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Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing

Preprint · August 2020

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.31159.55205

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Introduction to Microwave Remote Sensing
Sahaj Rastogi, sahajr16@gmail.com

Abstract—This paper reviews a brief overview of the
Microwave Remote Sensing and the History of Microwave
Remote Sensing along with its instruments such as Radiometers
(Passive Sensors) and Imaging Radar (Active Sensors). This
paper is inspired by various other studies based on the history
and launches of various satellites for remote sensing using
radiometers and imaging radar with their pros and cons.
Index Terms— CORONA, IKONOS, Imaging Radar, IRS-1A,
Microwave, Radiometer, Remote Sensing, SEASAT
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE word Remote Sensing is defined as the process of
measuring the physical properties of any distant objects
typically from aircraft and satellites using reflected or emitted
energy.
Remote sensing collects data about Earth by detecting the
energy that is reflected from the surface. These sensors are
mounted on either UAV/drones which are close range or
Aerial or Satellite sensors which are far range. Microwaves
are a kind of electromagnetic wave whose wavelengths
starting from about 1 cm to 1 m; with frequencies between 3
GHz to 30 GHz. The microwave ranges are often referred to
as the different frequencies bands: S, C, X, Ku, K, Ka (IEEE
radar band). Photography had set the beginning of the history
of remote sensing. The origin of other types of remote sensing
can be traced back to World War II, with the development of
radar, sonar, and thermal infrared detection systems.
TABLE 1
VARIOUS IEEE MICROWAVE RADAR BANDS AND THEIR
FREQUENCY AND WAVELENGTH RANGES.
Microwave Band Frequency Wavelength
S band 2 to 4 GHz 7.5 cm to 15 cm
C band 4 to 8 GHz 3.75 cm to 7.5 cm
X band 8 to 12 GHz 25 mm to 37.5 cm
Ku band 12 to 18 GHz 16.7 mm to 25 mm
K band 18 to 26.5 GHz 11.3 mm to 16.7
mm
Ka band 26.5 to 40 GHz 5.0 mm to 11.3 mm
29th July 2020. This work was supported with the help of Delhi
Technological University, India under MCG Internship 2020.
1
Microwaves were chosen for remote sensing applications
due to their numerous advantages. This part of the spectrum
has unique capabilities for remote sensing objects in the day as
well as night. These waves can penetrate through clouds and
penetrate, acquiring images in any weather. Not only they can
transmit through water but can penetrate vegetation canopy
which is useful for studying surface water or flood extent.
II. HISTORY OF REMOTE SENSING
Remote sensing is generally referred to as the use of aircraft
or satellite-based technologies to collect information to detect
and classify objects on Earth.
The history of remote sensing started with the famous
balloonist G. Tournachon, who made photographs of Paris
from his own balloon in 1858. Earlier ways of communication
were pigeon messenger and other instruments like kites,
rockets. The need for systematic aerial photography was
required during World War 1 for military surveillance.
Various modified aircraft like P-51, OV-1, and many others
were used to collect information for aerial photography.
During the war, the cameras were specially designed for
aircraft use and were mounted on the aircraft. The data
obtained from the aircraft sensor pods were used by the
government and the military which later was also accessible
for the public in the late 20th century.
Earlier the term “aerial photography” was used instead of
“remote sensing” which was initially introduced in 1960 due
to the advancements in aerial photography beyond the
traditional black and white photos. In the period of 1960-1970,
there was a drastic shift to carry out remote sensing from
satellites rather than airplanes, as satellites tend to cover a
greater area than planes and ensure regular monitoring. A
major change from analog to digital storing of imagery was
occurring, which made it possible to analyze and display
images on computers. Computer technology in the same era
was advancing from large mainframe computers to compact
microcomputers which enabled graphic form rather than
numerical outputs. Later in the second half after the Cold War,
there was a visible development of artificial satellites which
allowed remote sensing to become globally accessible. These
sensors due to advancements were now able to record several
different portions of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is
beyond what the human eye could view. Several things
occurring on the Earth’s surface were now visible which were
previously inaccessible with normal aerial photography.
Until 1995 CORONA, America’s first satellite series

program was unknown to the people which was declassified
by the then-President Bill Clinton. This not only made is
accessible to all but also helped scientists to study
environmental changes. CORONA was a secretive military
reconnaissance program that still continues to serve its
mission. Later many different agencies such as National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), Indian Space
Research Organization (ISRO), Roscosmos- Russian Space
Agency, European Space Agency (ESA), and Japanese Space
Agency (NASDA) launched various active and passive
sensors in space.
A. SEASAT – 1st Earth-orbiting satellite designed for remote
sensing of the oceans.
SEASAT was one of the earliest Earth-observing satellites,
launched by Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), NASA with the
aim of having a better understanding of Earth’s oceans and
seas by various oceanographic sensors attached to the satellite.
Launched from Vandenberg Air Force Base, California on
June 26, 1978.
Figure 1. - SEASAT
Parts of the satellite showing its sensors modules, radiometer, altimeter, and
different antennas. (Image credits © alchetron.com)
The satellite had various instruments which comprised of (i)
Radar Altimeter; (ii) Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR); (iii)
SEASAT-A Satellite Scatterometer (SASS); (iv) Visible and
Infrared Radiometer (VIRR); and (v) Scanning Multichannel
Microwave Radiometer (SMMR).
B. IRS-1A - India’s 1st Remote Sensing Satellite System
IRS-1A is the first series of India’s indigenous operating
remote sensing satellites, which was launched successfully
into a polar sun-synchronous orbit on St Patrick's Day, 1988,
with the assistance of Soviets from the Cosmodrome at
Baikonur.
2
Figure 2. - IRS-1A Satellite
India’s first remote sensing satellite (Image credits © Department of Space,
ISRO)
The successful launch of IRS-1A not only placed India into
the few nations to have their own remote sensing satellite but
also made the people of India proud. This showed the maturity
of the Indian satellite program advancing with the capability to
map the natural resources of its nation.
After the successful launch of IRS-1A, a major milestone in
the IRS program, an identical satellite IRS-1B was launched in
1991 which improved the frequency to 11-day cycle. From
then onwards, many series of IRS missions with theme-based
satellites were launched, namely, (i) RESOURCESAT and
RISAT series for Land/Water applications; (ii) OCEANSAT
and INSAT for Ocean/Atmospheric studies; and (iii)
CARTOSAT for Large scale mapping. These paved ways to
improve natural resources management and infrastructure
development using microwave remote sensing in the country.
The array of Indian Earth Observation (IEO) satellites that
are capable of imaging in visible, infrared, thermal, and
microwave regions of the spectrum have provided help in
various applications with spatial resolution ranging from 1 km
to less than 1 m. spatial resolution ranging from 1 km to less
than 1 m.
C. IKONOS - 1st satellite to collect publicly available high-
resolution data
IKONOS (Greek word for “Image”) was the first
commercially available satellite that provided high-
resolution satellite sensor data. Launched from the
Vandenberg Air Force Base, California, USA on September
24, 1999.
Figure 3. - IKONOS Satellite Sensor
1st satellite to collect publicly available high-resolution data (Image Credits
© DigitalGlobe)

IKONOS satellite sensor is operated by DigitalGlobe which
provides high-resolution images. It has the ability to capture
3.2 m multispectral, near-infrared 0.82 m panchromatic
resolution at nadir. The data collected by IKONOS has
applications with include mapping of natural resources,
natural disasters, tax mapping, engineering construction and
forestry analysis. Generating Digital Elevation Models
(DEMs) and 3D Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) to aid in
costal monitoring and internal security of nation is also
possible due to the high-resolution data available.
III. TYPES OF MICROWAVE REMOTE SENSING
There are two types of microwave sensors used for
microwave remote sensing, namely, (i) passive sensors and (ii)
active sensors. Passive sensors include Radiometers whereas
active sensors include Imaging Radar, Altimeter, Real
Aperture Radar (RAR), and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR).
A. Radiometers - Passive Sensor
The basic principle of a radiometer is to measure the power
picked up by the antenna due to the difference in temperature.
Microwave Radiometer measures the naturally emitted
radiation, the brightness temperature of substances which are
within its bandwidth, and antenna’s field of view. The
radiometer is a calibrated and sensitive microwave receiver.
Since all bodies radiate power above absolute zero (0 K = -
273°C), according to Plank’s Law. While considering
microwave frequencies the Rayleigh-Jeans holds the
approximation that radiation is proportional to the physical
temperature of the body. This is for the ideal case that is black
bodies but for natural bodies that are not perfect emitters, the
term emissivity is introduced, from 0 to 1, which tends to
describe how well the body radiates with respect to the
blackbody. The brightness temperature of a blackbody is thus
adequate to its physical temperature; while-all natural bodies
will have brightness temperatures less than that.
Figure 4. - Radiometer
Upon flashing a light source the black side starts to absorb more energy than
the white side counterpart, which creates a temperature difference between
both sides, so the pinwheel starts to move. (Image credits ©
physicsexperiment.co.uk)
3
For example, ice is close to a blackbody at microwave, thus
it will have Td close to (=260 K) while water has T d in the
range of (=150 K). The contrast in the two different
temperatures is why spaceborne radiometry is being used to
monitor sea ice with such great success. Various types of
Radiometers include (i) Total Power Radiometer – Simplest of
all with optimum sensitivity used in medial sensor
applications; (ii) Dickle Radiometer – Improved version of
Total Power Radiometer to increase stability used in
instruments for detecting and measuring radiant energy; and
(iii) Correlation Radiometer – Most advanced which consists
of two Total Power Radiometer where the signals before
detection are cross related to producing two additional outputs
used in remote sensing.
B. Imaging Radar - Active Sensor
An Imaging Radar can be imagined as a camera with a
flashlight that provides its own illumination to light up an
area but at radio wavelengths. Instead of using a camera
lens, radar uses an antenna and digital computer to record
the images.
For imaging radar, very high power pulses per second are
transmitted, with each pulse duration between 10-50
microseconds (µs) towards the target or imaging area.
Figure 5. – Imaging Radar transmission
Radar’s transmitted pulse is reaching the surface of Earth.
Figure 5. – Imaging Radar backscatter
Satellite measures reflected echo which is also known as backscatter.
In the case of imaging radar, the satellite moves along a flight
path with the illumination of the area using the attached radar.
Imaging Radar involves a different number of ways to present
 4

radar signals. Starting with; (i) A-scan which is a graph 24:4, 477-485, DOI:
between amplitude vs. time scan, unable to provide 10.1080/02626667909491887, [Online]
information about the direction of layers; (ii) B-scan is [3] Calla, O. P. N. (2008). “Microwave remote
obtained by converting the graph of A-scan into brightness sensing using space borne sensors”. 2008
and then displayed on the screen; and (iii) P-display or Plan International Conference on Recent Advances
Position Indicator (PPI) used the converted A-scan
in Microwave Theory and Applications.
information in the same relative directions as the antenna
doi:10.1109/amta.2008.4763255, [Online]
orientation. The radar screen shows the surrounding picture
from the center of the screen. Plan Position Indicator is the [4] Skou N. (2008)” Microwave Radiometry and
most widely used instrument in navigation of ships and Radiometers for Ocean Applications”. In:
aircrafts. Barale V., Gade M. (eds) Remote Sensing of
the European Seas. Springer, Dordrecht.
IV. CONCLUSION https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-6772-3_16,
The study enabled us to learn about the rich history of our past [Online]
achievements on Microwave Remote Sensing. In the future, [5] Remote_Sensing,
we may further use Artificial Intelligence and Machine “https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_sensing
Learning to advance in Microwave Remote Sensing with #History”
greater shifts to observe. Finally, I would say that although [6] https://crisp.nus.edu.sg/~research/tutorial/mw.ht
Imaging Radar has proved to be the best but are very costly
m
while passive sensors are cheap due to non-usage of own
illumination. [7] https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/remotesensi
ng.html
ACKNOWLEDGMENT [8] https://www.satimagingcorp.com/satellite-
sensors/ikonos/
I would like to thank Delhi Technological University for
providing this opportunity to research and publish a review
paper on the Introduction and history of microwave remote
sensing.

REFERENCES

[1] P. S. Roy, M. D. Behera, S. K. Srivastav,

“Satellite Remote Sensing: Sensors,
Applications and Techniques,” in Springer,
DOI: 10.1007/s40010-017-0428-8, [Online]
[2] GERALD K. MOORE (1979) What is a picture
worth? A history of remotesensing / Quelle est
la valeur d'une image? Un tour d'horizon de
télédétection, HydrologicalSciences Bulletin,

Sahaj Rastogi is currently pursuing B.Tech

in Engineering Physics with majors in
Electronics from Delhi Technological
University, Delhi.
He is passionate about Artificial Intelligence,
and Machine Learning.

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