NOTES

Qualitative Research
Created by:
Usama Mujahid
BS PSYCHOLOGY
5th MORNING
Method of DATA Analysis in Qualitative Research
Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis is one of the most common forms of analysis within qualitative research. Holtan was
the first to introduce TA in 1975. Thematic Analysis emphasizes identifying, analyzing and interpreting patterns
of meaning (or "themes") within qualitative data. Thematic analysis is often understood as a method or
technique in contrast to most other qualitative analytic approaches-such as grounded theory, discourse analysis,
narrative analysis and interpretative phenomenological analysis - which can be described as methodologies or
theoretically informed frameworks for research (they specify guiding theory, appropriate research questions and
methods of data collection, as well as procedures for conducting analysis).
Three main Types of Thematic Analysis:
Thematic analysis is best thought of as an umbrella term for a variety of different approaches, rather than a
singular method. Different versions of thematic analysis are underpinned by different philosophical and
conceptual assumptions and are divergent in terms of procedure. Leading thematic analysis proponents,
psychologists Virginia Braun and Victoria Clarke distinguish between three main types of thematic analysis:
1. Coding Reliability Approaches
2. Code Book Approaches
3. Reflexive Approaches
General Overview of Thematic Analysis:
Thematic analysis is used in qualitative research and focuses on examining themes or patterns of meaning
within data. This method can emphasize both organization and rich description of the data set and theoretically
informed interpretation of meaning.
1. Explores Meanings within The Data:
Thematic analysis goes beyond simply counting phrases or words in a text (as in content analysis) and explores
explicit and implicit meanings within the data.
2. Coding:
Coding is the primary process for developing themes by identifying items of analytic interest in the data and
tagging these with a coding label-either through numerical values or highlighters of different colors.
In some thematic analysis approaches coding follows theme development and is a deductive process of
allocating data to pre-identified themes (this approach is common in coding reliability and code book
approaches), in other approaches - notably Braun and Clarke's reflexive approach - coding precedes theme
development and themes are built from codes.

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 3. Distinctive feature of TA:
One of the hallmarks (a distinctive feature) of thematic analysis is its flexibility - flexibility with regards to
framing theory, research questions and research design.
4. Uses of TA:
 Thematic analysis can be used to explore questions about participants' lived experiences, perspectives,
behavior and practices, the factors and social processes that influence and shape particular phenomena, the
explicit and implicit norms and 'rules' governing particular practices, as well as the social construction of
meaning and the representation of social objects in particular texts and contexts.
 Thematic analysis can be used to analyze most types of qualitative data including qualitative data
collected from interviews, focus groups, surveys, solicited diaries, visual methods, observation and field
research, action research, memory work, vignettes, story completion and secondary sources. Data-sets can
range from short, perfunctory response to an open-ended survey question to hundreds of pages of interview
transcripts.
 Thematic analysis can be used to analyze both small and large data-sets. Thematic analysis is often
used in mixed-method designs - the theoretical flexibility of TA makes it a more straightforward choice than
approaches with specific embedded theoretical assumptions.

5. Relation with Phenomenology:

Thematic analysis is sometimes claimed to be compatible with phenomenology in that sense that it can focus on
participants' subjective experiences and sense-making; there is a long tradition of using thematic analysis in
phenomenological research. A phenomenological approach emphasizes the participants' perceptions, feelings
and experiences as the paramount object of study. Rooted in humanistic psychology, phenomenology notes
giving voice to the "other" as a key component in qualitative research in general. This approach allows the
respondents to discuss the topic in their own words, free of constraints from fixed-response questions found in
quantitative studies.
6. Deductive or inductive Thematic Analysis:
Like most research methods, the process of thematic analysis of data can occur both inductively or deductively.
 Inductive Approach:
In an inductive approach, the themes identified are strongly linked to the data. This means that the process
of coding occurs without trying to fit the data into pre-existing theory or framework. But inductive learning
processes in practice are rarely 'purely bottom up'; it is not possible for the researchers and their
communities to free themselves completely from ontological (theory of reality), epistemological (theory of
knowledge) and paradigmatic (habitual) assumptions - coding will always to some extent reflect the
researcher's philosophical standpoint, and individual/communal values with respect to knowledge and
learning.
 Deductive approaches,
On the other hand, deductive approaches are more theory-driven. This form of analysis tends to be more
interpretative because analysis is explicitly shaped and informed by pre-existing theory and concepts
(ideally cited for transparency in the shared learning). Deductive approaches can involve seeking to identify
themes identified in other research in the data-set or using existing theory as a lens through which to
organize, code and interpret the data. Sometimes deductive approaches are misunderstood as coding driven
by a research question or the data collection questions. A thematic analysis can also combine inductive and
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 deductive approaches, for example in foregrounding interplay between a priori ideas from clinician-led
qualitative data analysis teams and those emerging from study participants and the field observations.
Methods of Data Collection and Sample Size
The flexibility of TA means it is suitable to analyse a wide range of data types:
TA can be used to analyse data from ‘traditional’ face-to-face data collection methods such as interviews
(e.g. Niland et al., 2014) and focus groups (e.g. Neville et al., 2015). It can also be used with textual data
from qualitative surveys (e.g. Hayfield, 2013; Terry and Braun, 2016), diaries (e.g. Leeming et al., 2013),
story based methods such as vignettes and story completion tasks (e.g. Clarke et  al., 2015b), as well as
online discussion forums (e.g. Bennett and Gough, 2013), and other media sources (e.g. Frith, 2015).
Sample Size:
The most important aspect of data type or mode of collection is quality of the data. Rich and complex data
on a given topic are the crown jewels of qualitative research, allowing us deep and nuanced insights.
Quantity (e.g. sample size) is also a consideration, but should not be conflated with quality. Key in thinking
about sample size in TA is to recognise that it produces accounts of patterns across the dataset (this is not
intended as a case-study approach, although some researchers are using TA in case studies, see Cedervall
and Åberg, 2010). Sample size is a fraught, contentious, and debated topic in qualitative research. Some
broad indicative size recommendations across TA projects of different scale for reference are indicated in
Table below, linked to student projects. However, what is deemed ‘publishable’ is an entirely separate, and
also fraught, issue, often linked to an editor’s view, but not necessarily shared by all qualitative scholar.
Qualitative Story
Projects Interviews Focus groups Media texts
surveys completion tasks
2–3 (4–8
Undergraduate or
Honours project
6–10 participants in 20–30 20–40 1–100
each group)
Masters or
Professional 6–15 3–6 30–100 40–100 1–200
Doctorate project
PhD/larger
project (TA data
as only a part of
15–20 3–6 50+ 100+ 4–400
the whole project)
PhD/larger
project (TA data 30+ 10+ 200+ 400+ 4–400+
as whole project)

Braun and Clarke's six Phases of Thematic Analysis:

Phase 1: Becoming familiar with the data:

This six-phase process for thematic analysis is based on the work of Braun and Clarke and their reflexive
approach to thematic analysis. This six phase cyclical process involves going back and forth between
phases of data analysis as needed until you are satisfied with the final themes. Researchers conducting
thematic analysis should attempt to go beyond surface meanings of the data to make sense of the data and
tell a rich and compelling story about what the data means. The procedures associated with other thematic
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 analysis approaches are rather different. This description of Braun and Clarke's six phase process also
includes some discussion of the contrasting insights provided by other thematic analysis proponents.
The initial phase in reflexive thematic analysis is common to most approaches - that of data familiarization.
This is where researchers familiarize themselves with the content of their data - both the detail of each data
item and the 'bigger picture'. In other approaches, prior to reading the data, researchers may create a "start
list" of potential codes. As Braun and Clarke's approach is intended to focus on the data and not the
researcher's prior conceptions they only recommend developing codes prior to familiarization in deductive
approaches where coding is guided by pre-existing theory.
For Miles and Huberman, in their matrix approach, "start codes" should be included in a reflexivity
journal with a description of representations of each code and where the code is established. Analyzing data
in an active way will assist researchers in searching for meanings and patterns in the data set. At this stage,
it is tempting to rush this phase of familiarization and immediately start generating codes and themes;
however, this process of immersion will aid researchers in identifying possible themes and patterns. Reading
and re-reading the material until the researcher is comfortable is crucial to the initial phase of analysis.
While becoming familiar with the material, note-taking is a crucial part of this step in order begin
developing potential codes.
Transcription
After completing data collection, the researcher may need to transcribe their data into written form (e.g.
audio recorded data such as interviews). Braun and Clarke provide a transcription notation system for use
with their approach in their textbook “Successful Qualitative Research”. Quality transcription of the data is
imperative to the dependability of analysis. Criteria for transcription of data must be established before the
transcription phase is initiated to ensure that dependability is high.
Accuracy of Transcription:
Some thematic analysis proponents - particular those with a foothold in positivism - express concern about
the accuracy of transcription. Inconsistencies in transcription can produce 'biases' in data analysis that will be
difficult to identify later in the analysis process . For others, including Braun and Clarke, transcription is
viewed as an interpretative and theoretically embedded process and therefore cannot be 'accurate' in a
straightforward sense, as the researcher always makes choices about how to translate spoken into written
text. However, this does not mean that researchers shouldn't strive for thoroughness in their transcripts and
use a systematic approach to transcription. Authors should ideally provide a key for their system of
transcription notation so it’s readily apparent what particular notations means. Inserting comments like
"voice lowered" will signal a change in the speech. A general rough guideline to follow when planning time
for transcribing - allow for spending 15 minutes of transcription for every 5 minutes of dialog. Transcription
can form part of the familiarization process.
After this stage, the researcher should feel familiar with the content of the data and should be able to start to
identify overt patterns or repeating issues the data. These patterns should be recorded in a reflexivity journal
where they will be of use when coding data. Other TA proponents conceptualize coding as the researcher
beginning to gain control over the data. They view it as important to mark data that addresses the research
question. For them, this is the beginning of the coding process.
Phase 2: Generating codes:
Coding: The second step in reflexive-(A reflexive relationship is bidirectional with both the cause and the
effect affecting one another in a relationship in which neither can be assigned as causes or effects)- thematic

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 analysis is tagging items of interest in the data with a label (a few words or a short phrase). This label should
clearly evoke the relevant features of the data - this is important for later stages of theme development. This
systematic way of organizing and identifying meaningful parts of data as it relates to the research question is
called coding. The coding process evolves through the researcher's immersion in their data and is not
considered to be a linear process, but a cyclical process in which codes are developed and refined.
The coding process is rarely completed from one sweep through the data. Saladana recommends that each
time researchers work through the data set, they should strive to refine codes by adding, subtracting,
combining or splitting potential codes. For Miles and Huberman, "start codes" are produced through
terminology used by participants during the interview and can be used as a reference point of their
experiences during the interview. For more positivist inclined thematic analysis proponents, dependability
increases when the researcher uses concrete codes that are based on dialogue and are descriptive in
nature. These codes will facilitate the researcher's ability to locate pieces of data later in the process and
identify why they included them. However, Braun and Clarke urge researchers to look beyond a sole focus
on description and summary and engage interpretatively with data - exploring both overt (semantic) and
implicit (latent) meaning. 
Coding sets the stage for detailed analysis later by allowing the researcher to reorganize the data according
to the ideas that have been obtained throughout the process. Reflexivity journal entries for new codes
serve as a reference point to the participant and their data section, reminding the researcher to understand
why and where they will include these codes in the final analysis. Throughout the coding process, full and
equal attention needs to be paid to each data item because it will help in the identification of otherwise
unnoticed repeated patterns. Coding as inclusively as possible is important - coding individual aspects of the
data that may seem irrelevant can potentially be crucial later in the analysis process.
For sociologists Coffey and Atkinson, coding also involves the process of data reduction and
complication. Reduction of codes is initiated by assigning tags or labels to the data set based on the research
question(s). In this stage, condensing large data sets into smaller units permits further analysis of the data by
creating useful categories. In-vivo codes are also produced by applying references and terminology from the
participants in their interviews. Coding aids in development, transformation and re-conceptualization of the
data and helps to find more possibilities for analysis. Researchers should ask questions related to the data
and generate theories from the data, extending past what has been previously reported in previous research.
Data reduction (Coffey and Atkinson):
For some thematic analysis proponents, coding can be thought of as a means of reduction of data or data
simplification (this is not the case for Braun and Clarke who view coding as both data reduction and
interpretation). For Coffey and Atkinson, using simple but broad analytic codes it is possible to reduce the
data to a more manageable feat. In this stage of data analysis the analyst must focus on the identification of
a more simple way of organizing data. Using data reductionism researchers should include a process of
indexing the data texts which could include: field notes, interview transcripts, or other documents. Data at
this stage are reduced to classes or categories in which the researcher is able to identify segments of the data
that share a common category or code. 
Process of data reduction and coding:
Siedel and Kelle suggested three ways to aid with the process of data reduction and coding:
(a) Noticing relevant phenomena,
(b) Collecting examples of the phenomena, and

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 (c) Analyzing phenomena to find similarities, differences, patterns and overlying structures.
This aspect of data coding is important because during this stage researchers should be attaching codes to
the data to allow the researcher to think about the data in different ways. Coding cannot be viewed as strictly
data reduction, data complication can be used as a way to open up the data to examine further. The below
section addresses Coffey and Atkinson's process of data complication and its significance to data analysis in
qualitative analysis.
Data complication (Coffey and Atkinson)
For Coffey and Atkinson, the process of creating codes can be described as both data reduction and data
complication.
Data complication can be described as going beyond the data and asking questions about the data to
generate frameworks and theories. The complication of data is used to expand on data to create new
questions and interpretation of the data. Researchers should make certain that the coding process does not
lose more information than is gained. Tesch defined data complication as the process of re-conceptualizing
the data giving new contexts for the data segments. Data complication serves as a means of providing new
contexts for the way data is viewed and analyzed.
Coding is a process of breaking data up through analytical ways and in order to produce questions about the
data, providing temporary answers about relationships within and among the data. Decontextualizing and re-
contextualizing help to reduce and expand the data in new ways with new theories.
Phase 3: Generating initial themes:
(On the basis of codes similarities and differences.)
Searching for themes and considering what works and what does not work within themes enables the
researcher to begin the analysis of potential codes. In this phase, it is important to begin by examining how
codes combine to form over-reaching themes in the data. At this point, researchers have a list of themes and
begin to focus on broader patterns in the data, combining coded data with proposed themes. Researchers
also begin considering how relationships are formed between codes and themes and between different levels
of existing themes. It may be helpful to use visual models to sort codes into the potential themes.

Themes’ difference from codes:

Themes differ from codes in that themes are phrases or sentences that identifies what the data means. They
describe an outcome of coding for analytic reflection. Themes consist of ideas and descriptions within a
culture that can be used to explain causal events, statements, and morals derived from the participants'
stories. In subsequent phases, it is important to narrow down the potential themes to provide an
overreaching theme. Thematic analysis allows for categories or themes to emerge from the data like the
following: repeating ideas; indigenous terms, metaphors and analogies; shifts in topic; and similarities and
differences of participants' linguistic expression. It is important at this point to address not only what is
present in data, but also what is missing from the data. 
Conclusion of this phase should yield many candidate themes collected throughout the data process. It is
crucial to avoid discarding themes even if they are initially insignificant as they may be important themes
later in the analysis process.
Phase 4: Reviewing themes:
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 This phase requires the researchers to check their initial themes against the coded data and the entire data-
set - this is to ensure the analysis hasn't drifted too far from the data and provides a compelling account of
the data relevant to the research question. This process of review also allows for further expansion on and
revision of themes as they develop. At this point, researchers should have a set of potential themes, as this
phase is where the reworking of initial themes takes place. Some existing themes may collapse into each
other, other themes may need to be condensed into smaller units, or let go of all together.
Levels of Refining and Reviewing Themes
Specifically, this phase involves two levels of refining and reviewing themes. Connections between
overlapping themes may serve as important sources of information and can alert researchers to the
possibility of new patterns and issues in the data. For Guest and colleagues, deviations from coded material
can notify the researcher that a theme may not actually be useful to make sense of the data and should be
discarded. Both of this acknowledgements should be noted in the researcher's reflexivity journal, also
including the absence of themes. Codes serve as a way to relate data to a person's conception of that
concept. At this point, the researcher should focus on interesting aspects of the codes and why they fit
together.

 Level 1 (Reviewing the themes against the coded data)

Reviewing coded data extracts allows researchers to identify if themes form coherent patterns. If this is the
case, researchers should move onto Level 2. If themes do not form coherent patterns, consideration of the
potentially problematic themes is necessary. If themes are problematic, it is important to rework the theme
and during the process, new themes may develop. For example, it is problematic when themes do not appear
to 'work' (capture something compelling about the data) or there is a significant amount of overlap between
themes. This can result in a weak or unconvincing analysis of the data. If this occurs, data may need to be
recognized in order to create cohesive, mutually exclusive themes.
 Level 2 (Reviewing the themes against the entire data-set)
Considering the validity of individual themes and how they connect to the data set as a whole is the next
stage of review. It is imperative to assess whether the potential thematic map meaning captures the
important information in the data relevant to the research question. Once again, at this stage it is important
to read and re-read the data to determine if current themes relate back to the data set. To assist in this
process it is imperative to code any additional items that may have been missed earlier in the initial coding
stage. If the potential map 'works' to meaningfully capture and tell a coherent story about the data then the
researcher should progress to the next phase of analysis. If the map does not work it is crucial to return to
the data in order to continue to review and refine existing themes and perhaps even undertake further
coding. Mismatches between data and analytic claims reduce the amount of support that can be provided by
the data. This can be avoided if the researcher is certain that their interpretations of the data and analytic
insights correspond. Researchers repeat this process until they are satisfied with the thematic map. By the
end of this phase, researchers have an idea of what themes are and how they fit together so that they convey
a story about the data set.
Phase 5: Defining and naming themes:
Defining and refining existing themes that will be presented in the final analysis assists the researcher in
analyzing the data within each theme. At this phase, identification of the themes' essences relate to how each
specific theme forms part of the entire picture of the data. Analysis at this stage is characterized by

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 identifying which aspects of data are being captured and what is interesting about the themes, and how the
themes fit together to tell a coherent and compelling story about the data.
In order to identify whether current themes contain sub-themes and to discover further depth of themes, it is
important to consider themes within the whole picture and also as autonomous themes. Braun and Clarke
recommend caution about developing many sub-themes and many levels of themes as this may lead to an
overly fragmented analysis. Researchers must then conduct and write a detailed analysis to identify the story
of each theme and its significance.
By the end of this phase, researchers can (1) define what current themes consist of, and (2) explain each
theme in a few sentences. It is important to note that researchers begin thinking about names for themes that
will give the reader a full sense of the theme and its importance. Failure to fully analyze the data occurs
when researchers do not use the data to support their analysis beyond simply describing or paraphrasing the
content of the data. Researchers conducting thematic analysis should attempt to go beyond surface meanings
of the data to make sense of the data and tell an accurate story of what the data means.
Phase 6: Producing the report:
After final themes have been reviewed, researchers begin the process of writing the final report. While
writing the final report, researchers should decide on themes that make meaningful contributions to
answering research questions which should be refined later as final themes. For coding reliability
proponents Guest and colleagues, researchers present the dialogue connected with each theme in support of
increasing dependability through a thick description of the results. The goal of this phase is to write the
thematic analysis to convey the complicated story of the data in a manner that convinces the reader of the
validity and merit of your analysis. A clear, concise, and straightforward logical account of the story across
and with themes is important for readers to understand the final report. The write up of the report should
contain enough evidence that themes within the data are relevant to the data set. Extracts should be included
in the narrative to capture the full meaning of the points in analysis. The argument should be in support of
the research question. For some thematic analysis proponents, the final step in producing the report is to
include member checking as a means to establish credibility, researchers should consider taking final
themes and supporting dialog to participants to elicit feedback. 
However, Braun and Clarke are critical of the practice of member checking and do not generally view it as
a desirable practice in their reflexive approach to thematic analysis. As well as highlighting numerous
practical concerns around member checking, they argue that it is only theoretically coherent with
approaches that seek to describe and summaries participants' accounts in ways that would be recognizable to
them. Given their reflexive thematic analysis approach centers the active, interpretive role of the researcher
- this may not apply to analyses generated using their approach.
Advantages and disadvantages:
A technical or pragmatic view of research design centers researchers conducting qualitative analysis using
the most appropriate method for the research question. However, there is rarely only one ideal or suitable
method so other criteria for selecting methods of analysis are often used - the researcher's theoretical
commitments and their familiarity with particular methods. Thematic analysis provides a flexible method of
data analysis and allows for researchers with various methodological backgrounds to engage in this type of
analysis. For positivists, 'reliability' is a concern because of the numerous potential interpretations of data
possible and the potential for researcher subjectivity to 'bias' or distort the analysis. For those committed to
qualitative research values, researcher subjectivity is viewed as a resource (rather than a threat to
credibility), and so concerns about reliability do not hold. There is no one correct or accurate interpretation

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 of data, interpretations are inevitably subjective and reflect the positioning of the researcher. Quality is
achieved through a systematic and rigorous approach and through the researcher continually reflecting on
how they are shaping the developing analysis. Braun and Clarke have developed a 15-point quality
checklist for their reflexive approach. For coding reliability thematic analysis proponents, the use of
multiple coders and the measurement of coding agreement is vital.
Thematic analysis has several advantages and disadvantages, it is up to the researchers to decide if this
method of analysis is suitable for their research design.
Advantages:
 The theoretical and research design flexibility it allows researchers - multiple theories can be applied to
this process across a variety of epistemologies.
 Well suited to large data sets.
 Code book and coding reliability approaches are designed for use with research teams.
 Interpretation of themes supported by data.
 Applicable to research questions that go beyond an individual's experience.
 Allows for inductive development of codes and themes from data.
 All codes are accepted by all researchers.
Disadvantages:
 Thematic analysis may miss nuanced data if the researcher is not careful and uses thematic analysis in a
theoretical vacuum.
 Flexibility can make it difficult for novice researchers to decide what aspects of the data to focus on.
 Limited interpretive power of analysis is not grounded in a theoretical framework.
 Difficult to maintain sense of continuity of data in individual accounts because of the focus on
identifying themes across data items.
 Does not allow researchers to make technical claims about language usage (unlike discourse analysis
and narrative analysis).

Phas
Process Result Reflexivity Journal Entries
e

List start codes in journal, along

Read and re-read data in order to become Preliminary "start"
with a description of what each
P-I familiar with what the data entails, paying codes and detailed
code means and the source of the
specific attention to patterns that occur. notes.
code.

P-II Generate the initial codes by documenting Comprehensive codes Provide detailed information as to
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 where and how patterns occur. This happens
through data reduction where the researcher
how and why codes were combined,
collapses data into labels in order to create
of how data answers what questions the researcher is
categories for more efficient analysis. Data
research question. asking of the data, and how codes
complication is also completed here. This
are related.
involves the researcher making inferences
about what the codes mean.

Combine codes into overarching themes that

accurately depict the data. It is important in
developing themes that the researcher List of candidate Reflexivity journals need to note
P-III describes exactly what the themes mean, even themes for further how the codes were interpreted and
if the theme does not seem to "fit". The analysis. combined to form themes.
researcher should also describe what is missing
from the analysis.

Notes need to include the process of

In this stage, the researcher looks at how the Coherent recognition understanding themes and how they
themes support the data and the overarching of how themes are fit together with the given codes.
P-IV theoretical perspective. If the analysis seems patterned to tell an Answers to the research questions
incomplete, the researcher needs to go back accurate story about and data-driven questions need to be
and find what is missing. the data. abundantly complex and well-
supported by the data.

The researcher needs to define what each A comprehensive

theme is, which aspects of data are being analysis of what the The researcher should describe each
P-V
captured, and what is interesting about the themes contribute to theme within a few sentences.
themes. understanding the data.

When the researchers write the report, they

must decide which themes make meaningful
contributions to understanding what is going
on within the data. Researchers should also
P-VI
conduct "member checking". This is where the
researchers go back to the sample at hand to
see if their description is an accurate
representation.
Note why particular themes are
more useful at making contributions
A thick description of and understanding what is going on
the results. within the data set. Describe the
process of choosing the way in
which the results would be reported.

Created by: Usama Mujahid Siddiqui

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