1

Lens ..........................................................................................................................................................2
1. Convex lens ..................................................................................................................................2
2. Concave lens ................................................................................................................................3
Figures ......................................................................................................................................................3
History ......................................................................................................................................................4
3. Convex lens history ......................................................................................................................4
4. History of concave lens ................................................................................................................5
Terminologies for a lens ..........................................................................................................................6
i. Centre of curvature: .................................................................................................................6
ii. Radius of curvature: .................................................................................................................6
iii. Principle axis: ...........................................................................................................................6
iv. Optical Centre: .........................................................................................................................6
v. Principle focus ..........................................................................................................................6
vi. Focal length: .............................................................................................................................6
vii. Aperture of lens: ......................................................................................................................6
Sign Conventions .....................................................................................................................................7
Prismatic action of lens ............................................................................................................................7
Graphical methods of lens .......................................................................................................................8
Figures of convex lens ..............................................................................................................................9
Figures of concave lens ..........................................................................................................................10
Virtual & real image ...............................................................................................................................10
Virtual image ..................................................................................................................................10
Real images ....................................................................................................................................11
Linear magnification ..............................................................................................................................12
Visual angle ............................................................................................................................................12
Formulas ................................................................................................................................................13
References .............................................................................................................................................14
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Lens

Introduction
Lens
A lens is a transmissive optical device that focuses or disperses a light beam by means of
refraction. A lens is a piece of transparent refracting material bounded by two surfaces out of
which at least one is curved. Lens can be made by any transparent medium like water, glass
diamond, etc. However, water is a liquid having no fixed shape and diamond is expensive. So,
glass is usually used to make lenses. Lens is an important optical component used in
microscopes, telescopes, cameras, projectors, etc. They are also used as visual aids in glasses
to correct defects of vision such as myopia and hypermetropia.

Lens converges or diverges the incident beam of light. To make the light coverage or diverge,
it is made when varying thickness. Lens is divided into two classes.

i. Convex lens
ii. Concave lens

1. Convex lens

This type of lens is thicker at the center and thinner at the edges.

An optical lens is generally made up of two spherical surfaces. If those surfaces are bent
outwards, the lens is called a biconvex lens or simply a convex lens. These types of lenses can
converge a beam of light coming from outside and focus it to a point on the other side. This
point is known as the focus and the distance between the center of the lens to the focus is
called the focal length of the convex lens. Basically, convex lens is divided into three types:

i. Bi-convex lens or double convex lens

ii. Plano-convex lens
iii. Concavo-convex lens
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2. Concave lens

This type of lens is thinner at the center and thicker at the edges.

A concave lens is a lens that diverges a straight light beam from the source to a diminished,
upright, virtual image. It can form both real and virtual images. Concave lenses have at least
one surface curved inside. A concave lens is also known as a diverging lens because it is shaped
round inwards at the center and bulges outwards through the edges, making the light diverge.
They are used to treat myopia as they make faraway objects look smaller than they are. There
are three types of concave lens: -

i. Bi-concave lens or double concave lens

ii. Plano concave lens
iii. Convexo-concave lens

Figures
 4

History
Lenses have been used for thousands of years to help people see better. The ancient
Egyptians used simple lenses made of glass or crystal to magnify objects, while the Greeks
used water-filled lenses to create fire. In the Middle Ages, monks used lenses to copy and
translate ancient texts.

During the Renaissance, scientists began to study lenses more closely, and in the 17th century,
the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek invented the microscope, which used powerful
lenses to see tiny objects that were invisible to the naked eye.

In the 19th century, lenses became an important part of photography, and camera lenses
were developed to capture clear and detailed images. Today, lenses are used in everything
from eyeglasses to telescopes and microscopes, and new technologies continue to improve
the quality and precision of lenses.

Remember, it's important to protect your personal information, so never give out any data
unless you trust the source and know it is safe to do so.

3. Convex lens history

The history of the convex lens goes back to ancient times, when people discovered that a glass
or crystal object could magnify things when held up to the eye.

The ancient Egyptians and Greeks used convex lenses to make objects look bigger and to
create fire. In the 13th century, a scholar named Roger Bacon wrote about the properties of
lenses and their ability to focus light.

In the 17th century, the Dutch scientist Christiaan Huygens designed a telescope that used a
convex lens to magnify distant objects. This led to the development of many new kinds of
lenses and optical instruments, including microscopes and cameras.

Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists continued to study the properties of convex
lenses and how they could be used to correct vision problems. Today, convex lenses are still
used in eyeglasses to help people see better, as well as in cameras, projectors, and many
other optical devices.
 5

Overall, the history of the convex lens is a long and fascinating one, with many discoveries
and inventions that have helped us better understand light and improve our ability to see and
communicate.

4. History of concave lens

The concave lens, also known as a diverging lens, has a history that dates to the 10th century,
when the Persian mathematician and astronomer Alhazen wrote about the properties of light
and lenses.

In the 17th century, the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes studied the
properties of concave lenses and how they could be used to correct vision problems. He also
discovered that concave lenses could spread light rays apart, rather than focusing them like
convex lenses.

Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists continued to explore the properties of
concave lenses and how they could be used in various optical instruments. For example,
concave lenses are used in telescopes and binoculars to widen the field of view and make
distant objects appear smaller.

Today, concave lenses are used in eyeglasses to correct nearsightedness, a condition where
objects appear blurry when viewed from a distance. They are also used in cameras, projectors,
and other optical devices to control the shape and direction of light rays.

Overall, the history of the concave lens is a long and rich one, filled with discoveries and
innovations that have helped us better understand the properties of light and create new
technologies for enhancing our vision and perception of the world. The concave lens, also
known as a diverging lens, has a history that dates back to the 10th century, when the Persian
mathematician and astronomer Alhazen wrote about the properties of light and lenses.

In the 17th century, the French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes studied the
properties of concave lenses and how they could be used to correct vision problems. He also
discovered that concave lenses could spread light rays apart, rather than focusing them like
convex lenses.
 6

Later, in the 18th and 19th centuries, scientists continued to explore the properties of
concave lenses and how they could be used in various optical instruments. For example,
concave lenses are used in telescopes and binoculars to widen the field of view and make
distant objects appear smaller.

Today, concave lenses are used in eyeglasses to correct nearsightedness, a condition where
objects appear blurry when viewed from a distance. They are also used in cameras, projectors,
and other optical devices to control the shape and direction of light rays.

Overall, the history of the concave lens is a long and rich one, filled with discoveries and
innovations that have helped us better understand the properties of light and create new
technologies for enhancing our vision and perception of the world.

Terminologies for a lens

i. Centre of curvature: Center of curvature are the centers of transparent spheres from
which a lens is made. Every lens has two centers of curvature. The distance of center
of curvature to the point of apertures is called radius of curvature. They are denoted
by R1 and R2.
ii. Radius of curvature: The radius of the transparent sphere from which lens is formed
is called radius of curvature. A lens has two radii of curvature. This can be considered
for thin lenses.
iii. Principle axis: Principal axis is a line passing through the Centre of curvature C 1 & C2
and through the optical center.
iv. Optical Centre: A optical Centre is a point on the principal axis so that the ray of light
passing through it does not suffer any derivation.
v. Principle focus: it is a point on the principal axis where all the rays coming parallel to
the principal axis appear to diverge from it.
vi. Focal length: The distance between optical center e(C) and principal focus (f) of lens
is called focal length. It is denoted by f. If both sides of lens contain same medium,
both the focal points are at equal distance from the optical Centre.
vii. Aperture of lens: the effective diameter of light transmitting areas of s lens is known
as aperture of lens.
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Sign Conventions
The sign conventions for concave and convex lenses are as follows:

Concave lens: A concave lens is also known as a diverging lens because it diverges the incident
light rays. The sign convention for a concave lens is as follows:

• The focal length of a concave lens is negative (-f).

• The object distance (u) is measured from the concave lens, and it is negative when the
object is placed in front of the lens.
• The image distance (v) is also measured from the concave lens, and it is negative when
the image is formed in front of the lens.
• The height of the object (h) is positive when it is above the principal axis and negative
when it is below the principal axis.
• The height of the image (h') is positive when it is above the principal axis and negative
when it is below the principal axis.

Convex lens: A convex lens is also known as a converging lens because it converges the
incident light rays. The sign convention for a convex lens is as follows:

• The focal length of a convex lens is positive (+f).

• The object distance (u) is measured from the convex lens, and it is negative when the
object is placed in front of the lens.
• The image distance (v) is also measured from the convex lens, and it is positive when
the image is formed behind the lens.
• The height of the object (h) is positive when it is above the principal axis and negative
when it is below the principal axis.
• The height of the image (h') is positive when it is above the principal axis and negative
when it is below the principal axis.

Prismatic action of lens

The prismatic action of a lens is a phenomenon where a lens bends light as it passes through,
causing the light to refract or bend in different directions. This bending of light can create a
prismatic effect, where the light is spread out into different colors, much like a rainbow.
 8

Think of a magnifying glass, for example. When you hold it over a piece of paper on a sunny
day, the light passing through the glass is bent, focusing the light onto a single point. If you
move the glass around, you can see that the focused spot of light moves as well. This is an
example of the prismatic action of the lens.

Similarly, when light passes through a camera lens, it is bent and focused onto the camera's
sensor or film, creating a clear image. The amount of bending that occurs depends on the
shape of the lens, with some lenses causing more bending than others.

Graphical methods of lens

The lens is a refracting medium, a real image is formed in the next side of the image. The
nature position and size of image can be represented graphically too.

• When a ray of light passes through the center of a convex lens (point C in the diagram),
it does not bend or deviate from its original path. This is because the center of the lens
is equidistant from both surfaces, so the two refractions cancel each other out.
• If a set of parallel rays of light (e.g. from a distant object) pass through a convex lens,
they will be refracted and converge at a point along the principal axis of the lens. This
point is known as the focal point and is denoted by F in the diagram. The distance from
the center of the lens to the focal point is called the focal length (f).
• When the parallel rays converge at the focal point, they cross over each other and
continue in a diverging fashion. If these diverging rays are traced back, they appear to
 9

be coming from a point behind the lens. This point is the location of the image of the
object and is denoted by ‘I’ in the diagram. The image is inverted relative to the object,
and is real (i.e., it can be projected onto a screen).
• A convex lens has two refracting surfaces - one on each side. Each surface bends the
light rays that pass through it, causing them to converge towards the focal point.
• As light passes through each surface of the lens, it is bent or refracted due to the
difference in refractive indices between the air and the lens material. The amount of
bending depends on the shape of the lens and the angle of incidence of the light. This
causes the light rays to deviate from their original path.
• The image of the object is formed at the end of the refracted rays, where they
intersect with the principal axis. This intersection point is the location of the image,
and its size and orientation depend on the distance and orientation of the object
relative to the lens.

Figures of convex lens

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Figures of concave lens

Virtual & real image

Virtual image

A virtual image is the collection of focus points made by extensions of diverging rays. In other
words, a virtual image is found by tracing real rays that emerge from an optical device (lens,
mirror, or some combination) backward to perceived or apparent origins of ray divergences.
In diagrams of optical systems, virtual rays are conventionally represented by dotted lines, to
contrast with the solid lines of real rays. Because the rays never really converge, a virtual
image cannot be projected onto a screen.
 11

Real images

A real image is the collection of focus points made by converging/diverging rays. It is an image
which is in the plane of convergence for the light rays that originate from a given object.
Examples of real images include the image produced on a detector in the rear of a camera,
and the image produced on an eyeball retina (the camera and eye focus light through an
internal convex lens). In ray diagrams (such as the images on the right), real rays of light are
always represented by full, solid lines; perceived or extrapolated rays of light are represented
by dashed lines. A real image occurs where rays converge, whereas a virtual image occurs
where rays only appear to diverge.

Real images can be produced by concave mirrors and converging lenses, only if the object is
placed further away from the mirror/lens than the focal point, and this real image is inverted.
 12

Linear magnification
Linear magnification is a measure of how much larger or smaller an object appears when
viewed through a lens or optical system. It is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to
the size of the object and is usually denoted by the letter 'm'. When light passes through a
lens, it is bent and focused to form an image of the object on the other side of the lens. The
size and orientation of the image depend on the distance and orientation of the object
relative to the lens. Linear magnification is a measure of how much larger or smaller the image
appears compared to the actual size of the object. If the magnification is greater than 1, the
image is larger than the object and the lens is said to be a magnifying lens. If the magnification
is less than 1, the image is smaller than the object and the lens is said to be a reducing lens.

For example: imagine you have a magnifying glass, and you hold it up to an object,
such as a small insect. The magnifying glass will bend the light and form an enlarged image of
the insect on the other side of the glass. Linear magnification would be the ratio of the size of
the image of the insect to the actual size of the insect. If the image is twice as large as the
insect, then the linear magnification would be 2.

Visual angle
Visual angle is the angle a viewed object subtends at the eye, usually stated in degrees of arc.
It also is called the objects angular size. The diagram on the right shows an observer's eye
looking at a frontal extent (the vertical arrow) that has a linear size. The diagram on the right
shows an observer's eye looking at a frontal extent (the vertical arrow) that has a linear size
S. For present purposes, point nodal points at about the center of the lens, and represent the
center of the eye's entrance pupil that is only a few millimeters in front of the lens. The three
lines from object endpoint retina at point chief ray.The same holds for object point.
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The three lines from object endpoint retina at pointchief ray.The same holds for object
point.

Formulas
 14

References

Lens - Wikipedia

Concave Lens - Definition, Formula, Image Formation & Uses (byjus.com)

Convex Lens - Uses, Examples, Definition, Ray Diagram, Formula (byjus.com)

A brief history of the lens - OpenLearn - Open University

How to Calculate Linear Magnification | Sciencing

Difference Between Real Image and Virtual Image with Practical Applications (byjus.com)

Class 11 Physics Notes (nepalenotes.com)

Sign convention – Wikipedia

Ophthalmic Prisms: Prismatic Effects and Decentration (slideshare.net)

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Acknowledgement

The completion of this project undertaking could not be possible without the participation and
assistance of so many helping hands whose names may not all be enumerated. Their
contributions are sincerely appreciated and gratefully acknowledged. I was fortunate enough
to obtain a variety of instructions during the project preparation, especially from my dynamic
teachers, who were supportive and helpful and who were the reason I was able to finish my
project on schedule.

I extend my most grateful and sincere thanks to Mr. Shyam Khanal, Mr. Rajendra Joshi and

Mr. Ishwor Raj Chandra for guiding me throughout the assignment and for all the valuable
suggestions given to me during the assignment.

A special thanks goes to all my companions for spending their valuable project whenever I
need it in fabricating my assignment.