Lab Manual

G H PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechanical Engineering

3161914: Renewable Energy Engineering
A.Y. 2021-22
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
1 To measure solar radiation with help of Pyranometer.

To record the sunshine duration with the help of Sunshine Recorder.
2 Study of Solar Angles.
3 Performance Testing of Box type Solar cooker.

Study of Paraboloid concentrator Solar cooker.
4 Performance analysis of flat plate collector.
5 To plot the V-I Characteristics of the PV Module.

To determine the Fill factor.
6 To draw profiles of NACA aerofoils.

To determine the lift force on a symmetric aerofoil with the help of load cell at various angles
of attack.
7 To determine the lift force and lift coefficient of a symmetric aerofoil by measurement of
pressure on its surface at various angles of attack.
8 To determine loss of energy in wakes behind an aerofoil with help of pressure loss coefficient.
9 Study of Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies.
10 Study of Magnetohydrodynamic Power generation system.
11 Study of Fuel Cells.

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INDEX
Sr.
Date Title Page Marks Sign
No.
To measure solar radiation with help of Pyranometer.

1 To record the sunshine duration with the help of Sunshine Recorder.
2 Study of Solar Angles.
Performance Testing of Box type Solar cooker.

3 Study of Paraboloid concentrator Solar cooker.
Performance analysis of flat plate collector.
4
To plot the V-I Characteristics of the PV Module.
5 To determine the Fill factor.
To draw profiles of NACA aerofoils.
6 To determine the lift force on a symmetric aerofoil with the help of load
cell at various angles of attack.
To determine the lift force and lift coefficient of a symmetric aerofoil by
7 measurement of pressure on its surface at various angle of attack .
To determine loss of energy in wakes behind an aerofoil with help of
8 pressure loss coefficient.
Study of Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies.
9
10 Study of Magnetohydrodynamic Power generation system.

Study of Fuel Cells.
11
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Experiment 1
OBJECTIVE:
To measure solar radiation with help of Pyranometer.
To record the sunshine duration with the help of Sunshine Recorder
INTRODUCTION :
Solar radiation falling on the earth are basically classified as,
 Direct solar radiation
 Diffused solar radiation
 Terrestrial radiation
These Solar radiations are measured by different devices. They are,
 Pyranometer
 Pyrheliometer
 Pyrgeometer
 Pyradiaometer
Pyranometer :
This measuring instrument Shown in Fig. is used to measure the global radiation (i.e. direct +
diffused radiation) following on the earth.This measuring device gives the solar radiation
intensity in W/m2.It is working on the base of thermopile effect.
Line drawing of a Pyranometer, showing essential parts: (1) cable, (3)Pyranometer and (5) glass domes, (4)
black detector surface, (6) sun screen, (7) desiccant indicator, (9) leveling feet, (10) bubble level, (11)
connector
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Pyrheliometer :
By this instrument which is shown in fig.2 we can measure only direct radiation falling on the
earth. This measuring device is like telescope type.To measure only direct/beam radiation the
tube of pyrheliometer is facing to the sun.
Pyrheliometer: (3) body, (4) protection cap, (5) window with heater, (2) sight, (1) humidity indicator, (7)
cable
Pyrgeometer :
This measuring device is used to measure the terrestrial radiation.
Pyradiometer :
By this measuring device the terrestrial radiations as well as solar radiations are measured.
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Sun Shine Recorder:

This is an instrument by which we can find out the intensity of solar radiation during the day
length.It is mounted on such a mechanical mechanism though which the sun shine recorder can
be faced to the sun during the day.The schematic diagram of sun shine record is shown in fig.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Date:
Longitude:
Latitude:
Sr Local Total Intensity W/m2 Sr. Local Total Intensity W/m2

No. Solar No. Solar
Time Time
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Plot Total Intensity versus Time graph
TASK: -
 Describe the instrument to measure the global radiations. How this instrument measures
diffused radiation?
 Describe the instrument to measure only beam radiation.
 Explain briefly the Sun-Shine Recorder.
 Estimate the daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at Baroda (22o13’N, 73 o 13’E)
during the month of March, if constants a & b are given equal to 0.28 and 0.48
respectively and average sunshine hours for day are 9.5.
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Experiment 2
OBJECTIVE: Study of Solar Angles.
INTRODUCTION:
There are three types of Solar Angles.
Basic Angles
 Declination angle,
 Hour angle
 Latitude
Angles related to Sun rays
 Zenith angle,
 Solar Azimuth angle, &
 Altitude
Angles related to surface
 Slop
 Surface Azimuth angle, &
 Incident angle
Declination Angle:
It is the angle between the line joining the center of earth and center of sun and projection of this line on
the equatorial plane. It is denoted by δ,
 284  n 
δ  23.45 . sin 360 x in degrees
 365 
Where, n = No. of days of the year from 1st January.
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Hour Angle:
It is the angle between the projection of line joining the center of earth and center of sun and the
projection of line OP on the equatorial plane, if, O is the center of earth and P is any point located on the
surface of earth.
ω  15 12 - LST  in degrees
Where, LST  Local Solar Time
 IST  4 L st - L local   E
At the time of sun - rise and sun - set,
ωs  cos-1 - tanφ . tan δ 
Latitude:
It is the angle between the line OP and the projection of line OP on the equatorial plane, if O is the center
of earth and P is any point located on the surface of earth.
It is denoted by ϕ.
Zenith Angle:
It is the angle between the sun rays and the normal to the surface.It is denoted by θz.
At the time of sun - rise and sun - set  z  90 
cos z  cosφ. cosδ . cosω  sinφ . sinδ
Solar Azimuth Angle:

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It is an angle measured from north direction to the horizontal projection of the sun’s rays. It is a
horizontal angle. It is positive when measured west wise.
It is denoted by γs.
sin γ s  sec α . cos δ . sin ω
’
Altitude Angle:
It is an angle between the projection of the sun’s rays on the horizontal plane and the direction of sun’s
rays passing through point.
At the time of sun - rise and sun - set   0,
   z  90 
Slope:
It is an angle between the horizontal and the plane. It is positive when slope is towards south direction.
For sloped surface the artificial latitude ( -S) is to be considered. It is denoted by S.
Surface Azimuth Angle:

It is the angle between the projection of normal of the inclined surface on the horizontal surface and the
south direction. It is a horizontal angle and is positive when measured east wise. It is denoted by γ.
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Incident Angle:
It is an angle between the normal to the plane and the beam radiation .It is denoted by θT.
cos T  cos φ - s .cosδ . cosω  sin φ - s  . sinδ
TASK: -
 Calculate the Solar time and declination at location latitude 230 15’ N, longitude 770 30’ E at 12:30 IST
on June 19, 2010. Equation of time correction is given from standard table or chart is (-1’01’’).
 Calculate the local apparent time (LAT) corresponding 13:30 (IST) on July 16, 1998 at Delhi (280 35’N,
770 12’ E). The equation of time correction on July 16, is 6 minutes. IST is local civil time corresponding
to 82.50 0E longitude. Also calculate the declination.
 Find the day of year on which declination angle on that particular day was +18.250 assuming leap
year and also calculate solar insolation on same day. Calculate the day hours on May 02 and
December 1 on a surface slopping southwards at angle 380 at a plate of 190 07’N and 72.5’E.
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Experiment 3
OBJECTIVE: Performance testing of Box type Solar cooker.

Study of Paraboloid concentrator Solar cooker
INTRODUCTION:
Basically there are three designs of solar cooker:
 Flat plate box type solar cooker with or without reflector
 Multi-reflector type solar oven
 Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker.
Flat plate box type design is the simplest of all the designs. Maximum no load temperature with
a single reflector reaches up to 160oC. In multi reflector oven four square or triangular or
rectangular reflectors are mounted on the oven body. They all reflect the solar radiations into
the cooking zone in which cooking utensils are placed. Temperature obtained is of the order of
200oC. The maximum temperature can reach up to 250oC, if the compound cone reflector
system is used. With parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker, temperatures of the order of
450oC can be obtained in which solar radiations are concentrated onto a focal point. Principle of
operation of solar cookers is shown in Fig. (a-c).
(a) Principle of box type solar cooker

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(b) Multi reflector type solar cooker
Principle and constructional details of a box type solar cooker
The solar rays penetrate through the glass covers and absorbed by a blackened metal tray kept inside
the solar box. The solar radiation entering the box are of short wavelength. The higher wavelength
radiation is not able to pass through the glass cover i. e. re-radiation from absorber plate to outside the
box is minimized by providing the glass cover. Two glass covers are provided to again minimize the heat
loss.
The loss due to convection is minimized by making the box air tight by providing a rubber strip all round
between the upper lid and the box. Insulating material like glass wool, paddy husk, saw dust or any other
material is filled in the space between blackened tray and outer cover of the box. This minimizes heat
loss due to conduction. When this type of cooker is placed in the sun, the blackened surface starts
absorbing sun rays and temperature inside the box starts rising. The cooking pots, which are also
blackened are placed inside with food material, get heat energy and food will be cooked in a certain
period of time depending upon the actual temperature attained inside. The temperature attained
depends upon the intensity of solar radiation and material of insulation provided. The amount of solar
radiation intensity can be increased by providing mirror or mirrors.
The solar cooker is made up of inner and outer metal or wooden boxed with double glass sheet on it.
Absorber tray (blackened tray) is painted black with suitable black paint. This paint should be dull in
colour so that it can withstand the maximum temperature attained inside the cooker as well as water
vapour coming out of the cooking utensils. The top cover contains two plain glasses each 3 mm thick
fixed in the wooden frame with about 20 mm distance between them. The entire top over can be made
tight with padlock hasp. Neoprene rubber sealing is provided around the contact surfaces of the glass
cover and the cooker box. A small vent for vapour escape is provide in the sealing. Collector area of the
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‘
solar cooker is increased by providing a plane reflecting mirror equal to the size of the box, and hinged on
one side of the glass frame. A mechanism (guide for adjusting mirror) is provided to adjust the reflector at
different angles with the cooker box. A 15 oC to 25oC rise in temperature achieved inside the box when
reflector is adjusted to reflect the sun rays into the box. In winter, when sun rays are much inclined to
horizontal surface, reflector is a most useful addition.
Overall dimensions of the latest model are 60 X 60 X 20 cm height. This type of cooker is termed as
family solar cooker as it cooks sufficient dry food materials for a family of 5 to 7 people. The
temperature inside the solar cooker with a single reflector is maintained from 70 to 110oC above the
ambient temperature. This temperature is enough to cook food slowly, steadily and surely with
delicious taste and preservation of nutrients. Maximum air temperature obtained inside the cooker
box (without load) is 1400C in winter and 1600C in summer. Depending upon the factors such season
and time of the day, type of the food and depth of the food layer, time of the cooking with this cooker
ranges from 1 to 4 h. Meat should be allowed to stay for 3-4 hours. Vegetables take from ½ to 2½
hours. All types of Dals can be cooked between 1½ to 2 hours. Rice is cooked between 30 minutes and
2 hours. The best time of the day for cooking is between 11 am and 2 pm. Cooking is faster in summer
than in winter due to high ambient temperature.
 Paraboloid solar cooker are concentrating devices with a dish type reflector (most dish type
concentrating cooker have reflecting surfaces which are approximation to or actually are paraboloid
of revolution) directing most of the intercepted solar radiation to a point focus.
 The cooking utensil is supported at its focal point .The focal points of paraboloid solar concentrator
cooker are generally somewhat diffuse due to optical imperfections in the reflecting surface.
 Nevertheless, focal point temperature between 1500C and 4000C can be obtained. The cooking
utensil is usually supported at this focus in such a way that major part of the reflected radiation is
incident on the bottom of the vessel, thus creating a heating situation very similar to radiation open
fire cooking.
Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker

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Merits of a solar cooker are:

 No attention is needed during cooking as in other devices.
 No fuel is required.
 Negligible maintenance cost.
 No pollution.
 Food cooked nutritive and delicious with natural taste.
 No problem of charring of food and no over flowing.
Limitations of a solar cooker are :

 One has to cook according to the sun shine, the menu has to be preplanned.
 One cannot cook at short notice and food cannot be cooked in the night or during cloudy days.
 It takes comparatively more time.
PROCEDURE:
 The test consists of operating the solar cooker with fill load (certain amount of water in the present
case).
 Measured quantity of water is taken in the solar cooker vessels.
 Take initial temperature of water and note the time.
 After 1 – 1.5 hours take final temperature of water and note the time.
 Also measure total radiation keeping Pyranometer beside the cooker.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Date:
Longitude:
Latitude:
Surface area of cooker exposed to sunlight :
Measured quantity of water = Mw
Specific heat of water = 4.187 kJ/kgK
Initial Temperature of water =
Duration of Experiment = minutes
Sr.No, Local Solar Time Intensity (W/m2) Final Temp of

Water (oC)
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The overall thermal efficiency of the solar cooker is expressed mathematically as follows:
m C ΔT
η=
I A Δt
Where
ηu - represents overall thermal efficiency of the solar cooker
mw - mass of water (kg)
Cw, - specific heat of water (J/kg/oC)
ΔT - temperature rise of water
Δt - time required to achieve the maximum temperature of the cooking fluid
Iav - the average solar intensity (W/m2) during time interval Δt.
Type of cooker Efficiency (η)

Box type
CONCLUSION :
TASK:
 Briefly explain the following.
- Solar Cooker
- Paraboloid Concentrator type Solar Cooker
 Explain the working of Scheffler Cooker.
 Explain the standard thermal performance test as per BIS [IS 13429(part 3): 2000]
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Experiment 4
OBJECTIVE :
Performance analysis of flat plate collector.
THEORY :
The liquid flat-plate collector is the most widely used solar collector because it is simple in design, has no
moving parts and requires little maintenance. The applications include water heating, space heating and
cooling, and low-temperature cycles for power generation.
The basic parts that make up a conventional liquid flat-plate collector are (i) the absorber plate, (ii) the
tubes fixed to the absorber plate through which the liquid to be heated flows, (iii) the transparent cover,
and (iv) the collector box. The main advantage of a flat-plate collector is that it utilises both the beam and
diffuse components of the solar radiation. In addition, because of its simple stationary design, it requires
little maintenance. Its principal disadvantage is that because of the absence of optical concentration, the
area from which heat is lost is large. As a result, the collection efficiency is generally low.
The liquid heated is generally water. However, sometimes mixtures of water and ethylene glycol are used
if ambient temperatures below 0oC are likely to be encountered. The absorber plate is usually made from
a thin metal sheet ranging in thickness from 0.2 to 0.7 mm, while the tubes, which are also of metal,
range in diameter from 1 to 1.5 cm. They are soldered, brazed or pressure bonded to the bottom of the
absorber plate with the pitch ranging from 5 to 12 cm. In some designs, the tubes are bonded to the top
or are in-line and integral with the absorber plate. The metal most commonly used, both for the absorber
plate and the tubes, is copper. The header pipes, which lead the liquid in and out of the collector and
distribute it to the tubes, are made of the same metal as the tubes and have slightly larger diameters (2
to 2.5 cm).
The cover should be made of a material, which is highly transparent to incoming solar radiation and at the
same time, opaque to long wavelength reradiation emitted by the absorber plate. Glass with a low ferric
oxide content satisfies these requirements. Toughened glass of 4 or 5 mm thickness is the most favoured
material. This type of glass is able to withstand thermal shock as well as the impact of objects which may
fall on the collector face. The usual practice is to have one cover with a spacing ranging from 1.5 to 3 cm
between the cover and the absorber plate.
The bottom and sides are usually insulated by mineral wool, rock wool or glass wool with a covering of
aluminium foil and has a thickness ranging from 2.5 to 8 cm. The whole assembly is contained within a
box which is tilted at a suitable angle. The collector box is usually made of aluminium with an epoxy
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coating on the outside for protection. The face areas of most commercially available collectors are around
2 m2, with the length (along the sloping direction) being usually larger than the width.
More details of the components used in collectors are given in IS 12933 (Part 2).
In the last few years, the use of plastic materials for the absorber plate, the tubes as well as the cover has
increased. This is particularly true for applications involving lower temperatures up to 60o or 70oC. Initially
plastics were not used because they degraded on exposure to sunlight. They also have low thermal
conductivities and high coefficients of expansion as compared to metals. However, advances in polymer
technology have resulted in the development of suitable plastic materials which can withstand long
exposures to sunlight. Plastics have the advantages of being light in weight and easy to manufacture.
They also cost less and require less energy input for their manufacture than metals like copper and
aluminium. However, it has to be remembered that they generally originate from fossil fuels. As the
volume of production of flat-plate collectors increases,
The above considerations of energy input and raw material origin will become increasingly important.
In recent years, nano-fluids have been tried instead of water with a view towards improving the
performance of flat-plate collectors. Nano-fluids are liquids or liquid mixtures with a small percentage of
nano sized particles (1-100nm) suspended in them. The nano-fluids tested with flat-plate collectors are
water or water/ethylene glycol mixtures having suspensions of nano-particles of titanium dioxide, copper,
silicon dioxide, aluminium oxide, etc. Multiwall carbon nano-tubes (MWCNT) have also been tried. Nano-
particles and nanotubes have a tendency to agglomerate over a period of time. For this reason,
investigators have also added small amounts of surfactants which help to keep the particles dispersed.
Data obtained by some investigators have yielded improvements of 20 to 30 per cent in the collector
efficiency. However, the data presented have generally lacked in consistency. For this reason, liquid flat
plate collectors using nano-fluids are not yet available commercially.The present rate of production of
liquid flat-plate collectors in the world, as well as in India, is steadily increasing. About 8 900 000 m2 of
collector area has been installed in India up to 2015, the typical cost of a good quality collector being in
the range of Rs 4000 to 4500 per m2.
Performance Analysis :
An energy balance on the absorber plate yields the following equation for a steady state
q = A S−q
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in which
q = useful heat gain, i.e. the rate of heat transfer to the working fluid,
S = incident solar flux absorbed in the absorber plate,
Ap = area of the absorber plate
ql = rate at which heat is lost by convection and re-radiation from the top, and
by conduction and convection from the bottom and sides.
The flux incident on the top cover of the collector is given by
I = I R + I R + R (I + I )
Each of the terms in the above equation is multiplied by a term called the transmissivity-absorptivity
product (τα) in order to determine the flux S absorbed in the absorber plate. Thus,
S = I R (τα) + {I R + R (I + I )}(τα)
in which
τ = transmissivity of the glass cover system, the ratio of the solar radiation coming through after
reflection at the glass-air interfaces and absorption in the glass to the radiation incident on the
glass cover system,
α = absorptivity of the absorber plate,
(τα) = transmissivity-absorptivity product for beam radiation falling on the collector
(τα) = transmissivity-absorptivity product for diffuse radiation falling on the collector.
The instantaneous collection efficiency is given by
Useful Heat Gain q

η= =
radiation incident on the collector A I
Where Ac is the collector gross area (the area of the topmost cover including the frame). Ac is usually 15
to 20 per cent more than AP.
If the liquid flow rate through the collector is stopped, there is no useful heat gain and the efficiency is
zero. In this case, the absorber plate attains a temperature such that A S = q . This temperature is the
highest that the absorber plate can attain and is sometimes referred to as the stagnation temperature.
Knowledge of the stagnation temperature is useful as an indicator for comparing different collector
designs. It also helps in choosing proper materials for construction of the collector.
It has been stated earlier that many solar processes occur at a relatively slow pace. As a result, the time
base of an hour is often convenient. Thus efficiency Eq. is also valid as an expression for calculating the
hourly collection efficiency, if qu is the useful heat gain in one hour (kJ/h) and IT is the energy incident on
the collector face in one hour (kJ/m2-h).
Overall Loss Coefficient and Heat Transfer :

It is convenient from the point of view of analysis to express the heat lost from the collector in terms of
an overall loss coefficient defined by the equation
ql = Ul Ap (Tpm - Ta)
where
Ul = overall loss coefficient,
Ap = area of the absorber plate,
Tpm = average temperature of the absorber plate, and
Ta = temperature of the surrounding air
(assumed to be the same on all sides of the collector).
The heat lost from the collector is the sum of the heat lost from the top, the bottom and the sides. Thus,
ql =qt +qb +qs
where
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ql = rate at which heat is lost from the top,

qb =rate at which heat is lost from the bottom,
qs = rate at which heat is lost from the sides.
Each of these losses is also expressed in terms of coefficients called the top loss coefficient, the bottom
loss coefficient and the side loss coefficient and defined by the equations
qt = Ut Ap (Tpm - Ta)
qb = Ub Ap (Tpm - Ta)
qs = Us Ap (Tpm - Ta)
It will be noted that the definition of each of the coefficients is based on the area A?, and the
temperature difference (Tpm - Ta) ). This is done for convenience and helps in giving the simple additive
equation
UI = Ut + Ub + Us
The losses can also be pictured in terms of thermal resistances as shown in Fig. . The overall loss
coefficient is an important parameter since it is a measure of all the losses. Typical values range from 2 to
10 W/m2-K.
Top Loss Coefficient :

The top loss coefficient Ut is evaluated by considering convection and reradiation losses from the
absorber plate in the upward direction. For purposes of calculation, it is assumed that the transparent
covers and the absorber plate constitute a system of infinite parallel surfaces and that the flow of heat is
one dimensional and steady. It is further assumed that the temperature drop across the thickness of the
covers is negligible and that the interaction between the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the covers
and the outgoing loss may be neglected. The outgoing re-radiation is of large wavelengths. For these
wavelengths, the transparent cover will be assumed to be opaque. This is a very good assumption if the
material is glass.
A schematic diagram for a two-cover system is shown in Fig. In a steady state, the heat transferred by
convection and radiation between (i) the absorber plate and the first cover, (ii) the first cover and the
second cover, and (iii) the second cover and the surroundings must be equal.
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q σ T −T
=h T −T +
A 1 1
+ −1
ε ε
σ(T − T )
=h (T − T ) +
1 1
+ −1
ε ε
= h (T − T ) + σε T − T
h - convective heat transfer coefficient between the the first cover, convective heat transfer
h - coefficient between the covers,
h - convective heat transfer coefficient between the topmost cover (in this case case the second)
and the surrounding air,
T ,T - temperatures attained by the two covers,
T - effective temperature of the sky with which the radiation exchange takes place,
ε - emissivity of the absorber plate for long
ε - emissivity of the covers for long wavelength
equations constitute a set of three non linear equations which have to be solved for the unknowns qt, Tc1
and Tc2.it will be necessary to have some correlations for convective transfer coefficients h ,h ,
h and sky temperature T .
Bottom Loss Coefficient:

The bottom loss coefficient Ub is evaluated by considering conduction and convection losses from the
absorber plate in the downward direction through the bottom of the collector. It will be assumed that the
flow of heat is one-dimensional and steady (Fig.). In most cases, the thickness of insulation provided is
such that the thermal resistance associated with conduction dominates. Thus, neglecting the convective
resistances, we have
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K
U =
δ
where
K = thermal conductivity of the insulation
δ = thickness of the insulation.
Side Loss Coefficient :

As in the case of the bottom loss coefficient, it will be assumed that the conduction resistance dominates
and that the flow of heat is one-dimensional and steady. The one-dimensional approximation can be
justified on the grounds that the side loss coefficient is always much smaller than the top loss coefficient.
If the dimensions of the absorber plate are L1 x L2 and the height of the collector casing is L3, then the area
across which heat flows sideways is 2(L1 + L2)L3. The temperature drop across which the heat flow occurs
varies from (Tpm - Ta) at the absorber plate level to zero both at the top and bottom. Assuming, therefore,
that the average temperature drop across the side insulation is (Tpm - Ta)/2 and that the thickness of this
insulation is of this insulation δ , we have
T −T
q = 2L (L + L )K
2δ
from above equation
L K (L + L )
=
L L δ
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Date:
Longitude:
Latitude:
Top surface Area of collector (At) = L1 x L2 =
Bottom surface Area of collector (Ab) = L1 x L2 =
Side surface Area of collector (As) = 2(L1 + L2)L3 =
Local Solar Time Intensity (W/m2) Final Temp of

Sr.No, Ib Id Water (oC)
Find average values of Ib & Id .
Useful Heat Gain q

η= =
radiation incident on the collector A I
A I − q
η=
A I
q = h (T − T )A + σA ε T − T
Correlation used for determining hw (Test .et.al)
hw = 8.55 + 2.56 Vm
Similar equation can be used for bottom wall and side wall
q = h (T − T )A + σA ε T − T
A = surface area of bottom wall
q = h (T − T )A + σA ε T − T
A = total surface area of side walls
The flux incident on the top cover of the collector is given by

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I = I R + I R + R (I + I )
Where R , R , and R are known as conversion factor for beam , diffuse & reflected components
respectively
R : It is defined as the ratio of flux of beam radiation on an inclined surface (Ib’) to that on a horizontal
surface (Ib).
Ib’ = IN cosϴ Ib = IN cosϴz
I I cosϴ cosϴ
R = = =
I I cosϴz cosϴz
For surfaces facing due south, γ = 0, inclined surfaces

cosϴ = cos(ϕ – β) cosδ cosω + sinδ sin (ϕ – β)
ϕ = latitude of location
δ = declination
β = tilt angle
 284  n 
δ  23.45 . sin 360 x in degrees
 365 
The altitude α, can be found using the following formula
cosα = sin [sinδ sinϕ + cosδ cosϕ cosω]

ϴz = 90o - α
: It is defined as the ratio of flux of diffuse radiation on an inclined surface to that on a horizontal
surface .
1 + cosβ
R =
2
Rr : The reflected component comes mainly from the ground and surrounding objects.
1 + cosβ
R =
2
where is the reflectivity coefficient of the ground ( = 0.2 for ordinary and 0.6 for snow covered ground
respectively)
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CONCLUSION:
TASK:
 Explain the following

- Evacuated Tube Collectors
- Polymer Solar Collector
- Concrete Collector
 Explain the conventional Solar Air Heater
 What are some novel designs of solar air heater? Explain in brief with diagram.
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Experiment 5
OBJECTIVE :
To plot the V-I Characteristics of the PV Module.
To determine the Fill factor.
The direct conversion of solar energy in to electrical energy by means of the photo voltaic effect, that is
the conversion of light (or other electromagnetic radiation) in to electricity. The photo voltaic effect is
defined as the generation of the electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation
energy conversion devices which are used to convert sun light to electricity by the use of the photo
voltaic effects are called solar cells. A single converter cell is called a solar cell or more generally, a photo
voltaic cell, and combination of such cells, designed to increase the electric power output is called a solar
module or solar array.
Photo voltaic cells are made of semi-conductors that generate electricity when they absorb light. As
photons are received, free electrical changes are generated that can be collected on contacts applied to
the surface of the semi-conductors. Because solar cells are not heat engines, and therefore do not need
to operate at high temperatures, they are adopted to the weak energy flux of solar radiation, operating at
tome temperature. These devices have theoretical efficiencies of the order of 25 percent. Actual
operating efficiencies are less than this value, and decrease fairly rapidly with increasing temperature.
The best known applications of photo voltaic cells for electrical power generation has been is spacecraft,
for which the Silicon cell is the most highly developed type. The Silicon cell consists of a single crystal of
silicon into which a doping material is diffused to from a semi-conductor. Since the early day of solar cell
development, many improvements have been manufactured with areas 2x2 cm, efficiencies approaching
10 percent, and operating at 28oC. The efficiency is the power developed per unit area of array divided by
the solar energy flux in the free space (1353 W/m2).
For terrestrial applications, silicon solar cells have shown operating efficiencies of about 12 to 15 percent.
Though Silicon is one of the earth’s most abundant materials, it is expensive to extract (from sand, where
it occurs mostly in the from SiO2) and refine to the purity required for solar cells. The greater barrier to
solar cell application lies in the costs of the cells themselves. Reducing the cost of Silicon Cells is difficult
because of the cost of making single crystal. One very promising method is being developed to produce
continuous thin ribbons of single-crystal Silicon to reduce fabrication costs.
Cells made from the ribbon have so for shown efficiencies of around 8 percent. Several other kinds of
photo cells are in the laboratory stage of development. Cadmium Sulphide cells are 29 other possibilities.
So far, efficiencies have been in the range of 3 to 8 percent and these cells have been less durable than
Silicon cells owing to degradation with exposure to Oxygen, water vapor and sunlight, especially at
elevated temperatures. The active part of the Cadmium Sulphide cds cell is a thin polycrystalline layer of
cds, about 10μm. Thick on which a layer of Cu2S compound perhaps 0.1μm thick is grown. These cells can
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be made by deposition on long sheets of substrates, a process that might be adaptable to expensive mass
production.
Photo voltaic cells could be applicable to either small or large power plants, since they function well on a
small scale, and may be adaptable to local energy generation on building roof tops. The cost of the energy
storage and power conditioning equipment might, however, make generation in large stations the most
economical method; solar cells have also been used to operate irrigation pumps, navigational signals high
way emergency call system, rail road crossing warnings, automatic meteorological stations, etc; in
location where access to utility power lines is difficult.
The efficiency is the most commonly used parameter to compare the performance of one solar cell to
another. Efficiency is defined as the ratio of energy output from the solar cell to input energy from the
sun. In addition to reflecting the performance of the solar cell itself, the efficiency depends on the
spectrum and intensity of the incident sunlight and the temperature of the solar cell. Therefore,
conditions under which efficiency is measured must be carefully controlled in order to compare the
performance of one device to another. Terrestrial solar cells are measured under AM1.5 conditions and at
a temperature of 25°C. Solar cells intended for space use are measured under AM0 conditions.
The efficiency of a solar cell is determined as the fraction of incident power which is converted to
electricity and is defined as:
Pmax = VocIscFF
V I FF
η=
P
Where:
Voc is the open-circuit voltage;
Isc is the short-circuit current;
FF is the fill factor and
η is the efficiency
Another defining term in the overall behaviour of a solar cell is the fill factor (FF). This factor is a measure
of quality of a solar cell. This is the available power at the maximum power point (Pmax) divided by
the open circuit voltage (VOC) and the short circuit current (ISC).
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PROCEDURE :
 Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram.
 Keep solar cell at certain tilt angle.
 Note down the open circuit voltage and short circuit current.
 Vary the load resistance and note down the current and voltage readings.
 Plot a graph between output voltage vs. output current by taking current along X-axis and
voltage along Y-axis.
 Draw a rectangle having maximum area under the V-I curve and note the values of Vm and
Im. Note the voltmeter reading for open circuit, VOC and milliammeter reading with zero
resistance ISC. Using these values, calculate the fill factor for the cell.
 Change the tilt angle and repeat the experiment.
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OBSERVATIONS & COMPUTATION TABLE
Sr.No. Tilt Angle Voc ISC V I Fill Factor η

(Volts) (ampere) (Volts) (ampere) (FF)
CONCLUSION:
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TASK:
 Explain working principal of photo voltaic cell.
 What is the difference between solar cell and a photodiode?
 What are the types of semiconductor materials used for solar cell?
 Define terms Photovoltaic cells, module, panels and arrays.
 Classify solar cells and explain single crystal silicon solar cell.
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Experiment 6
OBJECTIVE:
To draw profiles of NACA aerofoils.
To determine the lift force on a symmetric aerofoil with the help of load cell at various angles of attack.
INTRODUCTION:
NACA stands for National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics. In Axial flow turbo machines peak
efficiency can be obtained by high degree of vane streamlining & polishing. To satisfy these requirements
and that of mechanical strength, vane profiles take the form of aerofoils. Profiles tested by NASA have
found wide use in the field of axial flow turbo machines.
THEORY:
NACA had classified all useful aerofoil sections according to a curvature and thickness. These aerofoils
may be considered as made up of certain profile thickness forms imposed on central mean line called the
Camber line. The major shape variables then become (1) the thickness form and (2) the mean line form.
Overall area due to thickness is of particular importance from a structural strength point while the shape
is important from aerodynamic considerations. The position of maximum ordinate of mean line & its
position with respect to chord are used for its designation.
The NACA standard aerofoil series is designated by four digits as explained below:
The first digit indicates the maximum camber in percentage of chord.
The second digit indicates the position of maximum camber in tenth of chord length from leading edge.
Last two digits indicate the maximum thickness in percentage of chord.
e.g. (1) NACA 0016 aerofoil
Maximum thickness = tm = 16% of chord length.
Here we have a symmetrical aerofoil. ( Because first two digits are zero that means that the maximum
camber = 0)
(2) NACA 2412 aerofoil
Maximum camber m = 2% of chord length.
Position of the maximum camber = Xm = 0.4 chord length from the leading edge.
Maximum thickness tm = 12 % of the chord length.

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The camber line is made up of two parabolas and camber can be calculated by using equations given
below.
Yc1 = (m/Xm2) * (2 X Xm - X2) for 0 < X < Xm
Yc2 = {m/ (1- Xm)2} * (1-2 Xm + 2X Xm - X2 ) for Xm < X <1
Where X = position of X cordinate

m = maximum camber, percentage of chord.
Xm = position of maximum camber in tenth of chord.
The thickness distribution for aerofoil is given by the formula.
Yt = (tm / 0.2) * ( 0-2969 X0.5 - 0.126X - 0.3516 X2 + 0.2843 X3 - 0.1015 X4)
Yt = Radius of circle at considered point.

Radius of the nose circle is given by the equation.
Rt = 1.1(tm)2*chord length. , tm in % of chord lengt
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OBJECTIVE:
To determine the lift force on a symmetric aerofoil with the help of load cell at various angles of attack.
APPARATUS:
Wind tunnel, NACA0018 aerofoil, load cell, Pilot tube, U-tube manometer
THEORY:
The study of flow around aerofoil forms the basis of design of blades for propellers, fans and turbines.
Flow pattern for flow around symmetric aerofoil with small angle of attack can be predicted by potential
flow theory. The prediction gives stagnation point on the upper surface of the aerofoil just forward to
trailing edges and fluid from the underside of the aerofoil flows around the trailing edge with very high
velocity. When real fluid flow begins around the aerofoil, flow pattern corresponds to flow pattern of
ideal fluid, then due to development of boundary layer, the flow pattern changes and at trailing edge two
streams of fluid with different velocities will meet. Thus at trailing edge, "Vortex sheet", a plane of
intense shearing, will be formed Shear forces set up in this plane will accelerate the stream above the
aerofoil and retard the stream below the aerofoil. In accordance with Bernoulli's equation static pressure
on the upper surface of the aerofoil decreases and that on the lower surface increases. The lift force is
the consequences of the pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the aerofoil. The lift
force developed by an aerofoil can be determined by integrating the pressure distribution over its
surface. Lift force also can be calculated from Kutta Joukowsky's relation (L = p Uo τ) Velocity of air and
there by circulation τ around aerofoil are obtained from observations of static pressure on surfaces of
aerofoil.
The angle made by chord line of symmetric aerofoil with direction of flow is known as angle of attack (α).
When symmetric aerofoil is placed with small angle of attack in uniform flow, due to pressure difference
prevailing across the surface of the aerofoil, lift force act on the aerofoil. The measured lift force at low
angle of attack conforms well to potential flow theory.
When angle of attack increases, new starting vortex is formed. It adjusts the circulation around the
aerofoil and lift force acting on the aerofoil will be more. In this range of medium angle of attack,
experimental lift force will be less than the theoretical lift force due to boundary layer formation on the
surface of aerofoil. At higher values of angle of attack, due to adverse pressure gradiant on upper side of
aerofoil, flow separates from the surface and lift force decreases. As angle of attack increases the
separation point shifts from trailing edge to leading and further reduction in lift force is observed.
PROCEDURE:
Symmetric aerofoil (NACA 0018) of chord length 160mm and span 250 mm is fitted with small angle of
attack in the test section of wind tunnel. It is installed on stand very carefully. If any inclination of the
stand is left then results won't match the true value.
Then by setting aerofoil at α = 0o, drag force on the surface of aerofoil is measured by load cell. This
procedure is repeated by changing angle of attack by 5 o. Then for all values of α, lift force and drag force
are measured using load cell.
Measure the dynamic pressure at downstream side with the help of pitot tube. Calculate the lift
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coefficient and drag coefficient with the help of the formulae given below.
Lift coefficient = lift force / (½ * ρ * Uo2) A
Drag coefficient = drag force / (½ * ρ * Uo2) A
Graph: lift coefficient and drag coefficient versus angle of attack is drawn.
TASK:
 Define maximum camber, camber line, chord line, pressure side, suction side.
 Explain the procedure of drawing NACA aerofoil 2412.
 State the reason for the typical shape of the lift coefficient and drag coefficient vs. angle of attack.
 Explain the functioning of load cell for finding the drag force and lift force with the help of load cell.
CONCLUSION:
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Experiment 7
OBJECTIVE:
To determine the lift force and lift coefficient of a symmetric aerofoil by measurement of pressure on its
surface at various angles of attack.
APPARATUS:
Wind tunnel, NACA0018 aerofoil, Pilot tube, Multi-limb manometer, U-tube manometer.
THEORY:
The study of flow around aerofoil forms the basis of design of blades for propellers, fans and turbines.
Flow pattern for flow around symmetric aerofoil with small angle of attack can be predicted by potential
flow theory. The prediction gives stagnation point on the upper surface of the aerofoil just forward to
trailing edges and fluid from the underside of the aerofoil flows around the trailing edge with very high
velocity. When real fluid flow begins around the aerofoil, flow pattern corresponds to flow pattern of
ideal fluid, then due to development of boundary layer, the flow pattern changes and at trailing edge two
streams of fluid with different velocities will meet. Thus at trailing edge, "Vortex sheet", a plane of
intense shearing, will be formed Shear forces set up in this plane will accelerate the stream above the
aerofoil and retard the stream below the aerofoil. In accordance with Bernoulli's equation static pressure
on the upper surface of the aerofoil decreases and that on the lower surface increases. The lift force is
the consequences of the pressure difference between the upper and lower surface of the aerofoil. The lift
force developed by an aerofoil can be determined by integrating the pressure distribution over its
surface. Lift force also can be calculated from Kutta Joukowsky's relation (FL =ρUoτ) Velocity of air and
there by circulation τ around aerofoil are obtained from observations of static pressure on surfaces of
aerofoil
The angle made by chord line of symmetric aerofoil with direction of flow is known as angle of attack (α).
When symmetric aerofoil is placed with small angle of attack in uniform flow, due to pressure difference
prevailing across the surface of the aerofoil, lift force act on the aerofoil. The measured lift force at low
angle of attack conforms well to potential flow theory.
When angle of attack increases, new starting vortex is formed. It adjusts the circulation around the
aerofoil and lift force acting on the aerofoil will be more.
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In this range of medium angle of attack, experimental lift force will be less than the theoretical lift force
due to boundary layer formation on the surface of the aerofoil. At higher value of angle of attack, due to
adverse pressure gradient on upper side of aerofoil, flow separates from the surface and lift force
decreases. As angle of attack increases, the separation point shifts from trailing edge to leading edge and
further reduction in lift force is observed.
PROCEDURE:
Symmetric aerofoil (NACA 0018) of chord length 160mm and span 290 mm is fitted with small angle of
attack in the test section of wind tunnel. Twelve holes are provided on the surface of the aerofoil and
they are extended up to the sidewall of the test section for pressure measurement. After starting the
wind tunnel upstream total pressure and static pressure are measured by pitot tube and manometer.
Then static pressure at each point on the surface of the aerofoil is measured by manometer and noted.
The observations of pressure are used to plot pressure distribution, which in turn gives lift force acting on
aerofoil.Velocity of air at all points on the surface of the aerofoil is calculated from observations of static
pressure and then lift force can be estimated by calculating circulation around the aerofoil.Then by
setting aerofoil at α = 50, static pressure on the surface of aerofoil is measured by manometer. This
procedure is repeated by changing angle of attack by 50. Then for all values of α, lift force and lift co-
efficient are calculated by using the pressure distribution and conclusion is derived
OBSERVATION:
Total pressure on upstream side = Pto =
Static pressure on upstream side = Pso =
Dynamic pressure on upstream side = Pdo =
Chord length = l =
Angle of attack = α =
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr. angle Distance Static Pressure Psb Psb Cp Static Pressure Psb - Pso Cp
No. of from Suction side - Psb
attack Leading Pso Pressure side
(α) edge LH RH Diff LH RH Diff
(mm) (cm) (cm)
1
4 α=
3 α=
7
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CALCULATIONS:
Cp = (Psb - Pso)/ 1/2 p Uo2
Method I
CL = Area of the graph/ (y axis scale * chord length )
CL = lift force (FL) / (½ * ρ * Uo2) A
FL = CL * ½ ρ Uo2 A
Method II
CL = 2π sinα
FL = CL * ½ ρ Uo2 A
Method III
FL = ρUoτ
Pto = Ptb = Psb + ½ ρ Vb2
V = 2(P − P )
ρ
CALCULATION TABLE :
Sr.No. angle of attack Vb (m/s) Vb (m/s)

(α) Suction side Pressure side
1
2
3
4 α=
5
6
7
1
2
3
4 α=
5
6
7
Plot Vb vs X and determine circulation from the same.
TASK :
 Describe the procedure of finding out theoretical lift force around the aerofoil for various angle of
attack.
CONCLUSION:
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Experiment 8
OBJECTIVE:
To determine loss of energy in wakes behind an aerofoil with help of pressure loss coefficient.
EQUIPMENT:
Aerofoil fitted in test section of wind tunnel, Prandtl pitot tube, Manometer.
THEORY:
The real fluid flow around an object is affected by fluid viscosity and thereby it differs from ideal fluid
flow. When real fluid flows along the surface of an immersed body, it develops velocity gradient in thin
region (known as boundary layer) touching the surface of the body. Formation of velocity gradient at the
surface of the body gives skin friction drag, which causes energy loss for fluid flowing around the solid
object.
In addition to this when fluid flows around a curved body, depending upon convective acceleration and
retardation of flow caused by deflection fluid leads to the development of negative and positive pressure
gradient respectively. Positive pressure gradient, which exists in diffuser is known as adverse pressure
gradient, since it oppose the flow. Fluid close to the solid boundary surface which has the least
momentum is first to get affected by adverse pressure gradient leading to flow separation at one point.
Further downstream, the flow close to the surface gets reversed.
Unlike the ideal fluid flow, this kind of flow separation leads to the chaotic flow with low fluid velocities
and presence of vortices. This region is known as wake. A considerable amount of energy is dissipated in
this region. Energy loss due to skin friction and flow separation appears as stagnation pressure loss.
PROCEDURE:
 Total pressure (Pto) and static pressure (Pso) on upstream side of the aerofoil is measured.
 Total pressure on downstream side is measured across the flow by a

vertical traverse at the outlet of the test section and average total pressure (Ptav) is obtained from
the plot of the total pressure vs. traverse distance
 Dynamic pressure from (Pdo = ½ ρ Uo2 ) is obtained from the difference of Total pressure (Pto) and
static pressure (Pso)
 Stagnation pressure loss and thereby loss coefficient as defined below is calculated
Loss coefficient = Cploss = (Pto - Ptav) / ½ ρ Uo2

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OBSERVATIONS:
Total pressure on upstream side : Pto
Static pressure on upstream side : Pso
Dynamic pressure on upstream side : Pdo = ½ ρ Uo2 = Pto - Pso
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Sr.No. angle of Total Pressure on

attack downstream side
(α) LH RH Diff
(cm)
α=
α=
CALCULATIONS:
Find average total pressure from graph.
Loss Coeff. = (Pto - Ptav)/ ½ ρ Uo2
TASK:
 Explain how wake region is formed.
CONCLUSION:
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Experiment 9
OBJECTIVE:
Study of Biomass Energy Coversion Technologies.
THEORY:
Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass continues to be an
important fuel in many countries, especially for cooking and heating in developing countries. The use of
biomass fuels for transportation and for electricity generation is increasing in many developed countries
as a means of avoiding carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel use. Biomass contains stored chemical
energy from the sun. Plants produce biomass through photosynthesis. Biomass can be burned directly for
heat or converted to renewable liquid and gaseous fuels through various processes.
Biomass sources for energy include:
 Wood and wood processing wastes—firewood, wood pellets, and wood chips, lumber and furniture
mill sawdust and waste, and black liquor from pulp and paper mills
 Agricultural crops and waste materials—corn, soyabeans, sugar cane, woody plants, algae, crop and
food processing residues
 Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste—paper, cotton, and wool products, and food, yard, and
wood wastes
 Animal manure and human sewage
BIOFUELS
Biomass is organic carbon based material that reacts with oxygen in combustion and natural metabolic
process to release heat. Sometimes it is used as such in its original form but more often it is transformed
to more convenient and useful solid, liquid or gaseous fuels. Some of its forms available to user are
discussed as follows Fuel wood,Charcoal,Fuel pellets,Bio-ethanol,Producer gas,Vegetable oils (bio-diesel)
BIOMASS RESOURCES
Biomass resources for energy production encompass a wide spectrum of materials ranging from
silviculture (forest), agriculture (field), aquaculture (fresh and sea water) and industrial and social
activities that produce organic wastes residues (food processing, urban refuse, etc.).When plants are
cultivated especially for the purpose of energy, it is known as energy farming.
BIOMASS CONVERSION TECHNOLOGIES

Biomass energy conversion technologies may be grouped into three basic types: incineration, thermo-
chemical and biochemical.
Incineration :Incineration means direct combustion of biomass for immediate useful heat. The heat
and/or steam produced are either used to generate electricity or provide the heat for industrial process,
space heating, cooking or district heating. Furnaces and boilers have been developed for large scale
burning of various types of biomass such as wood, waste wood, black liquid from pulp industry, food
industry waste, and MSW. The moisture content in the biomass and wide range of composition tends to
decrease the efficiency of conversion. However, the economic advantage of cogeneration makes it
attractive for adoption.
Thermo-chemical: The basic thermo-chemical process to convert biomass into more valuable and/or
convenient product is known as pyrolysis. Biomass is heated either in absence of oxygen or by partial
combustion of some of the biomass in restricted air or oxygen supply. Pyrolysis can process all forms of
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organic materials including rubber and plastics, which cannot be handled by other methods. The products
are three types of fuels, usually: a gas mixture (H2, CO, CO2, CH4, and N2), oil like liquid (water soluble
phase including acetic acid, acetone, methanol and non-aqueous phase including oil and tar) and a nearly
pure carbon char. The distribution of these products depends upon the type of feedstock, the
temperature and pressure during the process and its duration and the heating rate.High temperature
pyrolysis (~ 1000oC) maximizes the gaseous product. The process is known as gasification. Low
temperature pyrolysis (up to 600oC) maximizes the char output. The process has been used for centuries
for production of charcoal. The process is known as carbonization. Liquid product is obtained through
catalytic liquefaction process. Liquefaction is a relatively low temperature (250-450 oC), high-pressure
(270 atm) thermo-chemical conversion of wet biomass, usually with high hydrogen partial pressure and
also a catalyst to enhance the rate of reaction and/or to improve the selectivity of the process.
Biochemical:The process makes use of metabolic action of microbial organism on biomass to produce
liquid and gaseous fuel. Two major biochemical processes are explained below:
Ethanol fermentation: Alcoholic fermentation is the decomposition in the absence of air, of simple hexose
sugars (sugars containing six carbon atoms per molecule, i.e. C6H12O6) in aqueous solution by action of
enzyme (a natural catalyst) present in yeast, in acidic conditions (pH value 4 to 5). Thus:
32oC
C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
Fermentation
The products are ethanol and carbon dioxide.
Anaerobic fermentation (Anaerobic Digestion): This process converts decaying wet biomass and animal
wastes into biogas through decomposition process by the action of anaerobic bacteria (bacteria that live
and grow in the absence of oxygen). Carbon present in biomass may be ultimately divided between fully
oxidized CO2 and fully reduced CH4. Thus:
20-55oC
Decaying wet biomass Biogas Biogas (largely CH4 and CO2)
Anaerobic fermentation
The biomass material in the form of water slurry is digested by the bacteria anaerobic for several days in
an airtight container. The reactions are slightly exothermic and small amount of heat (equivalent to 1.5
MJ perkgdry digestible material), is also generated that helps in maintaining favourable temperature. The
process may be expedited at somewhat higher temperature. The most useful biomass materials appear
to be animal manure, algae, kelp, hyacinth, plant residues and other organic waste materials with high
moisture content.
BIOMASS GASIFICATION
The word gasification (or thermal gasification) implies converting solid fuel into a gaseous fuel by thermo-
chemical method, without leaving any solid carbonaceous residue. Gasifier is the equipment that
converts biomass into producer gas. Most common raw materials are: wood chips and other wastes from
wood industry, coconut shells, straw, etc. Biomass that has -high ash content such as rice husk etc. can
also be handled, though with some difficulty.
Gasification involves partial combustion (oxidation in restricted quantity) and reduction operations of
biomass. In a typical combustion process generally oxygen is surplus, while in gasification process fuel is
surplus. The combustion products, mainly carbon dioxide, water vapour, nitrogen, carbon monoxide and
hydrogen pass through the glowing layer of charcoal for the reduction process to occur. During this stage
both carbon dioxide and water vapour, oxidize the char to form CO, H2 and CH4. Following are the typical
reactions, which occur during gasification:
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C + O2 CO2 (Combustion, 240 KJ/mole)
The moisture available in the biomass is converted to steam, and generally no extra moisture is required.
Thus, the product of combustion of pyrolyses gases results in CO2 and H2O (steam), which further react
with char:
C + CO2 2CO (Boudouard reaction,-164.9kJ/mole)
C + H2O CO + H2 (Water gas reaction,-122.6kJ/mole)
CO + H2O CO2 +H2(Water shift reaction,40.2kJ/mole)
C + 2H2 CH4 (Methane reaction,83.3kJ/mole)
The raw producer gas thus obtained can be used as such for thermal applications. However, for use in IC
engines, further processing is required. Admission of hot gas into an engine results in loss of power and
hence, the gas has to be cooled. Raw gas contains varying amounts of dust (ash and char) particles,
moisture and tar. Dust and tar are detrimental to the life of the engine. Hence, the gas has to be cooled
and cleaned before admitting to the engine. The upper limit of allowable tar is about 50 mg/m3 and that
for particulate (size less than 10 um) content is about 50 mg/m3. The gas may be cooled to ambient
temperature by direct injection of cooling water from a spray tower. A sand bed filter may be deployed to
remove the particulate collected by the cooling water. Periodic washing of this sand bed is adequate to
keep the operation smooth. For filtering of the gas, sand bed filter with specific particle size distribution is
used. The filter is divided into coarse (sand particle size 0.5-2 mm) and fine sections (particle size 0.2-0.6
mm). The size of the filter area is so chosen that the gas velocities through the filter bed do not exceed
0.1 m/s. This low velocity coupled with tortuous path causes the removal of large part of the dust from
the gas. Some part of the tar also gets deposited in the filter circuit, particularly when the moisture
carried over from the cooler causes slight wetting of the sand bed.
The commercial diesel engine has to be modified to a duel-fuel mode engine. The air intake manifold is
modified to suck (air + gas) mixture. Diesel is required to initiate the ignition but its intake is reduced. The
engine is started with diesel fuel only, and subsequently the quantity of diesel is reduced as producer gas
is mixed with air. About 85-87% diesel replacement can be obtained.
BIOMASS TO ETHANOL PRODUCTION

Ethanol is manufactured by action of microorganisms on carbohydrates. The process is known as
alcoholic fermentation. Carbohydrates (also known as saccharides) can be divided into three major
classes in order of increasing complexity.
Monosaccharides : These are simple hydrocarbons, which cannot be hydrolyzed into simpler compounds.
Most common monosaccharides are glucose (C6H12O6) and fructose (C6H12O6). Glucose occurs naturally in
sweet fruits (e.g ., ripe grapes), honey, etc.
Oligosaccharides :Oligosaccharides yield few but definite numbers (2-10) of monosaccharide molecules
on hydrolysis. For example, disaccharide (such as sucrose, maltose etc ., both having formula C12H22O11)
produces two monosaccharide molecules on hydrolysis. Sucrose (common sugar) occurs naturally in
sugarcane and beetroot. Maltose (malt sugar) is derived from starch.
Polysaccharides :These are high molecular mass carbohydrates, which yield large number of
monosaccharides molecules on hydrolysis. Examples are starch and cellulose, both having general
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formula (C6H10O5)n. Large numbers (few hundreds to few thousands) of glucose units are joined together
in a complex chain. Starch occurs naturally in all plants, particularly in seeds. The main sources are maize,
barley, rice, wheat, potato, cassava and sorghum, etc. Cellulose is the main constituent of cell walls of the
plants. Wood contains 45-50%, while cotton contains 90-95% cellulose.
In general monosaccharides and oligosaccharides are crystalline solids, soluble in water and sweet in
taste. These are collectively known as sugars. Polysaccharides on the other hand are amorphous,
insoluble in water and tasteless and are known as non-sugars.The hexose (glucose and / or fructose)
required for ethanol fermentation is derived from: (i) sucrose (ii) starch, or (iii) cellulose.
Use of Ethanol as Fuel Hydrous ethanol (95% by volume) or commercial ethanol is used as fuel in
specially designed IC engines with 25% mileage penalty compared to conventional vehicles. Up to 22%
blend of anhydrous ethanol (99.7%, by volume) with petrol requiring no engine modification and
incurring no mileage penalty is being used by a large number of automobiles in the world. The blended
petrol is known as gasohol (in USA), proalcol (in Brazil) and carburol (in France). Note that water does not
mix with petrol. In conventional vehicles it is often present as sludge in petrol storage tank without
causing difficulty. However, it cannot be tolerated for gasohol storage tank. Therefore, anhydrous ethanol
is required for the purpose of blending of petrol. The ethanol additive has antiknock properties and is
preferred to the more commonly used tetraethyl lead, which produces serious air pollution. The excellent
combustion properties of ethanol enables an engine to produce up to 20% more power with ethanol than
that with petrol.
BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM WASTE BIOMASS

Biomass if left to decompose in open air, is acted upon by aerobic bacteria (bacteria that require oxygen
for their survival and growth) to produce mainly CO2, NH3 etc. Thus total carbon component completely
get oxidized to produce CO2 and no fuel is produced. Some part of nitrogen is also lost in the form of
ammonia.
Biogas is produced from wet biomass with about 90-95% water content by the action of anaerobic
bacteria. Part of carbon is oxidized and another part reduced to produce CO2 and CH4. These bacteria live
and grow without oxygen. They derive the needed oxygen by decomposing the biomass. The process is
favoured by wet, warm and dark conditions. The airtight equipment used for conversion is known as
biogas plant or digester, which is constructed and controlled to favour methane production. The
conversion process is known as anaerobic fermentation (or biodigestion). Nutrients such as soluble
nitrogen compounds remain available in solution and provide excellent fertilizer and humus. The energy
A.Y. 2021-22
available from the combustion of biogas is 60-90% of the input dry matter heat of combustion. Thus, the
energy conversion efficiency of the process is 60-90%.
The biochemical processes proceed in three stages, as shown in Fig:

(i) Stage I: First of all the original organic matter containing complex compounds e.g ., carbohydrate,
protein, fats, etc, is broken through the influence of water (known as hydrolysis) to simple water soluble
compounds. The polymers (large molecules) are reduced to monomers (basic molecules).The process
takes about a day at 25oC in an active digester.
(ii) Stage II: The microorganisms of anaerobic and facultative (that can live and grow with or without
oxygen) groups, together known as acid formers produce mainly acetic and propionic acids. This stage
also takes about one day at 25oC. Much of CO2 is released in this stage.
(iii) Stage III: Anaerobic bacteria, also known as methane formers, slowly digest the products available
from second stage to produce methane, carbon dioxide, small amount of hydrogen and trace amount of
other gases. The process takes about two weeks time to complete at 25oC. This third stage, i.e. methane
formation stage is carried out strictly by the action of anaerobic bacteria.
Main advantages of anaerobic digestion are:
 Discarded waste material is utilized to produce energy. In practice energy is often available where
none would otherwise have been obtained.
 In the normal course, the waste material can best be used either as fuel after drying or as fertilizer
after composting. If used through anaerobic digestion process, both benefits are obtained: (a) fuel, in
the form of biogas (better fuel than dried biomass), and (b) fertilizer, in the form of sludge/ digested
slurry (better fertilizer than composted biomass).
 In anaerobic digestion about 70-75% of original biomass weight is conserved, while in open compost
pit (aerobic digestion), 50% or more is lost. Similarly, almost all the nitrogen content in cattle dung is
conserved in a biogas unit, while a substantial part of it is lost in composting. Thus, the anaerobically
produced manure (digested slurry and sludge) is better in terms of both quantity and quality as
compared to ordinary manure.
 Energy requirements of some industries (e.g. dairy, etc.) can be met from anaerobic digestion of the
waste generated within these industries.
 Waste is converted to less offensive and stable slurry and most (but not all) of the disease causing
organisms are killed. As the process digest night soil and animal manure, it has potential to
considerably reduce the pathogens. The cycle of reinfection is broken and considerable
improvement in public health results. Mosquitoes and flies do not breed in digested slurry. In fact, in
municipal waste digestion plants main aim is to stabilize the waste rather than to produce gas and in
many cases only a part of gas produced is utilized.
 Since the system is enclosed the odours are contained. Digested slurry is odourless.
A.Y. 2021-22
Classification of Biogas Plants :
Biogas plants are mainly classified as: (i) batch type, and (ii) continuous type. Continuous type plants are
further classified into: (a) floating drum (constant pressure) type, and (b) fixed dome type (constant
volume) type.
Batch type plant is charged at 50-60 days interval. Once charged, it starts supplying the gas after 8-10
days and continues to do so for about 40-50 days till the process of digestion is completed. Afterwards it
is emptied and recharged. A battery of digesters are charged and emptied one by one in a synchronous
manner to maintain regular supply of gas through common gas holder. The outlines of such an
arrangement is shown in Fig.. The installation and operation of such plants are capital and labour
intensive, and are not economical unless operated on large scale. Such plants are installed in European
countries. These plants do not suit to conditions in Indian rural areas.
Main features of continuous type plant are shown in Fig. . The plant is fed daily (and not intermittently)
with certain quantity of biomass. The gas produced is stored in the plant or in a separate gas holder and
remains available for use as required. The biomass while slowly passing through the digester is
completely digested and the digested slurry is rejected through an outlet. The period during which the
biomass remains in the digester is known as retention period, which depends mainly on the type of
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biomass and operating temperature. The plant operates Slurry continuously and stopped only for
maintenance or for removal of sludge (undigested Sludge biomass residue). A thin dry layer oftenformed
at the top of slurry is known as scum. The scum tends to prevent the escape of gas from slurry. The layer
is broken by slowly stirring the slurry. This also helps in digestion process due to better mixing. Such
plants are convenient for individual owners as feeding pattern matches with daily waste generation and
do not require its storage. These types of plants are very popular in India and China.
Floating Drum (Constant Pressure) Type Biogas Plants

Numerous models of floating drum type biogas plants are developed in various countries. A family size
KVIC model (Khadi Village Industries Commission) developed in India is shown in Fig.. It has an inverted
mild steel
drum to work as gasholder. This is the most expensive component of the plant. The digester is an
underground masonry construction with a partition wall. The bifurcation of digestion chamber through
partitioning wall provides, optimum conditions for growth of acid formers and methane formers, as the
requirement of pH values for these bacteria are different. Therefore, this plant operates very well with
good biogas yield.
Fixed Dome (Constant Volume) Type Biogas Plants

This plant is more economical as only masonry work is required. Gas pressure in the dome varies
depending on the production/consumption rate. By construction a dome structure is very strong for
outside pressures but a weak one for inner pressures. As gas pressure is exerted from inside out, the
dome structure may fail if proper care is not taken in its construction. Therefore, skilled masonry
workmanship is required for construction of dome. Also in case of any leakages/ cracks the plant may fail.
A typical family size Chinese model is shown in Fig. . Many variations of this basic design are developed to
reduce the cost making use of different materials to suit local conditions.
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The slurry enters from inlet and the digested slurry is collected in a displacement tank. Stirring is required
if raw material is crop residue. There is no bifurcation in the digester chamber, and therefore, the gas
production is somewhat less as compared to floating point design. The gas produced is stored in the
dome and displaces the liquids in inlet and outlet, often leading to gas pressure as high as 100 cm of
water. The gas occupies about 10% of the volume of the digester. As complete plant is constructed
underground, the temperature tends to remain constant and is often considerably higher than ambient
temperature in winter.
Many variations of the above two basic models are developed keeping in view the portability, ease of
installation and maintenance, local availability of material and cost, etc. Some of them are: plastic bag
reactor, prefabricated steel/bamboo/plastic reactors (both are portable models) and horizontal type
reactors.
TASK:
 What is meant by anaerobic digestion? Discuss the effect of following factors or bio-
digestion.
 Explain construction and working of floating drum (constant pressure) type, and fixed dome type
(constant volume) type.
 Explain working principal of Biomass Gasifier. Discuss relative advantages and disadvantages of
downdraft and updraft gasifier
 Discuss the process of biomass to ethanol production.
 What is Energy Plantation ?

A.Y. 2021-22
Experiment 10
OBJECTIVE:
Study of Magnetohydrodynamic Power generation system.
THEORY :
A magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) power genera is a device, which converts the kinetic energy of
conducting material, flowing in presence of magnetic field directly into electrical energy.In practical MHD
generator, energy of motion of conducting fluid is derived from heat obtained by burning of fossil fuel.
Thus heat is converted directly into electrical energy.
Basic Principle
A conducting gas, with conductivity, σ mho/m, moves at a speed u across magnetic field B. The
electrodes, having area A, are held perpendicular to both u and B, separated by a distance d as shown in
Fig. . Magnitude of force acting on a charged particle having charge q is given by: q u B. This force, as per
right hand rule, will be acting in upward direction (on positively charge particle). The positively charged
particles will be collected by upper plate and negatively charged particles by lower plate, causing a
potential difference V across them. The resulting electric filed between the plates is given by:
V
E= −
d
Due to this field, another force q E will be acting on the charged particle in the downward direction. Net
force acting on the charged particle:
F = qE + quB
V
F = −q + quB
d
If no load is connected across the plates (i.e. open circuit condition), no current will flow, and there will
be no net movement of carriers between electrodes. Therefore, no net force will be acting on the
charged particles. A voltage, Vs (open circuit voltage) appears across the electrodes. Thus:
V
F = −q + quB = 0
d
V = Bud
Now if an external load RL is connected across the terminals, current starts flowing through the load
transferring power to the electrical load. As per maximum power transfer theorem, maximum output Pmax
Is obtained when the load resistance is equal to the internal resistance Rg of the MHD generator.
P = VI (for R = R )
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= IR I = I R
V
=
R + R
V
=
4R
B u d
P =
4R
Internal resistance of MHD generator is the resistance of conducting fluid flowing between the
electrodes. Thus
1 d
R =
σ A
Therefore
1
P = σu B Ad
4
Maximum power output per unit volume

P 1
Ad = 4 σu B
MHD Generator
MHD generator is a divergent channel or duct made of a heat resistant alloy (e.g. Inconel) as shown in Fig.
.Magnetic field is applied at right angles to the channel length and electrodes are provided at right angles
to both magnetic field and flow of gas. A conducting fluid (ionized gas) is forced into the MHD channel at
high speed and high temperature through a nozzle. It expands as it moves forward and leaves the duct at
lower temperature and pressure. In this respect an MHD converter system is a heat engine, which
converts a part of it into useful work (electricity in this case) and rejects the remaining heat at lower
temperature. The efficiency of MHD convertor alone is about 20-25% In practice, however, MHD
converter is never made to operate alone. The exhaust of MHD system is used to raise the steam for
conventional steam plant. Thus by using MHD as topping cycle for the conventional steam system, an
overall efficiency of 50-60% should be possible.
A.Y. 2021-22
MHD generation looks more promising for direct thermal to electrical conversion in large scale central
power stations. Several economical and physical factors have led to design outputs of the order of 1,000
MW or so.
As learnt the output power per unit volume of duct is proportional to the conductivity of the working
fluid. Practical MHD generator requires minimum conductivity of 10 mho/m. The working fluid, a gas,
itself a non-conductor at ordinary temperature. It is rendered conducting in two ways :
 By inducing ionization in the working fluid.lonization by thermal means alone would require a
temperature of several tens of thousands of degrees Celsius. More practical way is to inject a solid
seed material up to about 1% of the total flow rate. The seed material contains an element commonly
potassium or cesium, which ionizes relatively easily when heated.
 By incorporating a liquid metal into flowing carrier gas.
The power output of MHD generator is also proportional to squares of magnetic flux density and gas
speed. Due to limitations of enhancing conductivity beyond certain limit, a strong magnetic field and high
gas velocities are required for large outputs. Conventional electromagnets are not practical in the range
of required flux density of above 2 Tesla. Consequently, superconducting magnets are being proposed for
such applications. The required gas velocities for large outputs are in the range around 1,000 m/s.
Advantages
 Conversion efficiency of MHD-Steam hybrid plant may be around 50-60%. The fuel is better utilized.
 MHD generation uses no moving parts and therefore, all problems/ limitations associated with it are
also absent.
 MHD unit is capable of rapid starting (reaching full power level soon after starting) and taking up peak
loads in an interconnected system.
 Lower emission of pollutants due to better pollution control.
 MHD plant is compact and requires comparatively less space.
Disadvantages/Limitations
 Very high operating temperature restricts the choice of material for various equipments.
 Life of equipments is short due to high temperature stresses.
 The output power is available as dc. Inversion is required for integrating it into a grid.
 There are technical limitations on enhancing the fluid conductivity and the strength of magnetic field.
A.Y. 2021-22
MHD Systems :
There are two types of MHD generating systems: (i) open cycle, and (ii) closed cycle. In open cycle system
the working fluid is used on once through basis whereas in closed cycle system, working fluid is
continuously recirculated.
 Open cycle system

 Closed cycle system
Two general types of closed loop systems are
- Seeded inert gas carrier system
- Liquid metal inert gas carrier system
A.Y. 2021-22
TASK :
 Describe the basic principle of operation of an MHD generator. Derive expressions for maximum
power generation per unit volume of generator.
 What are the major advantages and limitations of MHD generating system?
 With the help of schematic diagram, explain the operation of open cycle MHD generating system.
 Explain working of following closed cycle MHD systems

- Seeded inert gas carrier system
- Liquid metal inert gas carrier system
A.Y. 2021-22
Experiment 11
OBJECTIVE:
Study of Fuel Cells.
THEORY:
 A Cell capable of generation an electric current by converting the chemical energy of a fuel directly
in to electrical energy.
 The basic feature of the fuel cell is that the fuel and its oxidant are combined in the form of ions
rather than neutral molecule.
A fuel cell is a device that generates electricity by a chemical reaction. Every fuel cell has two electrodes,
the anode (which is positively charged) and the cathode (which is negatively charged)The reactions that
produce electricity take place at the two electrodes. Every fuel cell also has an electrolyte, which carries
electrically charged particles from one electrode to the other, and a catalyst, which speeds the reactions
at the electrodes. Multiple fuel cells are usually assembled into a stack and generate direct current (DC).
Hydrogen is the basic fuel for fuel cells, but fuel cells also require oxygen
There are several kinds of fuel cells, and each operates a bit differently. But, in general terms, hydrogen
atoms enter a fuel cell at the anode where a chemical reaction strips them of their electrons. The
hydrogen atoms are now “ionized,” and carry a positive electrical charge. The negatively charged
electrons provide the current through wires to do work. If alternating current (AC) is needed, the DC
output of the fuel cell must be routed through a conversion device called an inverter.
Oxygen enters the fuel cell at the cathode and, in some cell types, it combines with electrons returning
from the electrical circuit and hydrogen ions that have traveled through the electrolyte from the anode.
In other cell types the oxygen picks up electrons and then travels through the electrolyte to the anode,
where it combines with hydrogen ions.
The electrolyte plays a key role. It must permit only the appropriate ions to pass between the anode and
cathode. If free electrons or other substances could travel through the electrolyte, they would disrupt the
chemical reaction.
Whether they combine at anode or cathode, together hydrogen and oxygen form water, which drains
from the cell. As long as a fuel cell is supplied with hydrogen and oxygen, it will generate electricity.
Types of Fuel Cells :
Alkali fuel cells operate on compressed hydrogen and oxygen. They generally use a solution of potassium
hydroxide (chemically, KOH) in water as their electrolyte. Efficiency is about 70 percent, and operating
temperature is 150 to 200 degrees C, (about 300 to 400 degrees F). Cell output ranges from 300 watts
(W) to 5 kilowatts (kW). Alkali cells were used in Apollo spacecraft to provide both electricity and drinking
water. They require pure hydrogen fuel, however, and their platinum electrode catalysts are expensive.
and like any container filled with liquid, they can leak.
A.Y. 2021-22
Molten Carbonate fuel cells (MCFC) use high-temperature compounds of salt (like sodium or magnesium)
carbonates (chemically, CO3) as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 60 to 80 percent, and operating
temperature is about 650oC . Units with output up to 2 megawatts (MW) have been constructed, and
designs exist for units up to 100 MW. The high temperature limits damage from carbon monoxide
“poisoning” of the cell and waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity. Their nickel
electrode-catalysts are inexpensive compared to the platinum used in other cells. But the high
temperature also limits the materials and safe uses of MCFCs – they would probably be too hot for home
use. Moreover, carbonate ions from the electrolyte are used up in the reactions, making it necessary to
inject carbon dioxide to compensate.
Phosphoric Acid fuel cells (PAFC) use phosphoric acid as the electrolyte. Efficiency ranges from 40 to 80
percent, and operating temperature is between 150 to 200 oC. Existing phosphoric acid cells have outputs
up to 200 kW, and 11 MW units have been tested. PAFCs tolerate a carbon monoxide concentration of
about 1.5 percent, which broadens the choice of fuels they can use. If gasoline is used, the sulfur must be
removed. Platinum electrode-catalysts are needed, and internal parts must be able to withstand the
corrosive acid.
Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell work with a polymer electrolyte in the form of a thin,
permeable sheet. Efficiency is about 40 to 50 percent, and operating temperature is about 80 oC. Cell
outputs generally range from 50 to 250 kW. The solid, flexible electrolyte will not leak or crack, and these
cells operate at a low enough temperature to make them suitable for homes and cars. But their fuels
must be purified, and a platinum catalyst is used on both sides of the membrane, raising costs.
Solid Oxide fuel cells (SOFC) use a hard, ceramic compound of metal (like calcium or zirconium) oxides
(chemically, O2) as electrolyte. Efficiency is about 60 percent, and operating temperatures are about
1,000 oC. Cells output is up to 100 kW. At such high temperatures, a reformer is not required to extract
hydrogen from the fuel, and waste heat can be recycled to make additional electricity. However, the high
temperature limits applications of SOFC units and they tend to be rather large. While solid electrolytes
cannot leak, they can crack.
A.Y. 2021-22
Applications of Fuel Cells:
 Cars, trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles

 Material handling equipment
 Act as a primary power source for high-volume data centers or commercial, industrial, and
residential buildings
 Backup power source to critical computer and communications networks
 Generating power on-site
TASK:
 What is Fuel cell? Describe the principal of working of a fuel cell with reference to Hydrogen
cell.
 Discuss the advantages and limitation of fuel cells?
 Discuss on: Hydrogen as an alternator fuel for motor vehicles.
 Explain about Phosphoric Acid Fuel cells (PAFC).

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G H PATEL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechanical Engineering

1 To measure solar radiation with help of Pyranometer.

2 Study of Solar Angles.

3 Performance Testing of Box type Solar cooker.

4 Performance analysis of flat plate collector.

5 To plot the V-I Characteristics of the PV Module.

6 To draw profiles of NACA aerofoils.

9 Study of Biomass Energy Conversion Technologies.

10 Study of Magnetohydrodynamic Power generation system.

11 Study of Fuel Cells.

To measure solar radiation with help of Pyranometer.

2 Study of Solar Angles.

Performance Testing of Box type Solar cooker.

10 Study of Magnetohydrodynamic Power generation system.

This measuring device is used to measure the terrestrial radiation.

Sun Shine Recorder:

Sr Local Total Intensity W/m2 Sr. Local Total Intensity W/m2

Plot Total Intensity versus Time graph

OBJECTIVE: Study of Solar Angles.

There are three types of Solar Angles.

cos z  cosφ. cosδ . cosω  sinφ . sinδ

Solar Azimuth Angle:

Surface Azimuth Angle:

OBJECTIVE: Performance testing of Box type Solar cooker.

Basically there are three designs of solar cooker:

 Flat plate box type solar cooker with or without reflector

 Multi-reflector type solar oven

 Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker.

(a) Principle of box type solar cooker

(b) Multi reflector type solar cooker

Principle and constructional details of a box type solar cooker

Parabolic disc concentrator type solar cooker

Merits of a solar cooker are:

Limitations of a solar cooker are :

Sr.No, Local Solar Time Intensity (W/m2) Final Temp of

Type of cooker Efficiency (η)

Useful Heat Gain q

Overall Loss Coefficient and Heat Transfer :

ql = rate at which heat is lost from the top,

Top Loss Coefficient :

Bottom Loss Coefficient:

Side Loss Coefficient :

from above equation

Local Solar Time Intensity (W/m2) Final Temp of

Find average values of Ib & Id .

Useful Heat Gain q

Correlation used for determining hw (Test .et.al)

A = surface area of bottom wall

The flux incident on the top cover of the collector is given by

For surfaces facing due south, γ = 0, inclined surfaces

The altitude α, can be found using the following formula

cosα = sin [sinδ sinϕ + cosδ cosϕ cosω]

 Explain the following

OBSERVATIONS & COMPUTATION TABLE

Sr.No. Tilt Angle Voc ISC V I Fill Factor η

The first digit indicates the maximum camber in percentage of chord.