. If
the station (not to be) a long way from here I (not to take) a taxi.
11. If he (not to be) a careless driver the police (not to stop) his car
yesterday. 12. I never (to ride) roller skates even if you (to pay) me
a 1000 dollars!

Ex.12. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Subjunctive

Mood in
the subject clause:
Model: It is necessary for her to be more tolerant.–
It is necessary that she should be more tolerant.
1. Tom has an unassailable alibi. It is doubtful. 2. It was
necessary for the information to be kept top secret. 3. Sheila
doesn’t want anybody to know about her engagement. It’s strange.
4. It’s impossible for anyone to be angry with this cute child. 5. It is
important for him to find a job and get married. 6. Fred was hurt by
her remark. It was natural. 7. Linda hasn’t sent the invitation cards
deliberately. It’s quite possible. 8. Is it important for you to go into
details? 9. The child was frightened at the sight of the huge
Alsatian. It was quite natural.

Ex.13. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Subjunctive

Mood in
the object clause:
Model: He ordered his men to take action at once.–
He ordered that his men should take action at once.
1. We requested the speaker to keep to the point. 2. The
boss ordered all the employees to go through a medical
examination. 3. My parents insisted on my postponing the trip. 4.
She advised me to find a baby-sitter for the child. 5. She insisted
on our hiring a porter. 6. The guide requested the visitors not to
touch museum exhibits. 7. The lady requested to be introduced to

370
the famous writer. 8. The nurse insisted on the patient’s taking the
medicine at once. 9. He suggested holding the party at the best
restaurant.

Ex.14. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Subjunctive

Mood in
the adverbial clause of purpose:
Model: The announcement was fixed to the door for
everybody to
see it. –The announcement was fixed to the door so that
everybody should see it.
1. Mr Harrison hurried to lock the registers in the drawer as
he didn’t want anybody to see them. 2. Barbara gave her husband
some pills to make him sleep. 3. The assistant brought some
documents for us to study. 4. Maggie left the room hastily for us to
be able to speak face to face. 5. I’ll buy a crossword puzzle for you
to solve while you’re waiting. 6. I am talking all this for you to
understand what we expect of you. 7. She spoke loudly to make
everybody hear her. 8. Sandy always wears high heels to look
taller. 9. Alice turned away. She didn’t want him to see she was
crying.

Ex.15. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Subjunctive

Mood in
the adverbial clause of condition:
Model: Bob had changed so much that we didn’t recognize
him.
If Bobhadn’t changed so much we would have recognized
him.
1. The compass was broken. We got lost in the forest. 2.
The child did not obey him because he raised his voice at her. 3.
The work was dreary. He gave it up. 4. He often broke his
promises. They stopped trusting him. 5. The acting was poor. The
film didn’t impress us. 6. The art expert examined the picture

371
carefully. He noticed the defect. 7. Something went wrong with the
car brakes. We had an accident. 8. I haven’t got my camera with
me, I can’t take a picture of this ancient fortress. 9. The report was
monotonous and tiresome. I left the reading-hall.

Ex.16. Use the correct form of the Infinitive to have the Subjunctive
Mood:
1. But for his signature we (not to believe) it was his order.
2. She didn’t accept his invitation. It (not to be) sensible. 3. Why
didn’t you ask him that question? It (to be) the right time and place.
4. But for the taxi we (to miss) the train. 5. But for his slight accent
no one (to take) him for a foreigner. 6. I didn’t know their new
album was on sale. I (to buy) it. 7. “Rita, what you (to do) in my
place?” “I (not to sign) any document without reading it first.” 8. I
(to tell) him the truth. Why didn’t you? 9. But for the nasty weather I
(not to stay) at home. 10. But for her impatience she (to make) a
good teacher. 11. But for your smile I (not to recognize) you. 12.
It’s a pity you didn’t come. You (to enjoy) the party.

Ex.17. Translate the sentences into English using the Subjunctive

Mood:
1.ºÃ» Ýñ³ ÑÇí³Ý¹áõÃÛáõÝÁ ãÉÇÝ»ñ, ݳ ëÇñáí ÏÁݹáõÝ»ñ Ù»ñ
Ññ³í»ñÁ£ 2.ºë ã·Çï»Ç, áñ ¹áõ áõ½áõÙ ¿Çñ Ù»½ Ñ»ï ·³É£ ºë ù»½
Ïï³Ý»Ç ÇÝÓ Ñ»ï, ÇѳñÏ»£ 3.ºíë Ù»Ï ñáå», ¨ ݳ çáõñÁ
ÏÁÝÏÝ»ñ£ 4.ºÃ» ¹áõ ãÉÇÝ»Çñ, Ù»Ýù Ýñ³Ý ã¿ÇÝù ϳñáճݳ
ѳÙá½»É, áñ Ù»½ Ñ»ï ·³£ 5. ºíë 100 ¹áɳñ, ¨ »ë ·Ý³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ç
³Û¹ ѳٳϳñ·ÇãÁ£ 6.²Û¹ ѳñóÁ µáÉáñÇÝ ¿É Ïß÷áûóÝ»ñ£ 7. ºÃ»
ÇÙ ÷á˳ñ»Ý ÉÇÝ»Çù, áõ±õ٠ϳé³ç³ñÏ»Çù ³Û¹ ·áñÍÁ£ 8.ºíë ÙÇ
ñáå», ¨ ³ñ¹»Ý ß³ï áõß ÏÉÇÝ»ñ Ýñ³Ý ÷ñÏ»Éáõ ѳٳñ£ 9.øá
÷á˳ñ»Ý »ë Ýñ³ÝÇó Ý»ñáÕáõÃÛáõÝ ã¿Ç ËݹñÇ£ 10.ܳ
ÏÁݹáõÝ»ñ Ó»ñ ³é³ç³ñÏÁ£ ƽáõñ Ñ»ïÁ ãËáë»óÇù£ 11.¸áõù
å»ïù ¿ »Õµáñë ¹ÇÙ»Çù£ ܳ Ó»½ ³Ù»Ý ÇÝã ϵ³ó³ïñ»ñ£ 12.Ò»ñ
÷á˳ñ»Ý »ë ÑÇÙ³ Ýñ³Ý ѳݷÇëï ÏÃáÕݻǣ 13.ºÃ» ÷áÃáñÇÏÁ
ãÉÇÝ»ñ, ÇÝùݳÃÇéÁ ųٳݳÏÇÝ ï»Õ ÏѳëÝ»ñ£ 14.ºÃ» Ýñ³

372
³ÏݳñÏÁ ãÉÇÝ»ñ, ³Û¹ ÙÇïùÝ ÇÙ ·ÉËáõÙ ã¿ñ ͳ·Ç£ 15. ºÃ» ³Û¹
ïÑ³× ÙÇç³¹»åÁ ãÉÇÝ»ñ, »ñ»ÏáÝ ß³ï ѳ׻ÉÇ Ï³ÝóÝ»ñ£

Ex.18. Rewrite the sentences without changing the meaning:

Model: It's important that you have your car checked by a
mechanic.
It's important that you should have your car checked by a
mechanic.
The plan is for him to meet us at the restaurant.
The plan is that he should meet us at the restaurant.
1. It's necessary that he meet as many local people as possible. 2.
It is desirable for players to understand the rules before starting
the game. 3. It' important for you to be on time for the exam. 4. It's
vital for young people to have a lot of friends. 5. It is usual that
students leave everything for the day before the exam. 6. It is
desirable that you make your application as early as possible. 7. It
is vital that the documents arrive by tomorrow. 8. It is essential for
us to speak English if we want to work in tourism. 9. His idea is
that we travel in two different cars. 10. It is imperative for me to
speak to you as soon as possible.11. It is vital for the team to get a
new trainer if they want to win. 12. It is essential that we have a
first-aid kit in the car. 13. It is really important for him to pass all his
exams.

Ex.19. Use the infinitive in the correct form:

1. It’s time you (to make) up your mind about your further
profession. 2. Why treat it as if it (to be) a serious problem? 3. I
suggest that you (to go) down there tomorrow afternoon. 4. It is
advisable that you (to follow) the instructions on the label. 5. The
suggestion was that the conference (to take place) in April. 6. He
advised that we (to set up) a camp on the bank of the river. 7.
Andrew put on dark glasses lest he (to be recognized). 8. I’ll fulfil
all your wishes however unreasonable they (to be). 9. She took up
her work as if it always (to be) her custom to work there. 10. It’s

373
important that she (to have) whatever she wants. 11. You look as if
you (to have) a great problem. 12. She insisted that we all (to go)
to the restaurant and have supper. 13. I demand that you (to
come) with me. 14. Why people (to hurt) each other like this? 15.
But for his grey hair he (to be taken) for a boy. 16. Another effort
and he (to win) the prize. 17. I (to get) in touch with her if her
telephone (not to be disconnected). 18. Nobody (to pay attention)
to him if there (not to be) something odd about his behaviour. 19.
She took the news calmly as if there (to be) nothing unusual about
it. She was cheerful as if nothing (to happen). 20. I wish she (to
have) a sense of humour. 21. I wish he (to apologize) to her
yesterday. 22. But for you I (not to learn) the truth.

Ex.20. Translate the following sentences into English:

1.ºñ³ÝÇ ¹áõ ³í»ÉÇ Ë»É³ÙÇï ÉÇÝ»Çñ ¨ Ñ»ï¨³Í ÉÇÝ»Çñ
ÇÙ ËáñÑñ¹ÇÝ£ 2. ܳ ³ÛÝåÇëÇ ï»ëù áõÝ»ñ, ³ë»ë áõñí³Ï³Ý ¿ñ
ï»ë»É£ 3.ºñ³ÝÇ ÙÇ ùÇã ³í»ÉÇ áõÅ»Õ ÉÇݻǣ ²Û¹ ëñÇϳÛÇÝ ÙÇ É³í
¹³ë Ïï³ÛÇ£ 4.ºÃ» ˻ɳóÇ ·áñÍ»Ç, ßáõïáí ϳñáÕ ¿Ç Ýñ³
ÃÇÙáõ٠ѳÛïÝí»É, ¨ гññÇÝ ³Ûɨë ã¿ñ ѳٳñÓ³ÏíÇ íÇñ³íáñ»É
ÇÝÓ£ 5.ºÃ» »ë 30 ѳ½³ñ ýáõÝï áõݻݳÛÇ, ³ÛÝ ã¿Ç ͳËëÇ ïáõÝ
·Ý»Éáõ íñ³£ ºë Ïó÷³é»Ç ³ß˳ñÑáí Ù»Ï ¨ ³ñϳÍÝ»ñ
Ï÷Ýïñ»Ç£ 6. ʻɳÙÇï »ÕÇ°ñ ¨ ³Ûë »Õ³Ý³ÏÇÝ ï³ÝÇó ¹áõñë ÙÇ°
³ñÇ£ 7.ºÃ» »ñ»Ï Ó»ñ ¹»ÕÁ ËÙ³Í ÉÇÝ»Çù, ÑÇÙ³ ³í»ÉÇ É³í
Ͻ·³ÛÇù£ 8. ºñ³ÝÇ ÑÇÙ³ ÍáíáõÙ ÉáÕ³ÉÇë ÉÇÝ»Ç, ³ÛÉ áã û
ÑÇí³Ý¹³ÝáóáõÙ å³éϳͣ 9.ܳ ËáëáõÙ ¿ñ Ñëï³Ï, áñå»ë½Ç
µáÉáñÁ ѳëϳݳÛÇÝ£ 10.²ÕçÇÏÁ ëÏë»ó ³ÛÝå»ë ѻϻϳÉ, ³ë»ë
Ýñ³Ý Í»Í»É ¿ÇÝ£ 11.ÂáÕ Çñ³Ï³Ý³Ý³Ý ùá µáÉáñ »ñ³½³ÝùÝ»ñÁ£
²ëïí³Í ù»½ û·Ý³Ï³Ý£ 12.ºÃ» ݳ ³Ûëï»Õ ÉÇÝ»ñ, ÑÇÙ³
ÏÇٳݳÛÇÝù ÇÝ㠳ݻɣ 13.ºÃ» »ë ùá ÷á˳ñ»Ý ÉÇÝ»Ç, í³Õáõó
Ýñ³Ý å³ïÙ³Í ÏÉÇÝ»Ç ×ßÙ³ñïáõÃÛáõÝÁ£ ijٳݳÏÝ ¿, áñ ݳ
³Ù»Ý ÇÝã Çٳݳ£ 14. Þ³ï ϳñ¨áñ ¿ñ, áñ ÁÝÏ»ñÝ»ñÇó áã-áù
Ýñ³Ý ãÝϳï»ñ£ ܳ ѳ·³í Ï»Õͳ٠¨ ¹ñ»ó Ùáõ· ³ÏÝáó, ù³ÝÇ
áñ í³Ë»ÝáõÙ ¿ñ, áñ Çñ»Ý Ï׳ݳã»Ý£ 15. ²É»ùëÝ ³é³ç³ñÏ»ó,
áñ Ù»Ýù µáÉáñë ÙdzëÇÝ Ù»ÏÝ»Ýù ÈáݹáÝ£ ºÃ» ÓÛáõݳÙññÇÏÁ

374
ãÉÇÝ»ñ, ³Û¹å»ë ¿É ³ñ³Í ÏÉÇÝ»ÇÝù£ 16.лï³ËáõÛ½Ç ³é³ç³-
¹ñ³ÝùÝ ¿ñª ѳÛïݳµ»ñ»É ÃßݳÙáõ çáϳïÁ, áñÁ óùÝí»É ¿ñ
³Ýï³éáõÙ£ 17.ºë í³Ë»ÝáõÙ ¿Ç, áñ ³Û¹ ϳñ¨áñ
÷³ëï³ÃÕûñÁ ϳñáÕ ¿ÇÝ ·áճݳɣ ²í»ÉÇ É³í ÏÉÇÝ»ñ, áñ
¹ñ³Ýù å³Ñí»ÇÝ ãÑñÏǽíáÕ å³Ñ³ñ³ÝáõÙ£

THE NON-FINITE FORMS OF THE VERB

The Infinitive

Ex.1. State the form of the given infinitives:

to be given, to have reported, to inquire, to be listening, to
have been told, to have been crying, to be watched, to be
experimenting, to have been examined, to have impressed, to
have been searched, to be written, to have got, to have been
teaching.

Ex.2. Give all the possible forms of the following infinitives (active
and
passive):
to buy, to be, to stop, to have, to remain, to write, to count, to
let, to come, to listen, to teach, to study, to run, to give, to bring, to
catch, to laugh, to show.

Ex.3. State the function of the infinitive. Translate the sentences

into
Armenian:
1. To be honest with you, you don’t have any chance of
getting the post. 2. To live a happy life is everyone’s deepest
desire. 3. The policeman ordered me to stop. 4. The teacher let us
leave early. 5. The explorer’s aim was to find a new land. 6. Jeff
needs to study harder and to get to school on time. 6. I don’t know
what she wants to do tonight. 7. I don’t know if I have enough time

375
to finish all this work before I have to leave. 8. We stopped to get
something to eat at a little diner just next to the freeway. 9. To
explain the problem he drew diagrams all over the blackboard. 10.
You are too young to wear black. 11. Who was the first one to land
on the moon? 12. He was, to be frank with you, just an ordinary
little chap. 13. He didn’t like Lucy well enough to marry her. 14. He
isn’t an easy person to work with. 15. Have you ever stopped to
think about your goals in life? 16. Determination to win will bring
the team success.

Ex.4. Insert the particle to where necessary:

1. He made me ___ do it all over again. 2. ____ err is
human, ____ forgive, divine. 3. I was made ____ accept their offer.
4. Don’t worry. I’ll remember ____ call you tonight. 5. You ought
___ go today. It may ___ rain tomorrow. 6. You needn’t ___ say
anything. Just nod your head and he will ___ understand. 7. ___
tell you the truth, I don’t really know anything about this issue. 8.
He made her ___ repeat the message. 9. The kidnappers told the
parents not ___ inform the police, and the parents didn’t dare ___
disobey. 10. He wanted ____ see it. He stopped ____ look around.
11. If you want ___ get there before dark you should ___ start at
once. 12. I couldn’t ___ remember his address. 13. You’ll be able
___ do it yourself when you are older. 14. Would you like ___ go
now or shall we ___ wait till the end? 15. They won’t let us ___
leave the Customs office till our luggage has been examined. 16.
How dare you ___ open my safe! 17. He didn’t dare ___ argue
with his boss. 18. I’m sorry ___ disappoint you but I can’t ___ let
you ___ have any more money till the end of the month. 19. You
can ___ take a horse to water but you can’t ___ make him ___
drink. 20. I thought you were about ____ leave. 21. They refused
___ accept our help. 22. You’d better ____ contact him now. 23.
Please let me ___ know your decision as soon as possible. 24.
Need I ___ come? I’d much rather ___ stay at home.

376
Ex.5. Use the appropriate form of the infinitive:
1. The house was (be) ready today, but it isn’t. 2. This
window ought to (open). 3. You must (joke)! I can’t believe you’re
serious! 4. I oughtn’t to (lie) to him. I feel so sorry about it now. 5.
He pretended (watch) the film and didn’t look at me. 6. I am
expecting (give) a pay-rise next month. 7. I could (make) a lot of
money, but I was too young to be tempted by it. 8. He could (tell)
me! Why didn’t he phone me? 9. If she hadn’t been so bad-
tempered, I might (marry) her. 10. These doors should (shut). It’s
too cold in here! 11. I happened (wait) for the bus when the
accident happened. 12. I wouldn’t like (see) in your company. 13.
I’d really like (swim) in a nice cool pool right now. 14. He must
(come) this way; here are his footprints. 15. You must (wait) for
ages! You look so tired. 16. He would like (see) the picture, but it
wasn’t possible just then. 17. The woman seemed (cry) for hours.
18. You needn’t (cook) the vegetables. We could have eaten them
raw. 19. I would like (see) the Taj Mahal when I was in India. 20.
He pretended (paint) all day.

Ex.6. Paraphrase the following sentences using too or enough +

infinitive:
Model: You are still very young. You cannot get a driving
license.
You are too young to get a driving license.
1. Do we have time? Can we work on that assignment? 2.
The test was very challenging. The first graders couldn’t do it. 3.
They got to the train station too late and weren’t able to catch the
train. 4. I was standing quite close to the stranger and saw the
frightened look on his face. 5. The light was very dim in the
passage and we couldn’t make out anything. 6. The policeman
was so tall that he could see over the heads of the people. 7.
These girls are so clever that they can cope with the task by
themselves. 8. Oh, this painting is very beautiful! It can’t be painted
by a child! 9. The fog was extremely thick and the plane didn’t take

377
off. 10. The police arrived early and caught the robbers red-
handed.

Ex.7. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Objective

Infinitive
Construction:
Model: We know that she has telepathic abilities.
We know her to have telepathic abilities.
1. We expect that he will arrive in two days. 2. If he went to
university, I’d like it. But if he doesn’t want to go, I cannot make
him. 3. The man didn’t want to rob the bank, but they persuaded
him. 4. She tells jokes very well. Have you ever heard her? 5. She
claims that she is related to George Washington, but I don’t
believe her. 6. The voters remembered that the politician had
broken all his promises. 7. I watched the way the sun rose over the
farms and fields. 8. Tina expects that her children will clean their
rooms before their grandparents arrive this afternoon. 9. Do you
expect that I shall believe you? Do you believe that I am crazy? 10.
The child read that book. The mother made him. 11. Because of
the terrible weather we were forced to change our plans.

Ex.8. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Subjective

Infinitive
Construction:
Model: It is considered that this hotel is the best in the city.
This hotel is considered to be the best in the city.
1. It seems to me that you know this area very well. 2. It
appears that Mrs Polack is the most qualified person for the job. 3.
It seems to me that you are a little distracted. Is everything all
right? 4. We consider that he was a great athlete in his youth. 5.
He believed that he had met that girl somewhere before. 6. It
happened that I had driven that kind of car before. 7. He pretended
that he had read the book being discussed. 8. We supposed that
he had already left the country. 9. He hopes that he will have

378
finished by June. 10. I think that you are annoying him. 11. It
appears that he has been sitting there for a long time. 12. He
pretended that he had been studying since morning. 13. He didn’t
expect that he would be visited by friends. 14. They reported that
the football match will take place on April 25.

Ex.9. Paraphrase the following sentences using the for-to-infinitive

construction:
1. Swimming is very good for the human body. 2. It would be
better for you if you stayed here. 3. It may be dangerous if you
take more than two pills at a time. 4. Smoking can be very harmful
for teenagers. 5. Here is a fashionable dress. Try it on. 6. This skirt
is too long. I cannot wear it. 7. Children should eat plenty of
vegetables. It’s very important. 8. I can’t let him go. It isn’t easy. 9.
Why should we change our plan? There’s no need for it. 10. This is
the only thing we can do.

Ex.10. State the function of the for-to-Infinitive construction:

1. For me to hear him was disturbing. 2. She watched for
the door to open. 3. It is not necessary for you to wait any longer.
4. He had said enough for me to get alarmed. 5. It only takes ten
minutes for me to walk to the office. 6. I am so glad for you to have
come at last. 7. It is difficult for anyone to control him. 8. She held
out the papers for me to see. 9. I left a book here for you to look
over. 10. It is now too late for us to begin a new lesson. 12. There
is nothing more for you to do. 13. There were no toys for the
children to play with.

Ex.11. Join the following pairs of sentences by using infinitives:

1. She wants to pass the exam. She works hard for that
reason. 2. He was sensible enough. He did the right thing. 3. They
couldn’t solve the problem. It was too difficult for them. 4. The task
is very hard. It can’t be completed today. 5. The school appointed
John. He would teach English. 6. I have no interest in politics. I

379
must tell it frankly. 7. The child was very frightened. He couldn’t tell
the truth. 8. The police should investigate the case thoroughly. We
expect it. 9. She collects old stamps. It is her hobby. 10. There was
no time. We could not lose it. 11. I heard the news. I was shocked.
12. I speak the truth. I am not afraid of it. 13. Every country has a
government. It looks after its progress. 14. Every man should do
his duty. The nation expects this of him.

Ex.12. Complete the sentences below using the correct form of the
verbs
let, make, have, and get:
1. Sam really wanted a dog, but his parents wouldn’t ___
him have a pet. 2. I can’t believe she ___ you look at her vacation
pictures again last night. 3. I can’t believe the zoo keeper ___ you
feed the snake. That was so cool! 4. Professor Yu ___ each of her
students write an essay describing their future goals in life. 5.
Professor Yu ___ her students use a dictionary while they were
taking the test. 6. Debbie’s husband hates the opera. But after
days of nagging, she finally___ him to go see the new production
of La Boheme. 7. Sally ___ me take off my shoes before I went
into her house. 8. Rebecca Smith requested a copy of that
expense report, so I ___ the courier take one over to her last
week. 9. The interview with the little boy who lost his family in the
tragedy ___ everyone cry. 10. Mr. Levine ___ his secretary call
Ms. Jackson and reconfirm their meeting on Thursday. 11. Marcus
___ me drive his new BMW. I couldn’t believe how quickly it picked
up speed. 12. Cheryl didn’t want to wash her car, so with a little
smooth talk she ___ her boyfriend to wash it for her. 13. Tommy
didn’t want to go to his cousin’s birthday party, but his mom ___
him go.

Ex.13. Translate into English using the infinitive and infinitive

constructions:

380
 1.¸»ÝÇÝ ·Ý³ó Ñáñ Ùáï` Ýñ³ ѳٳӳÛÝáõÃÛáõÝÁ
Ëݹñ»Éáõ: 2.æÇÙÇ Ë³éݳß÷áà ѳÕáñ¹³·ñáõÃÛáõÝÁ áãÇÝã
ã³ñ»ó ³é»ÕÍí³ÍÁ ÉáõÍ»Éáõ ѳٳñ: 3.ܳ »ñç³ÝÇÏ ¿, áñ
׳ݳå³ñÑáñ¹»É ¿ ³ÙµáÕç ³ß˳ñÑáí: 4.Ø»Ýù µáÉáñë ³ïáõÙ
»Ýù, »ñµ Ù»½ ëáõï »Ý ³ëáõÙ£ 5.´ÇÉÇÝ Ñ³Ù³ñáõÙ »Ý ù³ÛÉáÕ
ѳÝñ³·Çï³ñ³Ý: 6.´áÉáñÁ ·ïÝáõÙ »Ý, áñ ݳ ß³ï ˻ɳóÇ
Íñ³·ñ³íáñáÕ ¿: 7.¸áõù ϳñÍáõÙ »ù ÇÝÓ Ñ³Ù³ñ Ñ»±ßï ¿
Ññ³Å³ñí»É ³Û¹ ÙïùÇó: 8.ºñ»Ë³Ý»ñÁ ëÇñáõÙ »Ý, »ñµ Çñ»Ýó
Ñ»ùdzÃÝ»ñ »Ý å³ïÙáõÙ: 9.¼·»ëï³å³Ñ³ñ³Ýáõ٠óùÝí³Í`
÷áùñÇÏÁ æ»ùÁ ëå³ëáõÙ ¿ñ, áñ ùáõÛñÇÏÁ ·ïÝÇ Ýñ³Ý ³ÛÝï»Õ:
10.ê³ ³ÛÝ Ñ³ñóÁ ã¿, áñ Ù»Ýù ÙdzëÇÝ ùÝݳñÏ»Ýù: 11. ìϳݻñÁ
ѳÕáñ¹»óÇÝ, áñ ï»ë»É ¿ÇÝ, û ÇÝãå»ë ¿ñ ·áÕÝ Çç»É »ñÏñáñ¹
ѳñÏÇ å³ïáõѳÝÇó: 12.ä³ñ½íáõÙ ¿, áñ ݳ »ñ»ù ûï³ñ É»½áõ
·ÇïÇ£ 13.ܳ ¹»ÙùÁ ·áõݳíáñ Ý»ñÏ»ñáí Ý»ñÏ»ó, áñå»ë½Ç
ͳÕñ³ÍáõÇ ï»ëù áõݻݳ£ 14.Ò»½ ѳٳñ Ñ»ßï ¿ ³Û¹å»ë
Ëáë»É£ ¸áõù å³ñ½³å»ë ã»ù å³ïÏ»ñ³óÝáõ٠ѻ勉ÝùÝ»ñÁ:
15. ÂíáõÙ ¿ñ, û »ñ»Ë³Ý ÇÝã-áñ Ñ»ï³ùñùÇñ µ³Ý ¿ñ ï»ë»É
ïáõ÷Ç Ù»ç: 16.ÂíáõÙ ¿, û ݳ ѳٳӳÛÝ ã¿ Ù»½ Ñ»ï:
17.²ÛÝå»ë å³ï³Ñ»ó, áñ í³ñáñ¹Á ·Çï»ñ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ý ¨
ѳëϳó³í, û ÇÝã ¿ñ áõ½áõÙ ½µáë³ßñçÇÏÁ:

The Gerund

Ex.1. Find the gerunds in the following sentences and state their
function.
Translate the sentences into Armenian:
1. You’ve never mentioned living in Japan before. How long
did you live there? 2. Many people find that they can beat stress by
walking. 3. Reading is a great way to relax. 4. My favorite thing is
floating on my back in the sea. 5. After watching the show, he
turned off the TV and went to bed. 6. Thank you for coming to the
meeting on such short notice. 7. I didn’t believe Camille’s story
about finding a rattlesnake in her bed. 8. Frankly speaking, I don’t
think you deserved to win that award. 9. Michael’s talent for

381
choosing the right investments made him rich. 10. Going skydiving
tomorrow will test how brave you are. 11. We had a great time
sailing from San Diego to Catalina. 12. What is wrong with my
computer? It keeps shutting down by itself. 13. Louis had some
problems buying train tickets in Beijing since he does not speak
Chinese. 14. She couldn’t have passed the exam without cheating.
15. It’s useless trying to convince her. She won’t go. 16. They
burst into the house by breaking the door down.

Ex.2. Use the appropriate form of the gerund:

1. I miss (to work) in the travel industry. Maybe I can get my
old job back. 2. You never mentioned (to speak) to them on the
subject. 3. The models practiced (to walk) with a book balanced on
their heads. 4. I don’t remember ever (to see) you. 5. On (to
introduce) they easily fell to (to talk). 6. She reproached me for not
(to keep) my promise. 7. The child denied (to steal) the piece of
candy. 8. He hated (to remind) people of their duties or (to remind)
of his. 9. I was annoyed at (to interrupt) every moment. 10. I regret
(not to meet) him earlier in my life. 11. After thoroughly (to
examine) by the doctor, the boy was admitted to the sports club.
12. They accused me of (to mislead) them. 13. My living room
needs (to vacuum). 14. He liked to do things without (to disturb)
anyone or (to disturb). 15. I resent (to treat) like a servant in my
own home! 16. I really appreciate (to have) the opportunity to take
part in this project. 17. Constance denied (to relate) to the royal
family. 18. After his insulting comments, I thought Jack deserved
(to fire). 19. Do you mind (to examine) first? 20. Do you mind (to
examine) this girl first?

Ex.3. Choose the correct option:

1. Sheryl forgot to bring/bringing her purse, so I lent her ten
dollars. 2. I completely forgot to come/coming here when I was a
kid. But now I remember! My parents brought me here when I was
three. 3. Lydia really regrets to drop/dropping out of high school.

382
She has really had to struggle to make a living because of that
decision. 4. I regret to inform/informing you that Mr. Smith has
passed away. 5. Did you remember to pack/packing your
swimsuit? Our vacation in Hawaii won’t be much fun if you can’t go
swimming. 6. Do you remember to be/being stuck in that elevator
when we were in New York? I thought we would never get out of
there! 7. If you can’t find the key, try to open/opening the lock with
something else, like a knife or a screwdriver. 8. She tried to
tell/telling him the terrible truth, but she just couldn’t bring herself to
do it. 9. I dread to think/thinking of what might happen next. 10. I
dread to go/going to work tomorrow. I think I’m going to call in sick.
11. Candice regretted to make/making that comment to Terry, so
she apologized later. 12. Oh no! I forgot to turn/turning the iron off
after using it. 13. I completely forgot to lend/lending you my
electronic dictionary. I thought I had lost it. 14. Mr. McDougall
regretted to fire/firing Denise, so he called her up and asked her to
come back to the company. 15. He’ll never forget to see/seeing the
Rolling Stones in concert! 16. Linda regretted not to go /not going
to her high school reunion. 17. I didn’t mean to hurt/hurting you.
18. She proposes to dismiss/dismissing him as soon as she finds
another person to take his place.

Ex.4. Use the correct infinitive or gerund of the verbs in brackets:

1. The Oscar-winning actor avoids (to talk) to his fans and
refuses (to give) his autograph. He has difficulty (to give)
interviews and appears (to have) problems (to interact) with other
people. Doesn’t he seem too shy (to be) an actor? 2. Katie’s
talking caused me (to make) a mistake. 3. After his accident last
year, he would never consider (to buy) another motorcycle. 4. The
mother refused (to buy) the little boy any candy and told him (to
stop) (to cry). 5. The police chief ordered his officers (to keep) (to
look) for the escaped prisoner. 6. Brandon intended (to do) the
assignment, but he postponed (to write) it for a week. 7. The
policeman ordered the driver (to stop) his car. 8. Denise resented

383
(not to have) the opportunity to work and advance her career. 9.
Michael postponed (to clean) the bathroom as long as possible. He
hates (to clean)! 10. I can’t imagine my husband (to wear) those
outlandish clothes. 11. I can’t believe you wanted (to go) (to fish),
and you forgot (to bring) a fishing pole. How did you expect (to
catch) any fish? 12. She delayed (to submit) her application until
just one week before the deadline. 13. She imagined (to lie) on a
tropical beach under a palm tree. 14. We arranged (to have) a taxi
pick us up and take us to the airport. 15. We don’t anticipate (to
have) any more technical problems during the concert tour. 16.
She refused (to speak) to me after our argument.

Ex.5. Choose the correct option:

1. I can’t stand to complain/complaining/her complaining all
the time. 2. Our teacher won’t allow us to use/us using/to use
dictionaries during the test. 3. We advised him taking/his to
take/him to take a taxi instead of walking to the restaurant. 4. The
city doesn’t allow parking/my parking/to park along curbs painted
red. 5. She prefers making/to make/my making dinner because
she doesn’t like to cook. 6. I hope you don’t mind smoking/my
smoking/me to smoke while you eat. 7. John is never on time to
work! I hate arriving/him to arrive/his arriving late every day. 8.
Sarah urged me voting/me to vote/to vote in the next election. 9.
The authorities won’t permit him to stay/to stay/him staying in the
country without a visa. 10. Travel agents usually advise him
reconfirming/reconfirming/to reconfirm flight bookings three days
before departure. 11. I enjoy not having/not to have/ my having to
get up so early in the morning. Sleeping in is great! 12. Nancy
proposed us to have/our having/our to have a picnic on the beach.
13. Do you wish our continuing/to continue/continuing, or would
you like to stop now? 14. His car needs him to wash/washing/to
wash. It looks like it hasn’t been washed in years. 15. Smokers risk
to get/me to get/getting several smoking related illnesses. 16. She
resisted me take/my taking/taking advice from her coworkers.17. I

384
wish she would just quit to complain/complaining/my complaining
all the time. 18. Leslie hired a man repairing/someone to repair/to
repair her fence.

Ex.6. Translate into English using an appropriate form of the

gerund or
the infinitive:
1.ºñ»Ïí³ÝÇó ÷áñÓáõÙ »Ù ϳåí»É سÛùÇ Ñ»ï, µ³Ûó ¹»é
ãÇ Ñ³çáÕí»É£ 2.ijٳݳϹ ÙÇ í³ïÝÇñ Ñ»é³Ëáë³·ñù»ñÁ
ûñûÉáí: öáñÓÇñ ÇÝï»ñÝ»ïáõÙ ÷Ýïñ»É Ýñ³ ѳëó»Ý£ 3.îÝÇó
¹áõñë ·³Éáõó ³é³ç ÑÇß»óDZñ, áñ ³ñ¹áõÏÝ ³Ýç³ï»ë£ 4.ºë
åݹáõÙ »Ù, áñ ¿ÉÇ »Ù ѳݹÇå»É ³Û¹ ÏÝáçÁ: ÐÇßáõÙ »Ù, áñ ï»ë»É
»Ù Ýñ³Ý êÃÇíÇ »ñ»ÏáõÛÃÇÝ: 5.سùëÁ Ëáõë³÷áõÙ ¿ ¹³ëÇ
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï µçç³ÛÇÝáí Ëáë»Éáõó: 6.ê³é³ÛÇÝ ¹áõñ ¿ ·³ÉÇë
ÈáݹáÝáõÙ ³åñ»ÉÁ. ݳ ·ñ»Ã» ³ÙµáÕç ÏÛ³ÝùÝ ³ÛÝï»Õ ¿ ³åñ»É:
7.ºë ëÇñáõÙ »Ù ³åñ»É ÷áùñ ù³Õ³ùÝ»ñáõÙ. ³ÛÝï»Õ ÏÛ³ÝùÝ
³í»ÉÇ Ñ³Ý·Çëï áõ ³å³Ñáí ¿: 8.Ø»ñ ßáõÝÝ ³Ý¹³¹³ñ ÷áñÓáõÙ
¿ ó³ïÏ»É ó³Ýϳå³ïÇ íñ³Ûáí; 9.êÏëáõÙ »Ù Ùï³Í»É, áñ
æ»ýÇÝ Ë³µ»ÉÁ í³ï ·³Õ³÷³ñ ¿ñ: 10.ºñµ ëÏë»óÇ Ï³ñ¹³É ³Û¹
·ÇñùÁ, ÑÇß»óÇ, áñ ³ñ¹»Ý ï»ë»É »Ù ýÇÉÙÁ: 11. ´ÅÇßÏÁ ËáñÑáõñ¹
ïí»ó ³Û¹ ËݹñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ Ù³ëݳ·»ïÇ ¹ÇÙ»É: 12.ƱÝã ¿ سÛùÁ
Ùï³¹Çñ ³Ý»É: ØDZû Ùï³¹Çñ ¿ ѳÙá½»É ÇÝÓ, áñ Ù³ëݳÏó»Ù Çñ
ßááõÇÝ: 13.öáÕáóÝ»ñÝ ³ÛÝù³Ý ³Ù³ÛÇ ¿ÇÝ, áñ »ë í³Ë»ÝáõÙ ¿Ç
Ù»Ý³Ï ¹áõñë ·³É: – ì³Ë»ÝáõÙ ¿Çñ, áñ ù»½ íñ³ ÏѳñÓ³Ïí»±Ý:
14. ´³ÝÏÇñÁ ³Ûó»ÉáõÇÝ ËáñÑáõñ¹ ïí»ó Ý»ñ¹ñáõÙÝ»ñ ϳï³ñ»É
Ãáß³ÏÇ ³ÝóÝ»Éáõ ѳٳñ: 15.Üñ³Ýù ¹³¹³ñ»óÇÝ Ñ³Ý¹Çå»É
÷áùñÇÏ ÃÛáõñÇÙ³óáõÃÛ³Ý å³ï׳éáí: 16.ºÃ» ëáí³Í »ë, ϳݷ
³éÝ»Ýù ÙÇ µ³Ý áõï»Éáõ: 17.ò³íáõÙ »Ù, áñ »ñ»Ï ³Û¹ù³Ý áõß
ïáõÝ í»ñ³¹³ñÓ³. ϳñ¨áñ ѳݹÇåáõÙ áõÝ»Ç: 18. ò³íáõÙ »Ù,
µ³Ûó ëïÇåí³Í »Ù ÙÇ ïÑ³× Éáõñ ѳÛïÝ»É Ó»½:

385
 The Present Participle

Ex.1. Note the use of the Present Participle in the following

sentences
and state its function. Translate into Armenian:
1. Working in the lab, the scientist created a robot. 2. Paul
sat on a hill watching the mother bear and her cubs until they
disappeared into the forest. 3. Joe, searching for the code, was
really excited. 4. The missing piece of paper was found yesterday.
5. Those students remaining at the museum came home about 5
p.m. 6. Stretching his legs, Jim got ready to run. 7. Working hard,
Sarah finally reached her goal. 8. Being unable to act alone, he
asked me to help him carry out his plans. 9. Frankly speaking, I
don’t like the modern trends in music. 10. She looked at me as if
warning me not to believe them. 11. He left the house, his dog
following him. 12. We stood waiting for the taxi.

Ex.2. Paraphrase the sentences, using the appropriate form of the

Present Participle:
1. As I had been unemployed for over two years, I found it
difficult to get work. 2. Remember to take all your belongings with
you when you leave the train. 3. Because the man had been
deprived of food for over twenty days, he was fed intravenously at
first. 4. The design was spoiled and it was good for nothing. 5. The
actor who stars in that film is my hero. 6. Jen liked to think of the
ocean as a habitat for creatures who share the planet with her. 7.
We looked over the rules which explained the game. 8. I pushed
my cart down the aisle of the supermarket and hummed along with
the music. 9. As the truth was revealed it was no use to hide it. 10.
The thief was described thoroughly; it was easy to find him. 11.
Because I had taken the wrong train, I found myself in Bath, not
Bristol. 12. After we had overcome a lot of difficulties we reached
our goal.

386
Ex.3. Open the brackets, using the correct form of the Present
Participle:
1. A wave (to curl) over the surfer seemed to swallow him for
a moment. 2. The people (to wait) for you have just left. 3. I could
hear thunder (to rumble) in the distance. 4. (to receive) no reply by
the end of the month we considered the order cancelled. 5. (to get)
what he wanted he took his hat and left the office. 6. (to tell)
whatever he knew, the witness left the box. 7. (to close) the door
quietly he tiptoed into the room. 8. The boat lay in the middle of the
river, (to carry) down by the current. 9. (to examine) by the
customs, the goods were let through. 10. (to sit) on the window
ledge (to overlook) the narrow street, I watched the children (to
frolic) in the first snow of the season. 11. (to ask) what he thought
of the play, the critic answered frankly. 12. I felt very tired (to work)
in the sun all day. 13. (convince) his parents to let him go to the
concert, he changed into his best clothes.

Ex.4. Point out the gerund and the Present Participle. Translate
the
sentences into Armenian:
1. The bus crashed into the blue car driving down the hill. 2.
On hearing that my sister was planning to get married, I decided to
leave the flat to her. 3. After taking everything into consideration,
we decided to sell the house. 4. Passing the theatre on my right, I
walked up the steps and could see the Thames ahead of me. 5.
Reading the classics is my goal this summer. 6. I never go
climbing. I’m afraid of falling. 7. I recall playing in this garden with
my sister. 8. Looking down from the tower we saw many people
walking in the streets. 9. Relaxing on his back patio, Jeff fell
asleep. 10. Samantha kept having problems with her computer at
work. 11. Do you mind helping me translate this article? 12. I sat
on the ground in a shady corner taking small sips from a can of
Coke.

387
Ex.5. Insert not or without before the -ing form:
1. ___ wanting to seem rude, I must tell you that you are
ungrateful. 2. Instead of listening to my advice, she walked out ___
saying goodbye. 3. I hated the idea of leaving Paris ___ seeing
any sights. 4. ___ being at his side during his illness, I could do
nothing to help him. 5. ___ wanting to go there alone, I asked a
friend to accompany me. 6. Can you guess what’s in this box ___
opening it? 7. Father went on sleeping ___ paying attention to the
noise the children were making. 8. ___ knowing the city well, I
needed a guide to show me around. 9. She went on asking me
personal questions ___ noticing my annoyance. 10. Why can’t you
two get along ___ quarreling! 11. He took the risk ___ thinking of
the consequences. 12. ___ knowing what to answer, the child kept
silent.

Ex.6. Translate the following sentences using The Present

Participle in
the correct form:
1.ºñϳñ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ³é³Ýó çáõñ Ùݳó³Í ÉÇÝ»Éáí`
ͳÕÇÏÝ»ñÁ óé³Ù»É ¿ÇÝ£ 2.²ëïÇ׳ÝÝ»ñáí ÇçÝ»ÉÇë ݳ
ѳÝϳñÍ Ï³Ý· ³é³í áõ ÙÇ å³Ñ Ùï³Í»Éáí, »ï ·Ý³ó`
ÑÇß»Éáí, áñ ÉáõÛëÁ í³é ¿ñ Ãáջɣ 3.ºë Ï³Ý·Ý³Í ¿Ç óáõó³÷»ÕÏÇ
Ùáï` ãÇٳݳÉáí, û ÇÝ㠷ݻ٣ 4.ºñϳñ Å³Ù³Ý³Ï ÈáݹáÝáõÙ
³åñ³Í ÉÇÝ»Éáí` ݳ É»½áõÝ ·ÇïÇ ï»Õ³óáõ å»ë£ 5.àñáß
Å³Ù³Ý³Ï Áݹáõݳñ³ÝáõÙ ëå³ë»Éáõó Ñ»ïá Ýñ³Ý Ññ³íÇñ»óÇÝ
ïÝûñ»ÝÇ Ùáï£ 6.Àݹáõݳñ³ÝáõÙ ëå³ë»ÉÇë ݳ Ùï³ÍáõÙ ¿ñ, û
ÇÝã åÇïÇ ³ëÇ ïÝûñ»ÝÇÝ£ 7.¶ñí³Í ÉÇÝ»Éáí ÑÇÝ ³Ý·É»ñ»Ýáí`
ӻ鳷ÇñÁ ß³ï ¹Åí³ñ ¿ñ ÁÝûñó»É£ 8.âó³ÝϳݳÉáí Ëáñ³Ý³É
Ù³Ýñ³Ù³ëÝ»ñÇ Ù»ç` Ù»Ýù ÷áË»óÇÝù ½ñáõÛóÇ Ã»Ù³Ý£ 9. ºë ã»Ù
ϳñáÕ ³ß˳ï»É, »ñµ »ñ³ÅßïáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³Û¹ù³Ý µ³ñÓñ ¿ ÑÝãáõÙ:
10.ºë ѳñ·áõÙ »Ù Çñ»Ýó Çñ³íáõÝùÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ å³Ûù³ñáÕ
Ù³ñ¹Ï³Ýó£ 11.ÌÝáÕÝ»ñÁ ß³ñáõݳÏáõÙ ¿ÇÝ íÇ׳µ³Ý»Éª
ãÝϳï»Éáí »ñ»Ë³Ý»ñÇ Ý»ñϳÛáõÃÛáõÝÁ£ 12.ä³ïáõѳÝÇ ·á·ÇÝ
ÙÃáõÃÛ³Ý Ù»ç Ýëï³Í` ÈÇÉÇÝ ¹ÇïáõÙ ¿ñ, û ÇÝãå»ë ¿ÇÝ ¹ÇÙ³óÇ

388
ß»ÝùÇ ÉáõÛë»ñÁ Ù»ÏÁ ÙÛáõëÇ »ï¨Çó í³éíáõÙ: 13. ²Ý÷áõÛà ¨
ѳå×»å ϳï³ñí³Í ÉÇÝ»Éáíª ³ß˳ï³ÝùÁ Ó³ËáÕí»ó£ 14.²Û¹
µ³é»ñÝ ³ë»Éáí` ݳ ßï³å ¹áõñë »Ï³í ë»ÝÛ³ÏÇó:

The Past Participle

Ex.1. Note the use of the Past Participle in the following sentences
and
state their functions. Translate into Armenian:
1. Invented by an Indiana housewife in 1889, the first
dishwasher was operated by a steam engine. 2. Dazzled by the
orchestra’s brilliant performance, the audience clapped wildly. 3.
My uncle always has his car washed. 4. I gave my completed
manuscript to the publisher. 5. If used sparingly, this face cream
should last you until Christmas. 6. Citizens forced into poverty by
unfair government policies will usually support a new candidate. 7.
When asked about the incident, he kept silent. 8. Shaken, he
walked away from the wrecked car. 9. He stood before the
masterpiece as if lost in admiration. 10. Though disappointed, he
didn’t tell anybody about it. 11. The order given, the servant
hurriedly left the room. 12. Encouraged by the polite applause of
the audience, the professor repeated his favorite joke.

Ex.2. Paraphrase the following sentences using the Past

Participle, so as
to make them simple:
1. The man who was arrested last night is my neighbour.
2. Arriving at the address that had been given to me, I found that
the house had been sold. 3. Every evening, even if I am exhausted
I never forget to do some exercise. 4. When I asked my friend if
she would like to learn English she said she wouldn’t. 5. He was
unable to speak, as if he was overcome by emotions. 6. Because
he was distracted by the news which was broadcasted on the
radio, he drove the car into a tree. 7. As I had sprained my ankle I

389
couldn’t play tennis. 8. Denny went out without saying good-bye,
as if he was hurt by my frankness. 9. When everything was
thoroughly explained we got down to work. 10. Though most
obstacles had been overcome, the course still seemed as hard as
before. 11. If they are arrested for robbery they will get a ten-year
sentence.

Ex.3. Open the brackets using the correct form of the Present or
Past
Participle:
1. We spent the whole day (to sit) in the train station (wait)
for the overdue train to arrive. 2. You just lie there on that couch
(to watch) TV all the time. Get up and do something! 3. (to invite)
to the party by Prince William himself, we could hardly refuse to
go. 4. (to delight) with the opportunity to learn, Christine took the
internship in New York. 5. The flag (to wave) in the wind is
inspiring. 6. While (to play) the tuba, Orin felt as if his world was
perfect. 7. (to finish) his homework, he watched the football match
on television. 8. (to give) instructions not to reveal anything he
remained silent while (to interrogate). 9. (to work) for that firm for
over twenty years, she decided to ask for a pay rise. 10. (to
destroy) the enemy fleet, the admiral ordered his men to retire. 11.
The swimmer, (to drive) by the need to be the best in the world,
made himself sick with anxiety. 12. (to sack), he applied for
another job. 13. (to rob) the bank, they went to Mexico. 14. The
kittens (to crouch) under the bed refused to come out.

Ex.4. Add the following adjectives to the text:

amazed/amazing, annoyed/annoying,
bored/boring, interested/interesting
Monday was a school holiday and, unfortunately, it rained all
day, so the children kept telling me they were ___ and there was
nothing ___ to do at home. I was trying to write up some of my
reports, but they kept interrupting me every five minutes and just

390
became very ___. I’m ___ that their teachers can keep them busy
and ___ in their lessons every day. After only one morning with
them, I was extremely ___ because of the constant noise and
squabbling. I was ready to throw them out in the rain. Instead, I
decided to take them to the cinema. It’s really ___ to see how calm
they can become in a dark cinema. The film seemed rather ___
but at least it kept them quiet.

Ex.5. Paraphrase the sentences, using Participial constructions

and
define their type:
1. I noticed that she was smiling unwillingly at your jokes. 2. I
found that Sam was sitting in the garden and was lost in thought.
3. The window was wide open and the curtains were waving in the
draught. 4. His father had gone bankrupt, so he had to give up
school and get a job. 5. The guests were still enjoying themselves
and little Mary couldn’t go to sleep. 6. Father hired some workmen
to redo our house. 7. I felt that somebody was trying to turn the key
in the front door lock. 8. I felt that the key was turned in the front
door lock. 9. After the question was asked, I tried to answer it as
well as I could. 10. He walked down the hall and the porter
followed him carrying his heavy luggage. 11. Children like it when
their grannies tell them fairy tales. 12. His story was rejected by
several magazines, but Martin didn’t lose heart.

Ex.6. Translate into English using the Past Participle:

1.ºñ»Ï ëï³ó³Í ï»Õ»ÏáõÃÛáõÝÝ ³Ýѳݷëï³óñ»ó
µáÉáñÇë£ 2.´ÉñÇ íñ³ ϳéáõóí³Í ïáõÝÁ ï»ë³Ý»ÉÇ ¿ñ Ñ»éíÇó£
3.æ»ñÙáóáõÙ ³×»óñ³Í µ³Ýç³ñ»Õ»ÝÝ ³ÛÝù³Ý ¿É ѳñáõëï ã¿
íÇï³ÙÇÝÝ»ñáí£ 4.²ÕçÇÏÁ ÏÍÏí³Í Ýëï»É ¿ñ µ³½Ï³ÃáéÇÝ£
5.Èñçáñ»Ý íÇñ³íáñí³Í` ½ÇÝíáñÁ ѳ½Çí ¿ñ ϳñáÕ³ÝáõÙ
ëáճɣ 6.ºë å³ïñ³ëïíáõÙ ¿Ç ÙÇ ù³ÛÉ ³Ý»É, áñÁ, »Ã»
ë˳Éí»Ç, Éáõñç ѻ勉ÝùÝ»ñ Ïáõݻݳñ£ 7.Ø»Ýù ³Û¹ ѳñóÁ
í»ñçݳϳݳå»ë ÉáõÍí³Í »Ýù ѳٳñáõÙ£ 8.ܳ å³éÏ³Í ¿ñ

391
µ³½ÙáóÇݪ Ñá·Ý³Í ¨ Ñdzëó÷í³Í£ 9.ÊáëïáõÙÁ áãÇÝã ã³ñÅ»,
»Ã» ¹ñÅíáõÙ ¿£ 10.ºñ»Ë³Ý ³ÛÝå»ë ×ã³ó, ³ë»ë Éáõñç
íݳëí³Íù ¿ñ ëï³ó»É£ 11.Ø»Ýù ÷³ëï³ÃÕûñÁ ß³ï áõß³¹Çñ
ëïáõ·»óÇÝù, ãÝ³Û³Í Ù»½ ßï³å»óÝáõÙ ¿ÇÝ£ 12.ºñµ ïáõÝ
í»ñ³¹³ñÓ³, ë»Õ³ÝÝ ³ñ¹»Ý ·óí³Í ·ï³£ 13. Ðñ³Ù³ÝÁ
ïñí»ÉáõÝ å»ë ½ÇÝíáñÝ»ñÝ ³Ýó³Ý ·ñáÑÇ£ 14. ºë áãÇÝã áõï»É
ã»Ù ϳñáÕ£ ²ï³Ùë ùÇã ³é³ç »Ý Ñ»é³óñ»É£ 15. Üñ³Ýù å»ïù ¿
Çñ»Ýó ó³Ýϳå³ïÁ ϳݳã Ý»ñÏ»É ï³Ý£ 16.Üáñ µÝ³ÏÇãÝ»ñÁ
í»ñç³å»ë ųٳݻóÇÝ Ï³ÑáõÛùáí áõ ³ÛÉ Çñ»ñáí µ»éÝí³Í
Ù»ù»Ý³Ûáí:

392
 APPENDIX

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS

PAST PAST
INFINITIVE
INDEFINITE PARTICIPLE
arise arose [q‫׳‬rquz] arisen [q‫׳‬rızn] ͳ·»É, µ³ñÓñ³Ý³É
awoke, ³ñÃݳóÝ»É,
awake awoke
awaked ³ñÃݳݳÉ
be was, were been ÉÇÝ»É, ·ïÝí»É
ï³Ý»É, ¹ÇٳݳÉ,
bear bore born
ÍÝ»É
beat beat [bı:t] beaten [bı:tn] Ë÷»É, µ³µ³Ë»É
become became become ¹³éݳÉ
begin began begun ëÏë»É, ëÏëí»É
bend bent bent ûù»É, ûùí»É
bind bound bound
ϳå»É, ³Ùñ³óÝ»É
[baind] [baund] [baund]
bite bit bitten ÏÍ»É, ˳ÛûÉ
³ñÛáõݳÑáë»É,
bleed bled bled
³ñݳù³Ù ÉÇÝ»É
blow blew blown ֋ȃ
break
broke broken Ïáïñ»É, Ïáïñí»É
[breık]
bring [brıŋ] brought [brɔ:t] brought [brɔ:t] µ»ñ»É
ѳÕáñ¹»É
broadcast broadcast broadcast
(é³¹ÇáÛáí)
build built built ϳéáõó»É
burn burnt, burned burnt, burned ³Ûñ»É, ³Ûñí»É
burst burst burst å³ÛûÉ, å³ïéí»É
buy [baı] bought [bɔ:t] bought [bɔ:t] ·Ý»É
cast cast cast Ý»ï»É, ·ó»É
catch caught caught µéÝ»É

393
choose chose chosen ÁÝïñ»É
come came come ·³É
cost cost cost ³ñŻݳÉ
creep crept crept ëáÕ³É
cut cut cut 앖ȃ
dig dug dug ÷áñ»É, ù³Ý¹»É
do did done ³Ý»É
ù³ß»É, ·Í»É,
draw drew drawn
Ýϳñ»É
drink drank drunk ËÙ»É
drive drove driven [drıvn] ùß»É, í³ñ»É
eat ate eaten áõï»É
fall fell fallen ÁÝÏÝ»É
feed fed fed Ï»ñ³Ïñ»É
feel felt felt ½·³É
fight fought fought 쎒ȃ
·ïÝ»É,
find found found
ѳÛïݳµ»ñ»É
fly flew flown Ãéã»É
forbid forbade forbidden ³ñ·»É»É
forecast forecast forecast ϳÝ˳·áõ߳ϻÉ
forget forgot forgotten Ùáé³Ý³É
forgive forgave forgiven Ý»ñ»É
freeze froze frozen ë³é»óÝ»É, ë³éã»É
ëï³Ý³É, Ó»éù
get got got
µ»ñ»É, ѳëÝ»É
give gave given ï³É
go went gone ·Ý³É
grow grew grown ³×»É
hang hung hung ϳ˻É
have had had áõݻݳÉ
hear heard heard Éë»É
hide hid hidden, hid óùóÝ»É
hit hit hit Ë÷»É, ѳñí³Í»É

394
hold held held µéÝ»É, å³Ñ»É
íݳë»É,
hurt hurt hurt íÇñ³íáñ»É,
ݻճóÝ»É
keep kept kept å³Ñ»É
kneel knelt knelt ÍáõÝÏÇ ·³É
knit knitted, knit knitted, knit ·áñÍ»É
know knew known ÇٳݳÉ, ׳ݳã»É
lay laid laid ¹Ý»É
lead led led ³é³çÝáñ¹»É
leant [lent], leant [lent],
lean ѻݻÉ, Ñ»Ýí»É
leaned [lı:nd] leaned [lı:nd]
learnt, learnt,
learn ëáíáñ»É, ÇٳݳÉ
learned learned
·Ý³É, Ñ»é³Ý³É,
leave left left
ÃáÕÝ»É
lend lent lent å³ñïù ï³É
let let let ÃáõÛɳïñ»É
lie lay lain å³éÏ»É
Éáõë³íáñ»É,
light lighted, lit lighted, lit
Éáõë³íáñí»É
lose lost lost ÏáñóÝ»É
³Ý»É, ¹³éݳÉ,
make made made
ëïÇå»É
Ùï³¹ñí»É,
mean meant [ment] meant [ment]
»Ýó¹ñ»É
meet met met ѳݹÇå»É
pay paid paid í׳ñ»É
put put put ¹Ý»É
read read [red] read [red] ϳñ¹³É, ÁÝûñó»É
·Ý³É (ÓÇáí,
ride rode ridden
Ù»ù»Ý³Ûáí)
½Ý·³É,
ring rang rung
½³Ý·³Ñ³ñ»É

395
rise rose risen [rızn] µ³ñÓñ³Ý³É
run ran run í³½»É
say said [sed] said [sed] ³ë»É
see saw seen ï»ëÝ»É
seek sought [sɔ:t] sought [sɔ:t] ÷Ýïñ»É, áñáÝ»É
sell sold sold í³×³é»É
sew [sǝu] sewed [sǝud] sewn [sǝun] ϳñ»É
send sent sent áõÕ³ñÏ»É
set set set ¹Ý»É, ï»Õ³íáñ»É
shake shook shaken ó÷³Ñ³ñ»É
shave shaved shaven ë³÷ñ»É, ë³÷ñí»É
shone [ʃɔn], shone [ʃɔn],
shine [ʃaın] ÷³ÛÉ»É
[ʃǝun] [ʃǝun]
shoot shot shot Ïñ³Ï»É
shown,
show showed óáõÛó ï³É
showed
shut shut shut ͳÍÏ»É, ÷³Ï»É
sing sang sung »ñ·»É
sink sank sunk ëáõ½í»É
sit sat sat Ýëï»É
sleep slept slept ùÝ»É
slide slid slid ë³Ñ»É
smelt, smelt,
smell Ñáï ù³ß»É, µáõñ»É
smelled smelled
speak spoke spoken 臑ȃ
spell spelt, spelled spelt, spelled Ñ»·»É
ͳËë»É,
spend spent spent
³ÝóϳóÝ»É
spill spilt, spilled spilt, spilled ó÷»É, ó÷í»É
spit spat spat ̝ȃ
split split split ×»Õù»É
spoil spoilt, spoiled spoilt, spoiled ÷ã³óÝ»É
spread spread spread ï³ñ³Í»É,
[spred] [spred] [spred] ï³ñ³Íí»É

396
spring sprang sprung ó³ïÏ»É, ͳ·»É
stand stood stood ϳݷݻÉ
steal stole stolen ·áճݳÉ
stick stuck stuck Ïåã»É, ÷³ÏóÝ»É
sting stung stung ˳ÛûÉ
strike struck struck Ë÷»É, ѳñí³Í»É
swear swore sworn »ñ¹í»É
ëɳݳÉ, ëñµ»É,
sweep swept swept
Ù³ùñ»É, ³íÉ»É
swim swam swum ÉáÕ³É
swing swung swung ×á×»É, ×á×í»É
take took taken í»ñóÝ»É
teach taught [tɔ:t] taught [tɔ:t] ëáíáñ»óÝ»É
tear tore torn å³ïé»É
tell told told ³ë»É, å³ïÙ»É
think thought thought Ùï³Í»É, ϳñÍ»É
throw threw thrown Ý»ï»É, ßåñï»É
understand understood understood ѳëϳݳÉ
³ñÃݳݳÉ,
wake woke, waked woken, waked
³ñÃݳóÝ»É
wear wore worn ѳ·Ý»É, Ïñ»É
weep wept wept ɳó ÉÇÝ»É, áÕµ³É
win won [w n] won [w n] ߳ѻÉ, ѳÕûÉ
wind wound wound
áÉáñí»É, ɳñ»É
[waind] [waund] [waund]
write wrote written ·ñ»É

THE VERBALS

Active Passive
Indefinite to give to be given
Infinitive

Continuous to be giving ------------

Perfect to have given to have been given

397
 Perfect to have been
------------
Gerund Continuous giving
Indefinite giving being given

Perfect having given having been given

Participle Participle

Indefinite giving being given

Present

Perfect having given having been given

Past

given

Common Verbs Followed by an Infinitive

afford chance get manage request

agree choose grow up mean say
appear claim guarantee need seek
arrange come hate offer seem
ask continue hesitate pay start
attempt dare hope plan swear
begin decide hurry prefer tend
can’t
deserve intend prepare threaten
afford
can’t bear determine learn pretend turn out
can’t
elect like promise want
stand
can’t wait expect long prove wish
care fail love refuse would like

398
 Common Verbs Followed By Gerunds
An asterisk (*) denotes a verb that can also be followed by
infinitive

acknowledge detest like* propose

admit discuss love* quit
allow dislike mention recall
appreciate dispute mind (object to) recollect
attempt dread miss recommend
avoid endure omit regret*
be worth enjoy permit report
began escape picture resent
can’t bear* explain postpone resist
can’t help fancy practice resume
can’t stand* feel like prefer risk
celebrate finish prevent start*
confess forgive prohibit suggest
consider give up (stop) propose support
continue* hate* practice tolerate
defend imagine prefer* try*
delay justify prevent understand
deny keep (continue) prohibit urge

399
 Verbs Followed by Object + Infinitive
*Indicates verbs that can be followed by an infinitive only (no
object).

advise force remind

allow hire require
ask* invite teach
cause need* tell
choose* order urge
convince pay* want*
encourage permit warn
expect* persuade would like*

400
 REFERENCES

1. Azar. B. Fundamentals of English Grammar. Regents/Prentice

Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, 1992.
2. Carter R., McCarthy M. Cambridge Grammar of English.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006.
3. Close R. A. A Reference Grammar for students of English.
Moscow: Prosveshcheniye, 1979.
4. Hornby A.S. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current
English. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 200.
5. Kobrina N.A., Korneyeva E.A,, Ossovskaya M.I., Guzeyeva
K.A. An English Grammar. Morphology. Syntax. Saint-
Petersburg: Soyuz, 2004.
6. Kreidler Ch. W. Introducing English Semantics. Routledge,
2002.
7. Mkhitaryan Ye., Hambartsoumyan N., Markaryan A., Avakyan
N. A Practical English Grammar (with exercises). Yerevan:
“Zangak-97” Publishing House, 2009.
8. Mkhitaryan Ye., Kostanyan Z. English Syntax (exercises).
Yerevan: Yerevan University Press, 2006.
9. Swan M. Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1980.
10. Кобрина Н.А., Болдырев Н.Н., Худяков А.А. Теоретическая
грамматика английского языка. Москва: Высшая школа, 2007.
11. Hewings M. (2003) Advanced Grammar in Use: Cambridge,
UK: Cambridge University Press.
12. Yule George (2011) Oxford Practice Grammar. Oxford
University Press.
13. www.englisch-hilfen
14. www.agendaweb.org
15. www.edufind.com/english

401
 Ye. Mkhitaryan, N. Hambartsoumyan,
A. Markaryan, N. Avakyan

A BASIC ENGLISH GRAMMAR: MORPHOLOGY

(with exercises)

ºÉ»Ý³ ê³ñǵ»ÏÇ ØËÇóñÛ³Ý, Üáñ³ ìɳ¹ÇÙÇñÇ Ð³Ùµ³ñÓáõÙÛ³Ý,

²ñáõë ì³ÝÇÏÇ Ø³ñ·³ñÛ³Ý, ܳÇñ³ سÏÇãÇ ²í³·Û³Ý

²Ü¶ÈºðºÜ Ⱥ¼ìÆ øºð²Î²ÜàôÂÚàôÜ. Һ체²ÜàôÂÚàôÜ

(í³ñÅáõÃÛáõÝÝ»ñáí)

¸³ë³·Çñù µáõÑ»ñÇ Ù³ëݳ·Çï³Ï³Ý

ý³ÏáõÉï»ïÝ»ñÇ áõë³ÝáÕÝ»ñÇ Ñ³Ù³ñ

Ðñ³ï³ñ³ÏãáõÃÛ³Ý ïÝûñ»Ýª ¾.ê. ØÏñïãÛ³Ý

¶»Õ³ñí»ëï³Ï³Ý ËÙµ³·Çñª ².². ´³Õ¹³ë³ñÛ³Ý
гٳϳñ·ã³ÛÇÝ ¿ç³¹ñáõÙÁª ¶.². гñáõÃÛáõÝÛ³ÝÇ

ISBN 978–99941–1–909–7

îå³·ñáõÃÛáõÝÁª ûýë»Ã: â³÷ëÁª 60x84 1/16: ÂáõÕÃÁª ûýë»Ã:

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©
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0051, ºñ¨³Ý, ÎáÙÇï³ëÇ åáÕ. 49/2, Ñ»é.ª (+37410) 23–25–28
лé³å³ï׻ݪ (+37410) 23–25–95, ¿É. ÷áëïª info@zangak.am
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402