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Colin Winslow
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Colin Wl~l; w i~ a st~ge d~i~ e•; i~ctiWfa~/ ~,- 1
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years·: pr~fess~ohal ex!;,e~.i {'if ~esi~jn11 t~ ;
e ry and costumes~His work has been wi e: ·•
Jn.;
~

. A ·- -- • ·- $ . ~~IW ranging: troin Shakes~ i i~ F1i mish t o !lp_

~.: Prairies. from ballet in London to ihe 'r ,
■ S Edinbur~ _~ llitary Tattoo in Was_~inf ~ P f .H
realisn:i 8f'1d -naturalism ,has been head of design for several tneat~t
ti cf T~ d ' . f ili d·. . I ,· compa nies. including The Roya I Ly~ um :r~eatr'e,ln
■ Bot . •tra
, . 1tlona an _s.. tate-o-_.-;,~ e .a rt _ 1gita .. : . -gh. the Redgrave- Theaue 1~ . s un:ey,
· ' Thea•: r
_. . ..._.~.,,..,-.;; . ~;~g• Edinbu~
1
techniques anvo!-.:~~--~~ stage ~; ~~~ :;:;}.;;.,/ 1,(' Clwyd in North wales. The Ma nitoba Theatre
■ ~ols and methods foi' hand dfa'tti~g/ ~'.. >·~·· " Centre in Winnipeg. and E11stmble in Am.st~~ a

paintlri~ J"?__,_ ffiodel;.a!iJ••_

• M~ving a~~ )tanging scen: : • 1 - ' ~ ;
. \r:f ', :;,: ,:~~:=:::: .:::::~:.:: , od
now teaches In the De partment 'of _Dra~ a'at t he
■ , Scenic tricks and sp~~ial effe_c ts . ·f · ft.. University of Al~~ In Edmonton{°Canaaa

I SBN 1- 86 12 6 · 81 ' ·C

I36
The Handbook
of Set Design
Colin Winslow

00
THE CROWOOD PRESS
 Fir.-t puhllsh4...-J In .20(1'1 by
The Cmwood l>tcss JJd
Hnmshury. "1arlboroup,h
Wlll~hlrc SN8 ll·IR
CONTENTS
\\'Ww,cron-ood.com

c Colin \Vinslow l()()(l

• •• , 1 ·trl of lhis ublkalion nmy he rcprodul'lxl or trnnsmlllt.-d ln any form or by uny Introduction ............ ............ ..... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • · · · · · · · · · · · fi
All nghls rcscn~"<L
mc·ms c-1,,·1romc nrNo ""~h· ... I Ip ·ludin" photocopy. reconling. or any Information storugc and
mcx a111ca. m.: ro •
n·,;il_.v;1l ~1•stem. wi1hou1 JX!m1isslon in wrillng from lhc publishers.
I The Designer"sTask .. .... . ..... . ..... • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • - • • • • • • • • • 9
Brili<ih Lihrnry Caraloi:uing-ln-Publ iC'allon Data 2 A Brief History of Set Design I3
,\ rnt.iloguc rt."l-on.l for this book is cwc1llublc from 1he British Uhrnry.

3 The Theatre Building ... .. ............ . .... .. .. .... . .... • ... • • • • • 17

ISIIN I 8h I zr, S 13 11
1:•\ N 9 78 I Sh I!/, SI l 6
4 The Design Process .. ............ ........ . ............ ........ .. . 35
ONlicutJon 5 Tools and Techniques ......... . ... . ............ ............ .. . . • • 5 7
Fur Robin

llluslrallon Crrdits 6 Style and Creativity ............ . ............ ...... . ............ . 95

Astonleigh Studio. Odiham.
I.Kl\-cr Uooks Inc.
J. AIIL1·m• Pho1ogr..1phy. &lmunton. Cmrndu. 7 Computer Techniques . ..... ..... . ........ . ..... .. .. . . .. . . ...... I l 5
Ellis Bros.. Edmonlon. Canada.
Fat Chance PnxJuclions, for HTV (TI,r M11ki11110/ i\llolht•rGoost'. directed by Alison St.crlingl.
Uurry Hamlhon. Mold. North Wnk-s.
8 Moving Scenery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . L2 7
Thl' Sandni Fctyc Guberman Ubrary. Department of Drnma, University of Alberta. Canada.
Rod Stalm.-s. Chipping NorlOn. 9 Scenic Tricks and Special Effects 1-H
nic Thealn.· Museum. London.

,\II other photographs. drawing.°' and illuslrulions urc by the aulhor or in his colk-ction. IO A Production of Treasure lslcmcl . . . . ............ . ..... . .. .. ... .... L6 3
All St.'ls und costumes were dt.>slgncd by lhc author unless otherwise staled.
Glossary of Technical Theatre Terms and Jargon 179
1:rontispil-cc: Selling for Tl1t' Euds of tht• Enrtl, by Morris Panych al the Timms Centre for the Arls in
Edmonton. Cunada. Ughting by IL'C Livingstone. Costumes by David Loven. Photo: F.Jlls Bros. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 8 9
Back l'O\'t.T: Nuo\•a Opera's production of Don GlomunJ, dirct.-U.-d by Carol Castel. with costumes by Betty
KulcxWcj und lighting by I.cc IJvlngstonc. Photo: J. Alleyne Photography.
Index .......... .... .......... . . . ....... . ...... ... .... ... ....... ... L90
De-signed ond edit<'<! by Focus Publishing.
I lu So llotolph's Rood.
Scvl'noaks
Kl'fltTNl3 3AJ

Prlntt.-d .ind bound In Sin gapore by Cruft Print lntcrnutlona l.


normal. everyday life become redundant and are
often overthrown completely. We skip about from
INTRODUCTION place to place and from time to lime. for instance.
and our characters rarely behave in the way we
might expect in real life. For the length of the show
at least we do our best to persuade our audiences to
believe in the particular world we have created.
However. it is hard for audiences to believe fully in
Hamlet. Hedda Gabler or Gary E.ssendine if we
Generally speaking. people go to the theatre to see audiences will always tend to remember what they remind them that a team of designers. builders.
the performers. Hardly anyone will admit to going sec rather than what they /rear. For example. scene painters and prop makers has laboured for a
to a show to enjoy the scenery. This is why theatre anyone who saw Miss Saigon can describe the long time to create the deception. We attempt to
posters produced specifically to attract an audience moment when the helicopter descended to the conceal the theatre ·s technical mysteries. so we
to a production will print the names of the actors stage. even if he or she cannot remember a single should not complain when it appears to an
in a large typeface. sometimes even bigger than the line of the dialogue. In spite of this. they would audience as if it all happens by some special
title of the show. whereas 1he set designer is lucky probably not be able to tell you that the show was ldnd of theatrical magic that it docs not fully
to be mentioned at all. However, it is consoling for a designed by John Napier. understand.
designer to note 1hat. even if a play has been The set designer should be encouraged by this. There are times however. when. for artistic
written by the greatest playwright who ever lived for those of us who work in theatre aim lo create a reasons. we deliberately point out to our audiences
and performed by the most talented actors. rather bizarre world in which the physical laws of that what they are experiencing is really all mere
illusion and pretence: We show them the
techniques ,ve use: we reveal the sources of our
stage lighting: allow them to see the stage hands
moving scenery or actors donning costumes and
assuming different roles. A great e:1.-ponent of this
technique was. of course. Bertoli Bn.'Cht with the
Berliner Ensemble. who aimt-d to ·alienate· his
audiences by discarding most of the ,-stablisht-d
stage conventions of his day. Surprisingly. the
theatre magic still worked. grabbing us by the
throat and often moving us to tears. The abiding
memories are still visual: Mother Courage
dragging her wagon around the stage. the boxing
A picture book Set for Beauty and the Beast at The Theatre, Chlppi11g Norto11. Directed b11 /011111111
Worthy. U9/1t111g bu Dan Fra11kll11. Photo: Rod Stai11es . .
(\
l:\TRODl ' CrlO~
ring in o.,s Kleirr( .\/<1/urif<""'!I or a i,:lirnpsc, ,,f
Helene Veigel standing in 1he br,•adline in Di( 1i1w
tlu Comm1m~.
We cannot avoid an:epting some tht•atrit·al
con ventions: :\Ucmpls at innovaUon otlc..·n 111ean
merely substituting nnc con,·cnriun rtJr anotht.·r.
Sometimc.--s. like Konstilntin Sranisla\'sky at tht•
Moscow Art Theatre. we in\'cnt new 1ht·a1ri,·al
conventions in an attempt to construct a
convincing representation of real lifl." on sta~t·. , 111ll
sometimes. like the kabuki 1heatrc of Japan . we use
theatrical devices to ere.ate a l.'.umplctdy non-
realistic. stylized world. \VhaleVLT we du. huwe,·er.
we cannot create Life itself. only a sembiani:e of it.
If we do it well. the audience will readily mxepl
whatever kind of reality 1.-c offer. and
consequently. the artists who have , m,·en lo create
that world bcl·omc an irrelevancy. The tk s ii,:ncr
should at·cept this with some degn.-c uf humility li•r
ii is an indication of success.
A note about technicaJ terms
All professions ha,•e their uwn jar<,:on 1ha1
sometimes seems deliberJlely cakulatL-<l lo
befuddle outsiders. and the theatre is nu e~ccp1iu11 .
Some of tht,sc expressions haw been heard
backstage in theatres fur many d,-cad,-s. sumcllm,-s
for centuries. and they ha\'c been supplcmcntL-<l by
more recent lenninology as this has bt.-cumc
nect-ssary. It is useful to becom..- familiar with lh<-se
terms. so no ancmpl has ti..-cn made to avoid th"m
here and a glossary has been indm.lt-<l al the cnd
of the book.
7
 I THE DESIG NER'S TASK

It can sometimes be a little diftkuh to decide exactly
what \\"C mean by ·theatre·. II is a \\"Ord that
cnrnmpasses such a wide assortment of d ifferent
forms. from Greek tragedy to strip shows: it includes
opera. ballet. Andrew Uoyd Webber. Shakespeare.
Strindberg. pantomime. Agatha Christie. musicians
and magicians. ventriloquists and funambulists. It
can be ntcrcly entertaining. or it can pnwide t.ht:
most l'ercbral of human e,..-pericnces. It rnn easily
111ovc us to laup.ht{•r or to tears. and nn sonte
occasions has literally start,·d riots.
Theatre· is not merely a building l'Ontaining a
stage: theatre can happen in a barn. a dly park.
a church or a school gymnasiun1. in fal:'t. it is
hard to think of a location where ii ,·maid not tak,·
plaLe. One of the musl cxd1inµ piL~cs o f thl'.';.llrc
lht.• a uthor has cxpcricnl't.-d personally wa!'> a
production of R.L·. ShcrrilTs /ourn~y ·s F.11,I. a plily
set in tht• trenches of th.: First Wo rld 11·ar. a nd in
this instance pcrfonned in a suburban li\'111µ.• ruont
lint"tt wi1h sandbaµs and t:'arlh. an,I wi1h
pyrotechnic ·bombs· .:xpl,xling at the bottom uf th.:
garden. The naluralistk iKlin~ :-.1y h: pcrmillcd ny
this c xlrcml." intirnw.:y L·rcah..-d a ,~·da l k11al t1f
dl."\.·tridly irnpossibll.' 10 c.1pturc dn d 11h1n•
c on\·t·ntional staµl·.
It may hdp us tu dcliiw the ,11b1c,:t hy
considering what dl·mcnts are L~..;cntial 10 the
cn·ation of theatre. If necessary. we could 1na n~1g.c
without a script. .sc..·cncry. l·ostumt.-s. lighting. ur l!n.•n

CIPl'OS/TI': Th,• Se!

tl"sim1er's work is
compl,•1" 011/u whe11
com/1/11(',l with otl,er
m1/s1s. i11cl11tli11g
ligh1i11g tlt'slu11ers,
,·os1111ne tlesluuers
111111 IH'r/orm,•rs.
Cos1111111• l•u Rou<'r
Schult:. Uu/11i1111 bu
K,,,...111 C"li11el.
l'hoto: Ellis Bros

HIGIIT: Richan! 11111

dw Rrtl11m,,,,
Th,•111n•, l·i1ru/w111.
Dln'Clt'tl l•!I Gm/111111
\\lt11ki11s. Ugl11i1111

-- -~~
~
l1u ,\l11rk Do11blrtl1111,
~~~ Photo: Asto11/l'iul1
Srudio. Odih11111
....._ '\ ,,
\
- ~
-lc-_______;.i;. .,a
\.__:mac;._r:

THE DESIGNER ' S TASK
a specific place to perform in. The only two
absolutely essential elements ~ pcrfor_m~r mu~
audience. Theatre could consist of 1ust one
performer playing to an audience of only one. A
mother telling a bedtime story to her child creates a
basic form of theatre. consisting solely of that
essential communication between pci:t'on_n er and
audience. It is a two-way commumcallon: the
performer can change the emotions. ?utlook. m~
and even the opinions of the audience. and . m
return . the audience's response affects the
performance. The changes may ofien be small. but
they have sometimes been big enough to cause
revolutions. Theatre is a dangerous medium. This.
of course. is the fundamental difference between
theatre and cinema: the cinema audience can never
change the performance. and the communication
process is one-way only.
The Edinburgh Military Taltoo 0111/ie vast stage at Wolf Trap near Was/ii11gto11, DC
as part of the American Bicentennial celebrations In 19 76. Directed by Tom Fle111l11y.
Lighting by Robert Ornbo.
10
Peter Brook begins his formative book T/11• Empty
Spac,· with. 'I can take any empty space and call it a
bare stage. A man walks across this empty space
while someone else is watching him. and this is all
that is needed for an act of theatre to be engaged.'
It appears. therefore. that the element of set design
is not by any means essential to the creation of
good theatre. Yet this is a book entirely devoted to
Just that unnecessary element. So what exactly
can the set designer contribute? The designer can
indicate the geographical location of a scene. The
American stage designer Robert Edmond Jones.
writing in 1941. said. 'The purpose of a stage
setting ... is simply ... to remind the audience of
where the actors are supposed to be.' This may be
fundamentally true: however. scenery performing
this function is a comparatively recent innovation
in the lengthy history of the stage. Shakespeare. for
Dick Wlrllli11g1011 Sl'ls
out to walk lo London
on 1/re tiny slage of
Tire Theatre al
Chipping Norto11.
Dirl'cted by Teddy
Green. Ligl1ti11g by
Dm•id Norto11.
example. did not find it necessary to employ a set
designer to show that a scene took pl,Kc in ;.\ woad
near Athens·. He employed dialogue for this
purpose. although since his plays \\'1.'re generally
performed on an open-air 'thrust ' stage. this could
have been for purely practical rnnsideralions. for.
at the same time. theatrical performances at court
were using extremely elaborate. painlt-d scenery
and stage machinery inspired by Italian masters.
The designer can also indicate period through
his designs. Nowadays we frequently adjust or
completely change the period in which classic
plays are set in an attempt to make them more
'relevant' to a modern audience. and the set
designer can certainly assist in this r<-spect.
However. this is more frequently st.-en as the task of
the costume designer. and the set designer may
deliberately remove any specilk sense of period
from his work. Mood and style arc always
important considerations for the set designer. A
play taking place in a peasant collage. for example.
will probably require a completely different type of
cottage setting if it is at the culling c-dge of
contemporary dram,1 than. say. a thriller. a
children's fontusy ur ,Ill intense. p:,·ychological
think-piece.
TII E OESit;'.\ER ' S T \SI-
H lht.·atn: l·o ns i!'itS of intcral·tin: t:onununh:~Hiu n
betW<'t.'n performer a nd audil-n,·,·. lhl'n perha ps lhl'
dcsi~ncr· s n1a in ta~k is simply to a:,,.s bl in this
prot.·l.-ss. so that tht.· intt.·ntctiun may bt.· ,L, dTcl:t ivc
as possihh:. lluwcvcr. the use oi' thl' w11nl ·,1111ply ·
here might ho: misleading. f11r ul°tl'n lhl' pn >l'.L.,.,.
is ,mything but , implc. \\"e -.01nl'llm<'S ll <-'t'd
extrt:1nely cluboratc: sdtang,s and c:xtra \·,1~a11t
s,:enic devin-s to ,·ope with the ta,,k. but. at "!her
lim<-s. \\'t" n<'t.'1.1 hardly anything a t all . .\ goml
production can somctirn<-s makc iL~ , truni:c, t
irnp.1c1 on a virtually L'mpty , tagc so tha t thl'
maximum ,·onc,·ntration can b,: li.1,:us..-d upu11 the
performanc<-s anJ the idea., l'Xpn~ in it. l'h<·rl'
have bt.-.:n notable l'Xilmplc-s ,,r \'l'ry SUl'l'L-S., ful
productions using unly min ima l scumgs.
Thornton Wilder's tJur fo w11 IS p.;-rh,1ps thl' ix.,,,
known . but l'\'cn the triumphantly ,un:=,ful
\Vl-st End production uf the muskal 1..·h" "!I"
u"--d
a set whkh merely pruvid<-d a sk·ppcJ. blca.:hcr-
typc unit for the band. with a barl' playmg ,trca i11
front of it.
ldl'ally. wha tl'n:r ,tylc uf scnmg 1s aJ upll'1.I. it
should bt.-.:um" ,o d u:,c:ly int,-grnll'-1 with the
produ,·tion as a whule th at 11 IS diflkuh to \' bualizl'
ii being perfo rm<'-' in any uthl'r ,,:t.
11
2 A BRIEF HISTORY OF
SET DESIGN

Some form of theatre has been part of life at e\"ery PRE-HISTORY

period of human existence. probably c\·en b..-fon:
man lcarnL-d to communicate through the
medium of speech. On,r the centuries it has played
a wide variety of roles. ii has been ceremonial.
religious. entertaining. d idactk. philosophkal.
psychological. political. pornographic and many
other things beside. Signilkantly. for an art form
thal many now consider primarily literary by
nature. lhe visual l'lemenl has always play~-d a role
of major hnporlmll"c. for a play is nol l·omplete
unlit ii has been performed and the wrillen words
brought lo life by visual hm1gcry. however basic
these in1c1gcs n1ay sm11etin1t•s ht·.
Theillre c:.xistc«J long bt:forc it bc..:amc rclall·d r,1
drama. In primil i\'C scx:ietil-s rhc ac4uisi1 ion o l d
food supply is crudal 111 surv ival. and 1h<·
pala coli1hi1.· can.· pa int i n );_s tel pl.u:cs "\u L·h .1:-.
Lascaux in sou1h-wes lcrn FrJn{·c. da1ing fr o 111 .1:-,.
long ago as I ~.t>OOBC. show m ainly anunals thal
\Wrl' hunll-<l for rooJ. Clcrnsio nally 1hc paint ini:~
include 1he hunters wo. Tht• pictures appear 111
haVl" had sornc kind of rnagh:al s1g.nilican~c.
possibly l"rl'alletl lo bring good fortune in I he lift·
and dealh .i,·tivily of th•· hunt.
But the l:rl·alion o f a P••inling is a rclilt ivcly

OPPOSITE: This <'11!/rtll'illg

of Strolling Actresses in a
Barn by 1\/illinm Hogarth
( I 7 3H) l11cl11<l1•s <1 l'llri<'l!J
of sc1•11ic pi...-1•s, props""''
st<1ye t'ffu1s, i11cl11di11g"
cltrsslcnl portil'o with
g<1r/muls, tr,·,· w/1111.<, 11'111•1•
11111c/ll11es. <1fl!Jill!/ dm11011
<11111 dwrlm. m11lfo111ll11h1
,·m11lles s,•t bi /111111,s of
c/<1!J.

RIG/IT: P<1rt of <11m/m•o//d1i1'

1·111•,· /Jtlhllill!J <II l.tlSC<IIIX ill
die \/j:frr \l,rllr!J, ,u•,rr
,\fo111l!Jllnc, s m11/1-\\'l'Sll'r11
l'm11ce. Plw111: Tiu•Swulm
l·irw c;u/,,·,-,,wrr Ubniru

I 1

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SET DESIGN
sophisticated artistic activity. Theatre can ~~ppcn
more spontaneously, without the need for pamt or
drawing materials. It seems likely. therefore. 1h~1t
some form of magical or ceremonial . dr_a mallc
activity preceded even these ancient pmntm~s.' It
also seems entirely probable that the thnllmg
adventure of a hunt would be re-enacted around
the cooking-fire at night. incorporating the
excitement of drama. the mystique of ceremony
and as a way to instruct the youngsters. The
discarded animal skin. saved for clothing. could
provide a costume for the actor performing the role
of the prey and enhancing the visual aspect of the
performance. The tribesman who first adjusted a
piece of fur around a performer's neck was the ~rst
costume designer. However. ii would be a long llme
before the first set designer appeared.
GREECE
The theatre of the spoken word originated in
ancient Greece. probably during the sixth century
BC. but the plays of dramatists such as Aeschylus,
Sophocles. Euripides and Aristophanes, from
which the entire western dramatic tradition has
developed. date from the fifth and the fourth
century BC. the great Golden Age of Athenian
drama.
The dramatic performances of this period were
rooted in religion and specifically the worship of
Dionysus. the god of fertility, wine and ecstasy.
Indeed. the stages had an altar (or tlrymele) to
Dionysus at the centre of the acting area. The
festivities included processions, sacred rites and
dramatic presentations. both serious and farcical.
These riles bore little semblance to the religious
ceremonies of today and Inevitably resulted in a
literal orgy of intoxicated sexual abandon in which
everyone participated in honour of the god.
The theatres were huge, usually built into a
natural amphitheatre that could contain the entire
population of the locality, for everyone was
expected to attend. The ruined remains of many
Greek amphitheatres still exist and may be visited
to this day. However, nothing at all remains of the
theatres of the Golden Age for those were built of
wood and have decayed completely. By the time the
14
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SET DESlc;-..
stone amphitheatres were built the period of this
remarkable nowering in art of all kinds was
already in decline.
The stages were constructed around a circular
dancing area called the orkestra, about 24m (about
78ft) in diameter. Audience seating surrounded
the greater part of the orkestra and was called the
t/rearron or ·seeing place· . (Interestingly, the very
name of the building that still houses our drama
today refers to 'seeing' rather than 'listening'.)
Later theatres had an elevated stage at the rear of
the performance area, backed by a structure
known as the skene that provided an off-stage area
but also offered a versatile scenic background to Tlieatre at Epidaun,s
the drama that could suggest a temple. city gates or ln Greece, designed
the entrance to a palace. It is supposed that by Polyclltus tlle
periaktoi (see Chapter 8) were used at the Younger ln J iOBC.
traditional three entrances in the skene. Photo: 11,e Sarrdm Faye
Later stages probably contained some Guberman Libmry
machinery for special effects. We are familiar with
the term deus ex mac/1l11a. referring to a mechanical
device to lower a god to the stage, and this certainly back to the theatres of this lime: issuing tickets for still open to the sky. but lhe more solidly
constructed architectural bm:kgrouml lu 1he st,11:e.
appears to have been employed In the theatres of reserved seats and the habit of clapping performers
ancient Greece. No one really knows exactly what to show approval. for example. The dramatic now callt.-d thefnms s,:enut'. meant that goJs .:c,ultl
form this machinery took. It may possibly have convention of the time that forbade violent actions descend with more grJce than from 1he upt:n
been some kind of crane situated on or behind the to be shown on the stage. forcing them to be spaces above the Gn-ek skm<'. and some painted
skene, although this conjures up an unfortunate suggested as taking place out of sight behind the scenery was probably incorporated. appropriate tu
image of a hapless actor dangling from a wooden skerre. gives us the word 'obscene' for anything the specific performance. As the from; scmu<' was
hoist rather than a magical descent from the considered unfit to be seen. built only about 3m ( I Oft l from the front L-dge of
the platform. the rdised acting an:a was restricted
clouds.
The ekkyklema seems to have been an ancient ROME to a long. narrow strip. It is hardly surprismg
therefore that almost all Roman plays took place in
form of what we now refer to as a truck. It was a
The Romans admired everything Greek: they a street setting of some kind.
method of revealing a group of actors or of
adopted Greek fashions in clothing. architecture. The human proportions of actors· bodiL-s mu"t
bringing them on to the stage by means of a
art and. naturally. in drama. However. as with all have appeared somewhat inadequa1e by cunr.rust
travelling or pivoting platform. Again, there is little
the other aspects of Greek culture adopted by the to these impressive edifices and some efforts were
evidence of exactly what it looked like or how It
Romans. the drama was 'Improved' and adapted to made to correct this by the use of costume devicL-s
worked; it might simply refer to the opening of
Roman taste. The Romans removed the religious calculated to make the actors appear bigger: a
doors in the fac;ade of the skene.
element from dramatic productions and the altar greatly built up sh<k! called 1he cotltumus was
Rather oddly, to our modern sensibilities, the
vanished from the orkestm. which became worn. and a huge. grotesque mask enlargL-d the
drama of ancient Greece was competitive. In fact,
semicircular rather than completely round. The performer's bead. Howe\·er. lhe most refinL-d
the first recorded production of a play with
Greek skerre was elaborately developed in the same dramatic pcrformann-s took place nut in the
dramatic dialogue was at a dramatic contest in
grandiose architectural style seen in the Roman theatres but in the more inlima1e surroundings of
Athens in 534BC. It was won by Thespis. a poet. civic buildings. These freestanding structures were private villas. where long. dramatic narratiVL-S
playwright and actor who, although none of his inevitably smaller in plan than the huge L:reek be,·ame sophisticated after-dlnm,r entertainmL·nt.
works have survived, is remembered in the term amphitheatres but provided much greater The plays were inevitably Latin trunslations from
'thespian', referring lo an actor. A surprising opportunities for scenic effects. The theatres were the t;reck. lndt-..-J. nol a single 1ruly Ruman play
number of present-day theatrical traditions date
15

A BRIEF HISTORY OF S ET DESI G N
has survived. By contrast. the really popular
theatre of ancient Rome took place in the spacious
amphitheatres built for sports and spectacle. They
were scattered throughoul the Roman Empire,
built to massive proportions and with as much
elaboration and ingenuity as possible. The largest
could seat as many as 50,000 spectators on marble
seats. protected from the heal of the sun by the
1•rlari11111. a huge awning. ingeniously rigged to be
drawn over the spectators. The spectacles that took
place in these arenas were state-organized and
state-subsidized. There was an official policy of
"bread and circuses' aimed at currying favour for
the civic authorities and the emperor-god in
particular.
This was the theatre of spectacle, and many of
the amphitheatres held elaborate built-in devices
for special effects: trapdoors were used, often
incorporating machinery to enable performers,
animals and large scenic elements to be raised
through the floor. Sometimes it was possible to
flood the whole arena to stage a realistic sea battle
with real ships. The theatre had now become more
of. a spectator sport than a religious ceremony.
With the First Punic War in 264BC life and death
gladiatorial combats were introduced and the
popularity of the bloody spectacle of, men and
women being hacked lo death meant that this kind
of brutality became incorporated into the dramatic
16
The OdcumoJ
Hrrodes Attlcus
rrrcted in the second
ce11t11ru AD. Photo:
Tire Sandra Faye
Guberman Library
interludes that traditionally interspersed the
gladiatorial combats. Thousands of exotic and
ferocious wild animals were imported to contribute
to the slaughter by killing and being killed.
Mythological scenes incorporating animals were
grotesquely re-enacted , with , for instance, a
woman strapped to the back of a bull representing
Europa and a condemned criminal as Orpheus
being literally torn to pieces by bears amid
decorative artificial woods.
These bloody thrills were contrasted with
interludes by mimus. a popular bawdy and
lascivious clown. often displaying nudity, gross
sexuality and real executions. With the advent of
Christianity, this type of performance was
considered unacceptable and the performers were
excommunicated by the Church in the fifth
century.
MEDIEVAL EUROPE
ln Britain and Europe also drama had its roots in
religious ceremonial. This is hardly surprising. for
al that time all public art was seen to have the sole
purpose of instructing a generally illiterate
population in the ways of Christianity and to warn
of the horrors of Damnation. The stories of the
Bible were told in painting, sculpture, music,
poetTy and stained glass. The Mass itself is, quite
,\ BRIEF HISTORY OF SET DESll; :,.;
literally. a form of dramatic presentation: a lo pped form wagon to St·rve as a stage.·. T hl.· siz.: \\l lS
physical re-enactment of the Last Supper. with limited. or course. but several w.igons n~uld oc.·
performers elaborately vested in heavily symbolic grouped IORcther nr used for a logit.·.il s..·quem:t· uf
costumes. Further re-enactments took place at scenes. eac h wagon pn.-scnting a cliffcrent k•.:;Hio n .
special festivals: the Passion of Christ at Easter and The wagons were known as ·pageants· amt ,nuld
the Nativity story at Christmas. Originally be uSt.-cl in a variety of ways - tht.-y t.·,,uld b.·
intended to be solely didactic. these simple groupt..-cl in a circle. with the ,mdicm·c standing in
performances took place about the altar. but. as the middle. ;,rranged in a line ,,r scmici rdc. nr C\"en
with any dramatic presentation. as actors moved from location tn location. pn'"4.'nling
developed their roles with each annual repetition. different scenes from the drama ,11 eac h stop. The
the performances became extended and more pageants were often elaborately .Icniralt.'tl.
elaborate. and an element of crude knockabout probably carry ing some kind nf pililllt.·d
farce began to intrude. Over the years. the Church background. and sometimes with a stnu·tun·
realized that these theatrical interludes were permitting an gels to he lowered frnm abo\"e. llr
developing into something quite different from devils to appear from a yawning ·Hell ~lou11t ·.
what was originally intended. and. in the However. for the ftrst time scemc· clements wt·rc
thirteenth century. the clergy were forbidden to now introdun-d lo su ggt.-sl specific lu,.:alions rather
take part and dramatic performances were than just for speci,11 dr.1ma1 ic efft.'l'.ls.
removed from the Sanctuary and permitted only
outside the church. However. the performanct.-s
still took place in the shadow of the church. where
the great West Door could form an ecdt.-si.istical
background to the action and permit a climactic
coup de theatre when the doors could be swung
open to reveal a candlelit altar at the far end of the
church, suggesting the celestial reward in store for
those who followed the Church's teachings and led
a good life. Many English cities developed their own
lengthy cycles of Mystery Plays that attempted to
encompass the entire Biblical story. some of which
survive and are still performed. The term ' Mystery·
is not used in its modern sense here but derives
from the Old English misteri meaning .i craft or
trade. referring to the guilds that mounted the
plays, the members performing a section
appropriate to their trade. Thus the carpenters
might perform the building of Noah's ark and the
fishmongers perform the miraculous drJft of
fishes. It is easy to imagine an clement of
competition now entering into the pcrformann-s.
encouraging ever more elaborate scenk effects.
Severed from the restrictions of the Church.
methods of staging were developed to mt.-et Tiu• jiual sum, of 1hr Passion Play at
popular demands. More people could see the Vale11ciem1rs iu 11onhrr11 Fnu1cr /rum uu
presentations if the performing area were rais..-d, 1/111111i11atrd 111111111saip1 of I j,1 7 , .d1owi1111 Hrll
and the obvious way to do this in a primarily ,\lo111h 111 s1u9r lrfr. Plwru: Th.- S,m,lm foy,·
agricultural society was simply to wht.-el out a Oat- Gubam,111 Libmry
17

A BRIEi' HISTORY 01' SET DESIGN
A further result of separation from the Church ·s
restrictions was the now unhampered develop-
ment of the cruder and more popular elements of
the production. and. since evil has always bce'.1
more attractive than good. the role of the De~1~
must have been greatly coveted for . its
opportunities for broad comic invention. invol_v'.ng
bawdy business with his pitchfork and the tossing
about of fireworks. The Devil also bad the most
spectacular pageant wagon. conti_1inin~ Hell itself.
and logically appearing al the chmacuc finale of
the presentation.
The Mystery Plays. more popular than ever
when divorced from their liturgical context and
now sited on movable pageant wagons. were easily
transportable. not only from one part of a town to
another. but also from city to city. The touring
players had arisen. However. these early
professional actors must have soon discovered the
bcsclling problem of all street performers even lo
this day: ii is far too easy for an audience lo walk
away when the hat is senl round to collect
contributions. A solution was provided by the
wavside inns: these existed lo provide overnight
ac~ommodation for travellers. together with food.
drink and safe stabling for horses. They were
usually built around a central courtyard wilh
wide. lockable doors opening to the road. The
stables surrounded the yard and accommodation
was in rooms above Lhe stables. usually linked by a
covered gallery or galleries running all round the
yard. This. of course. was an ideal situation for
performance: a wagon stage could be erected at
one side of the yard. lhe rooms behind providing
an off-stage area and the audience was literally
captive: unable to disperse easily when a collection
was taken. The players now had a workable theatre
where good profits could be made. !'or lhe first
time. commercialism reared its gilded head.
London. stlll a Mecca for theatre people. already
provided a wide variety of popular entertainments
for its inhabitants. The City of London enforced
strict regulations lo maintain law and order within
its walls. bul beyond these. south of the river.
where the City's laws did nol apply. dock workers
and disembarking sailors after a lengthy time at
sea found that everything they desired was
18
provided for ready cash. Here there were inns.
brothels (called 'slews'). gambling. cockfighting
and bear baiting. The bear pils were circular. Lhe
diameter established by Lhe length of the bear's
chain when tethered to a pole at lhe centre. The
seats were stacked in galleries one above the other
so that spectators were protected from the beasts
but still close enough lo enjoy the spectacle.
Travelling players must have immediately
recognized the excellent facilities and commercial
opportunities provided by these arenas. The stage
could be erected to one side, just as in the Inn yards.
the galleries at the back of the stage could be used
for dressing rooms and a backstage area. and the
audience could be charged for admission. It Is
hardly surprising that the first permanent
commercial theatre building was constructed
along the same lines. It was called 'The Theatre',
and buJlt by the actor James Burbage in Shoreditch
just outside the City limits in 15 7 6. Very little
scenery was used. although there may have been a
curtain bung across the galleries at the back of the
stage to provide a useful inner-stage area. The
programme was considerably more varied than
that offered by any theatre today: audiences could
enjoy sporting activities such as fencing and
athletics. bear baiting and cock fighting, or. on one
afternoon, the first production of Hamlet.
The very successful theatre in Sboreditch ran
into serious trouble when its lease expired In 1597:
a new lease was denied by the landlord and so. on a
dark winter's night in 1598. as much as possible of
The Theatre was dismantled, the timbers
transported across the Thames to the south bank
and used to build a new theatre just across the
street from a playhouse called The Rose. It was to
be the largest playhouse built in England to that
date and was named The Globe.
THE PLAYHOUSES
The greatest flourishing of English drama took
place in London at lhis period and its audiences
were not the aristocracy nor intellectuals, but
ordinary Londoners who crossed the river by
London Bridge or by ferry to enjoy an afternoon off
work. The Globe could cram in an audience of
.-\ RRIF.F IIISTORY OF SET DESlc;:,;
nearly 4 .000 and ii has been estimated that about
one-eighth of the population of London visited the
theatre al least once a week.
The public theatres of Shakespcare·s day used
virtually no representational scenery. In any case.
no real scenic illusion was possible on these opcn-
air. 'thrust' stages Iii solely by daylight
(performances usually began at 2.00pm). If it was
necessary to suggest a change of location or a
scene taking place in a storm or at night. then the
dialogue would make this clear. Hardly any
pictures exist showing the structure of stages at
this most important period in the development of
English drama for this was merely popular
entertainment for working people. However. much
can be deduced from written sources such as
theatre inventories. letters and internal evidence in
the plays. The architecture of the playhouse
provided a useful range of facilities such as a
backstage area. an inner stage and one or two
galleries above the stage that could be utilized for
Juliet's balcony, the walls of a castle or uSt.-d as a
musicians' gallery. The pillars supporting a roof
over the acting area could become the pillars of a Vir,v of Lo111lo11from tl1r south bu11k of 1hr
royal palace or trees in the Forest of Arden. The Tlu,mes In 1616 showi11g thr Brar Gunkn ,md 1hr
audience's imagination supplied the rt.'St, apart Globr The111rr. Plww: Thi' Sa11Jrt1 Faye, Gub.-rmmr
from the special effects. Sever.ii devices were l.ibmry
available to lower gods from the painlL-d ceiling or
to enable devils to rise through a trapdoor from of a
sub-stage Hell. Props included not only furniture However. this is 1101 possible bt.-.:ausc e\'entuully. in
but also some artificial rocks and trees. and trick 1642. the long. histuril'.al lun.~ hille relat ionsh ip
props for a variety of effects such as a beheading or between the theatre and the Church res ulted in the
a disappearing banquet. Much attention was paid closure of all public playhouses by the Puriluns.
lo music and sound effects. with musicians in the and the line was abruptly curtailed.
gallery above the stage. and cannons fm.>d from the
roof for battle noises or thunder. The last effect MASQ U ES AND THE CO U RT
proved disastrous on 29 June I 6 I 3. when a spark
THEATRES
from a cannon during a performance of Henry Vlll
set fire to the thatched roof and burned the theat.re At the same time as the public playhuus..-s on the
to the ground. It was speedily rebuilt. larger. much south bank of the ThamL-S were providing popular
improved, more elaborately decorated and with a entertainment for the mass..-s. the cuurL~ and
tiled roof. palaCL'S of Europe hou.S<.-d private entertainmenL,
It would be satisfactorv to be able to show a of a mu.:h mure scenkally spe<:tacular kind. The
direct linear developmeni from 1he Elizabethan trappings of the gre,11 ha ll ,.> r lung gallery. with
playhouses, with their vestigial scenic dem,·nts. to windows. panelling. family portr.ilts and domL-stk
the theatres of today. where scenery is accepll-<l as ornaments. must have providL-<l an un.:omfonablv
an important part of the theatril'al experience. obtrusive background lo r dramatic pcrformanc~.
l<J
A BRIEF HISTORY OF SET DESIGN
However. aristocratic households could en~ag~ ~•~
artist to supply paintings to conceal the usu,1
features and ofTer a pictorial background m?re
suited to the dramatic performance on hand. ~ he
. t ould use familiar techniques. slretchmg
~nsw · · ' h
canvason Woode n frames· just as he had . .
done wit
h Masc111c of Black11csse, which , replete with wave
thcr picture. The size would be hm11cd by t e
anyo . . th sc
dimensions of the doorways. necess1talmg e ~
of several paintings set side by side to cover a w1_de
area. It must have taken only a small step to reah_ze
that the painted backgrounds could ~ ca~1ly
changed by sliding the painted panels to either s_1de
by hand. to reveal other painted panels set behind
them. The problem of providing ofT-stage areas
from which performers might enter the scene
could be solved by setting additional painted panels
al the sides of the acting area. masking the ends of
the painted background and extending the stage
picture fonvards. so creating the convention of
painted background and wings that we still
frequently encounter in some form today.
The early court masques were comparatively
simple affairs, designed specifically to honour some
important guest and consisted mainly of music
and formal dance. However. travellers returning
from the Continent brought reports of spectacular
entertainments seen at the courts of Italy and
20
Prance. and in 1604 James I of England,
encouraged by his queen Anne of Denmark.
engaged the architect and artist Inigo Jones
(1573-1652) lo devise courtly entertainments to
rival those of Europe. In 1605 Ben Jonson, the
court poet, collaborated with Jones to produce The
machines. sea monsters and many magical
transformations, brought to England a new and
spectacular type of theatrical production such as
had never been seen before. Subsequent
productions became ever more spectacular and
costly. until the unfortunate King James faced near
fmancial ruin.
BAROQUE
Whatever efforts were made in England, it had lo
be admitted that the Italians led the field in the new
illusionist theatre. Here, the drama took second
place to scenic effects and the spoken word was
almost completely abandoned in favour of operas
and ballets that could better exploit the new
techniques. Luxurious theatres were built to house
the performances. and the 'horseshoe' style of
auditorium, with seats in 'boxes· stacked in tiers
around the perimeter and decorated in a palatial
:1 :~ -'
.; .• ..!-
A scena per angolo
design by Giuseppe
Bibie11a, brl11gl119 a
startl1119 11e,v realism
to pa lilted perspective
sce11er11. Photo: Dover
Books
gilded style, became established as the most
suitable form for this type of presentation.
Among the many artists who produced scenery
for these lavish Italian theatres. the Bibicna family
was most notable for providing a whole dynasty of
theatre designers and architects. The dynasty
began with Giovanni Maria Galli ( 1n25-n 5 i.
whose son Fernando (1657-1743) caused a scenic
revolution by introducing the sa11a per a11yolo or
·angled scene' to the stage. Up to this time. all
perspective scenery had been dependent upon a
single vanishing point to create painted scenes that
appeared to recede dramatically straight into the
distance. but Fernando used two vanishing points
to produce much more realistic views that
appeared to recede away from the spectator at an
angle to the stage. and in two directions al once.
Fernando's brother Francesco (1659-1737). his
sons Alessandro (1687-1769). Giuseppe (ln9n-
1757) and Antonio (1697-c.l 774). together with
Giuseppe's son Carlo (1728-87). all worked as
theatre architects and scenery designers and were
together responsible for many remarkable
theatrical innovations.
THE RESTORATION AND THE
ADVENT OF ROMANTICISM
In England. the public thealres had been closed by
the Puritanical Commonwealth, and only private
theatrical performances were permltted. However.
the Restoration of Charles II ushered in a new age
of scenic innovation that now included stage
lighting. Early indoor performances were lit by
candles. In whatever chandeliers happened to be
available In the rooms where the performances
took place. However. before long these were
supplemented by additional lighting directed
specifically towards the stage, first by rows of
candles and then by wicks noating in containers of
oil set along the front edge of the stage. with metal
shields hlding the glare from the audience. Candles
on stands were also concealed behind wing nats.
Scene changes took place in view of the audience.
nats sliding along specially plact-d grooves
controlled by an elaborate system of ropes. pulleys.
winches and hoists that allowed all the pieces to
,\ RRIF.F HISTORY OF SET DESIL;:-,;
move simultaneouslv. The sn:ne .:hani:,-s were
viewed as an imporl ~nt pan of the entertainment
and were carefully designed rur maximum etTt-..·t.
A desire for more realism in sta ge scllings
eventua lly produced a reaction against tht·
baroque style and the fantastically clat>oratt·.
painted palaces gave way 10 a more realistic slylt- of
scene. often featuring landscapes with h ighly
ingenious weather effect~.
In 1771 the great actor-manager David
Garrick. engaged the painter Philip lam1..-s cit·
Loutherbourg ( 1 7 -¼( 1-1 ~ I Ol. al great expense. Ill
revolutionize the scenic style at his theatn· in
Drury Lane in London. De Loutherbourg might be
considered to be the first stage des igner since he
provided coloured renderings and seal..- m,xlcls ti,r
scene painters. instead of painting the scenery
himself. which was normal practice al 1he time.
Under his guidance. the chandeliers were banisht.-d
and all light sources w..-re hidd..-n. This enabk·d the
elTective use of gauzt'S. cut-cloths and lrans-
parencit.-s. with impressi\'C. changeable lighlini,.:
effects created by the ingenious use of coloun.-d silk
filters and various shuttering devices for dimming
or brightening the light. Audiences could nuw
delight in plays that included elTccts suc h as
moonlight. firelight. fogs. mists. lightning and
volcanoes. They could also St.'C n.-cogn lzable views
of actual places su•·h as London or the L..1kc
District.
This was the age of the seem: painter. Lmk"t'd .
playbills of the period contained descriptions of
each scene in the play. together with the name of
the painter who creatt.-d it. Huge teams of painters
were engaged for major productions. a nd .:lassie
plays by dramatists such as Shakt."Speare were
product.-d with a succt."SSion of realistically painted
scenes. sometimt."S so elabonue 1ha1 the frunl
curtain had 10 be us..-d 10 rude the lengthy s.:enc
changt.'S. and often spt-cial 'carpcmer·s scenL-s· or
painted 'frontcloth s.:enL"S were used so that the
0
action could continue while an dabomte set w,1s
built behind it in the Lraditional pantomime style
still used today.
The paintt.-d scenery was mu.:h cnhann-d by the
introduction of gas lighting. It was lirst us..-d 10
light front of house areas. but in September I~ I 7
ll

A BRIEF HISTORY Of SET l)ESIGN
the L1•ccum theatre in London announced that gas
lighting was used to light the stage 'with complete
success'. The flicker of candlelight gave way to the
brighter. but soft . steady and. above all .
controllable glow of gaslight. For the first time the
auditorium lighting could be lowered during the
performance. providing a dramatic focus upon the
stage.
Sets were still mainly designed in a basic
'backcloth. cut-cloth and wings' style. Built pieces
\\'ere often introduced for special scenes, but, no
mailer how ingenious. scenery was still mostly
painted and two-dimensional.
NATURALISM
II was the remarkable and often underrated
Madame Veslris (1797- 1856) who, with her scene
painter Charles Tomkins, was probably responsible
for the llrst 'box set' on the English stage in 1832.
She was a singer and actress who. at the age of 16,
~csscd ~n tights as the first principal boy in English
pantomime, allracled lhe allenllon a French
~anccr named Armand Veslris. They married, but
m 18 30. deserted by her husband, she became the
22
This cngrm•ing of a
scene from The Maid
of the Mill b!J John
Inigo Richards in
I 765 shows some
notable i,mo,•ations:
n•lndows and doors
arc practical, and
l11cre is even an
actress sitting ell a
first floor window; Ilic
mill upstage centre
has a practical bridge
and working mill
wheel.
first British woman to manage a theatre when she
look over the Olympic Theatre in London. The
wings and backcloth style of scenery that had been
in use for so long was not really suitable for the
more domestic type of drama that was now being
written by a new generation of playwrights. Ia
order to suggest a more realistic room on stage she
had the wing flats turned at right angles to the front
of the stage to suggest side walls and a framed
canvas ceiling lowered on top. Functioning doors
and windows were incorporated. and Madame
expended a large sum of money buying furniture ,
carpets. pictures and other dressings, which were
usually painted on lo the scenery direct. The careful
attention she paid to every detail of set and
costuming established her as an innovator of taste
and refinement. but contributed to her bankruptcy
in 1837. She later remarried and took over the
management of Covent Garden in 1839. Herc she
championed the work of the Irish cmigrc American
playwright Dion Boucicault ( 1822-90), who nol
only wrote plays concerning important social
issues of the day. such as slavery and the plight or
the poor, but also strongly influenced scenic design
by introducing melodramatic spectacles that
became known as 'Sensation Scenes· . The
popularity of these scenes pushed designers to the
extremes of extravagance in order to stage
elaborate scenes of shipwrecks. horse races.
balloon journeys and the like. all depicted with as
much realism and ingenuity as possible. It is small
wonder that Madame Vestris once more found
herself bankrupt and her husband in prison.
However. they later took over the Lyceum, where
even more elaborate productions were mounted.
exploiting the adaptability of gas lighting to include
startling transparency effects. Yet again .
bankruptcy was the unfortunate but inevitable
result. Later, in 18 71. the Lyceum Theatre became
home to the young Henry Irving. whose lavish
productions made it London's most prestigious
venue for many years.
The last great exponent of the Sensation S•·ene
was the scene painter and designer Brun~ Smith.
who was so successful in this genre that he became
known as 'Sensation' Smith. He de\·ist.'tl e\'er more
elaborate scenic effects. until in I <JO<) he attainc-d
the apogee of sensation with the prodm·tiun of Tlrt'
Wlrip al Drury Lane. This play. about a dt'feated
Sir Henr!J ln•lng and
Ellen Tf'rr!J In the
1•a11l1 scrne from
Romeo and Juliet at
the Lucrum Theatrr 111
18 8 l. Desigue,l aml
pa lured b!J l\lll/ic1111
Tt•blln. Photo: The
S1111<lm l·i1!1t' G11bam,111
l.ilm1ry
,\ RR IF. f H IS TORY ll F SET I) ES ll; :\
altempt tn nohhk· a rac(•horst.·. in\·oln-.1 an ,m-
stage horse race run o n a lrL•auhnill and a lrain
complt.·t~ \\·ith cngint·. pa~~-n~t·r "·arria~t·s ~ind
ho r~ hox that \\·as "(.·t·n to 'C:."t out fron1 a l.,lndon
stat inn and latcr 111 .: rash <pt.·c·ta,·ularly. till' ,·ni-:i1w
turning civer in douds o f st,·am wh il,· th,·
racehorse \\'as sa\'cd hv tht· hcrn unl·nuplinµ, tht.•
horse box in the ni<:k -or lime. Hmn·n·r. lik,, th,•
train . 1he Sensation S,·ene had rea.-ht·tl the ,·11d ,,r
the lint·. for hy now this ty pe ur pl"t ,1>11ld ht·
enjnvcd with a good deal morc- µ,cnu1nt.• n.~•1li!'-n1 111
the ·cinema . .-\ diffcrcnt type .,r <pt.·ctadt· wa~
required in the theatrt:.
THE MODER:--; AGE
It was not until after th•· Senmd \\'orld \\";ir that
thealrl' programmt.-s bc~;.1n tu crt·di1 a "dt.·~•~nc r·.
The sn·nc painters were still the rna1"r ,1r1,,,11,·
liJr<·e in the thealre durini-: the lirs t half o f till'
twentieth ,entury. with the paint shop" ,n the t,,,.-k
strl'l'IS around L'o,·l·nt l;.inlt.·n turnin~ , ,ut ptl.'.tun.11
wonders umkr the suP<,·n·ision o i .artists <u..:h ,,s
Hawes l°ra\'cn. William Tdh1n . \\'altcr lla1111 .
.! I

A BRIEF HISTORY OF SET OESIC,N
c;ordon and Joseph Harker. However. a n~"'.
L .. • rebel against scenery that \\ ,is
movement ,1ega11 10 · .
still basically Jillie more than a pmnle
background to the dramatic action .
U to the turn of the century. productions were
tra dI~1.IOllu,Jly rehearsed bu the stage manager. and,
· .:,
the scenery was a combination of new pieces
commissioned from scene painters an_d old ones
ulled from stock. The stylish productions of the
:real actor-managers such as Irving. Kean and
Beerbohm Tree were the exl·eplions rather than
I
the rule. However. al the Moscow Ari Theatre
'I Konstantin Stanislavsky ( 1863-19 30) brought a
II fresh approach to the presentation of the new
naturalistic dramas by playwrights such as
I Chekhov and Gorki: but ii was the increased
flexibility of electric stage lighting developed in the
later years of the nineteenth century that enabled
one or two remarkable innovators to revolutionize
.\ BRIEF HISTORY OF SET Dr.Sil;:\
simple sets in which plays could be presented
without the encumbrance of lengthy scene
d changes and in which stage lighting was not
merely an adjunct lo illuminate scenery and actors
but an integral part of the performance. Natural-
ism played no part in Craig's designs; his work was
suggestive rather than a detailed statement. He
proposed a new kind of 'total theatre· in which the
actor would no longer be merely the servant of the
playwright. but. Instead, would become part of a
completely integrated theatrical experience. In
fact. he argued. the ideal actor would be an
Uberrnarionette or ·super-puppet·.
The Swiss designer Adolphe Appia (1862-
1928) had also seized the new opportunities
offered by electric lighting to bring about an
original approach lo staging the monumental
operas of Richard Wagner. Dismayed by Wagner's
insistence upon painted realism for his heavily

"
L
~
the art of scenic design.
Edward Gordon Craig (187 2- 1966), the son of
Sir Henry Irving's leading lady Ellen Terry and the
architect E.W. Godwin. became an actor with
symbolic works at Bayreuth. Appia. like Craig.
worked with solid sculptural forms lit by shifting.
coloured lighting to bring an epic quality to his
settings. Craig and Appia. the two great formative
designers their age. independently produced ideas
Scene design bu Edward Gordon
Craig.
Desi911Ji1r Glw·k's Orfeo ed Euridice by . l,lolp/rr lppi11. I 'J.!h .
Plwco: Tht' Se1111lm foy,• (;11bt'rm11r1 l.ilmtr!f

Irving's company at the Lyceum Theatre at the age
of I 6. In 1900 Craig began to direct and design his
own productions. His work did not depend upon
1he skill of scene painters. instead he developed a
sculptural approach. designing comparatively
24
general rejection of his work. mo\·ed to the south of
that influence the work of stage designers to this France in 1929. In 1955. in recognition of his
day. They met only once in 1914. at an contributions to the theatre. he \\'ilS made a
international exhibition of scene design in Zurich. Companion of Honour but Silid he could not .rfford
Craig. embittered by what he perceived as the to travel to London to receive the award.
From the early years of the twenlit'lh n•ntury to
the present day. depending on your point of view.
the work of stage designers may be seen as either a
hopeless mish-mash of connicting ideas or an
exciting. stimulating mLxture incorpornting a wide
range of styles. Certainly no particular style seems
lo be predominant. Elegant box sets. such as those
designed by). Hutchinson Scoll in the 1950s. can
still be found in London's West End. side by side
with some of the most innovative examples uf
modern design. As late as the 1960s the romantic
Tiu• train craslies and painted scenery of Oli\'er Messel entranced
race/iorse is
Ll1t'
audiences al the Royal Opera House in Covent
rescued l11 tl,e nick of Garden. while a few yards away the monumental
Lime In The Whip. machines designed by Sean Kenny for shows such
Anotl,er triumplifor as Oliver! and Blil: were stunning in a completdy
different way.
'Se11st1lio11' Smith of
Drury Ln11e. Photo:
Tire Tlll'Cllre M11s1•11m
The demise of th.: pro\·indal n.:pcrto ry , y ,1 .:111 .
whh.:h survi\'1..-<l for a gooJ 111ilny yt..·ars l'na1nly by
producing n:wurkinµs of rcci:111 \\i:~t End
successes. n1t:an s that thl·atrc de~i~nl.·r'.'\ ill > lunµ.cr
think in terms uf box sets am.I st.agi: 11ar..,. but i:xli:nd
lhcir ir11aginations to l ·rcah: '\l'tl tlle!,S 111 ,111
extensive varil'IY ul Jiffcrt·nt :.t y lt:S. Theatre~ '\Ul.' h
as the Citizen's Themre in l;las1:uw. lh<.: L,brar v
Theatre in :\lanch,:stcr anJ St..-ph.:n Ju,<.:ph ',
Theatre-in-thc-R,,und at S,a rboru ui;h hm·.:
encuuragL-<l dcsigni:rs tu r.:think thdr appruad1 1"
their 1..·rJfl. and theatre Jt~ig.n l.'uur,cs tn uur
dramu schools and univc:r~itit•:, i:n~uun1~c
innovation. the Jcvdopment 01 n,·w ti:chn iqu.:,-
and the use of new mat.:rials.
In rec.:nt y.:ars. S<.'t JL-sign has bt.·cume , 1.,,ely
intt:grate<l with liµhting J<-,,ign a nJ thi: Jiv1di11i;
Jin.: betw1..'t.'n th.:m has bt:.:om.: mur<· anJ mure
blurred. lnJL-..-<l. many ,tag.: J,-,,ign ,l>ur-,c, nuw
incorporate set . ligh1ing and , u,. tum.: Ji:, ign. and
designers arc frL-qu.:111ly t:umpet.:111 in 1111,r,• than
one Jis<.'iplin<'.
3 THE THEATRE BUILDING
A VISIT BACKSTAGE
Actors somclimcs rercr 10 the theatre as 1hc ·run
factory·. and some parts of ii can. in fact. be
compilrl'tl to a factory. Uke a factory. a theatre is a
workplace and contains hii7A-irds: accidents can
easily happen and stringent efforts should always
be made to reduce risks. To the uniniliatl-d. a
theatre can seem a strange. bewildering place.
inhabited by people with peculiar jobs that are not
clearly understood. and who speak in a confusing
jargon that is often difficult to interpret.
The stage door leads into a world that
immediately strikes us as having none of the
glamour we would normally ass,x·iatt, with a visit
to a theatre. and actors· dressing rooms often have
more of the qualities of military barrndts than
retiring rooms for the stars.
The stage. Sl'Cn under working lights. Sl-cms
gloomy and dusty. and contains a confusing array
of technical equipment. Looking up. we are
sometimes surprised to Sl'C that. above the stag(•. is
a high tower filfod with l"abk-s. ropt,s and metal
bars. This is the fly tower. housing the flying
system. Scenery and lighting t.-quipment can be
attached to the bars and rais.,-d or lowe!"l-d as
rt.-quircd. The great height is na'Ckd to fly large
scenic pit.-ces such as backdoths out of view of the
audience. The bars hang on cables or ropes that
pass over pulleys in a sturdy framework set high up
near the roof called the grid. they pass over more
pulleys to one side of the stage where they nm bc
OPPOSITE: &twel'II prod11( tio11s. thr SIiiy<' is 11 ,lurk
0
and gloomu spa('t', w1rlti1111 to b,• brought to life l,!I
tlrr prt'Sl'IIC't' of 11ctors, tlni1111as, 1t•1·h11ki1111s "'"'
111111/I' II(' ('S,
operated from a platform call1..'tl 1.he lly ga llcry set
again,I a side wall of 1hc qage. Nowadays. thc..'Sl:
;cts of n~;ng lines a rc usually coun1erwcighl<'<I.
and another. higher gallery is re<1111n.'<l tn load and
remon: the heavy \\'eights nL"L'dc..-d to balan..:c 1hc
\Wight of the scenery or liwuing L"qU1pm,·n1
lusuaUy refern.--d to as 'lanterns' o r ·1umina1n,,,'1.
Some sets of fly lines arc dcsigmued spt.--cmlly lb r
lighting. and these are u,ually rJ~-d or lowered b,·
means of ,vine hes IO a\'oid 1.hc n1..-cc,-s11 r ui
continually having to adjust countcrwcighLS ,.,.
lanterns arc addt-d or remon.-d. fhe bars
mentioned abtl\·e are ol'len conveniently inlcrnall\'
wired to a\'oid a tangle of drooping cables.
If the stage ls well designed there will be ,,
considerable amount of wing ,paci: b.:yond the
limits of the proscenium opening and us uaily Olli
of sight of the audience during a pt.•t-formance. bul
l>sscntial for technicians 10 carry Olli their olT,1, ,gc
tasks.
The best stage lloors a rc 1101 I.he bcautlfuily
linished. conn:rt-hall type but the kind Lhai is
l'0\lered with a temporary surfa,·e of plywood or
hardboanl so that it can be paim...-d or 1c.~1un.-..i ""
r<.-quirl-d and replaced wh.-n it b..-comc:s nc.."l'L'Sc"-1ry.
SometilUL'S 1h.- swgc lloor l"o1·11ams removable
sections callo.-d 'traps·. and sometimc..-s th<:re is ""
cxLCDsicm Lo the from of the >Lag.: 1a n ·apron· or
'forcstagc·) 1ha1. in sonw nL~'S. n m be ra""--d or
lowered Lo pro,~d.: an orchc;.1ra pit for mu, i.:al
shows if 111..-..--ded. Ro" " of ,mall rrap doors 111 Lhl·
lloor at the sidl'S ol' Lhe Sla;:.: I'dip,,) gin, a.:cc:,:, tu
dl-..·tri,· sockets.
Most public thc•mrc,. abow d l'Crtain scmin;:
capadly an· l,:gaily rs'\juirc..-d tu u1stall " , pc..-..:ial
safoly 1:urtain to isolall' the :-tagt.: fru111 the
audiloriu1n i n an l'Uh.·rgl'lll:Y- This is nut n.::;.1lly ~
curtain a1 all but a h...-avy. fireproof " ""II 1u, 1 behind
 TIIF. TIIF. c\TRE Brll.Dl'.'.'l;
THE THEATRE BUILDING

the proscenium capallle or l,cing rapidly lowered if

this becomes necessary. In the event or a lire
1,reaking out. the high ny tower \\;II act as a
chimney. converting the whole theatre into a giant
fireplace that can increase the danger dramatically.
Therefore the safety curtain must always 1,c kepi in
good working order and nothing must ever l,c
allowed to obstruct ii. This is often a source or
extreme annoyance to the set designer who would
like to extend his sci on to the fnrestagt·
underneath the safety curtain. There are usually
some large. normal curtains hanging just behind
the safety curtain. always rcfcrrt.'d to Ias arc all
stage curtains l as ·tabs·. an abbreviation of
tableaux curtains. The big curtains nearest to the Thi' m11strrlo11s world 11/ rhr /1!1 fJHllr>11 lii,1lr
front of the stage and inlcndt>d for use at the trbove rl1<, stuyr.
beginning and end of each act are the ·house tabs·.
The stage manager and the lighting and sound
operators arc usually houSL>d in control rooms al importing tht·m from dscwhen:. 11 w,11 LL,ually
the rear of the auditorium. observing the contain workshops for nmstru,ting and pamtlni:
performance through a glass panel and kt-cping in th,· scenery and props and a wardrobe department
touch with the several areas of the stage 1,y means 1hr mHkin~ and n1c1intainin~ the 1.-'usrumcs. Then·
of microphone and headphones ("cans') and a arc probably also some areas intended li.,r ,1urage.
system of coloured cue lights: rt>d for ·stand by' and but. in,·vil.ibly. nt."\'t'r enough. .·\ storage ,1rca
green for 'go·. wh,·rc everything is so rightly padu:d ,n rhat rt
If the theatre is a produl'ing house. that Ls. one bt-..·omes impossible to s..-.: what it conr.1111s is
that mounts its own productions inslt•ad of almost uscles.s.

=
Djp
y
D
-
A Proscenium
B Guide for safety curtain
K Lighting bars with lanterns s Auditorium (scats omillL'<I)
L Flynoor T Access doors from dressing
C Trdp M Grid
D Dips
rooms
N Unused bar u Access to forcstagc A wel/-appoillled
E Trap room (under stage) 0
I'
Painted backcloth V Public access doors to d1ea1re works/top al
Slots with light booms p Counterweight operating lines
G Auditorium lighting position auditorium tlte Timms Celllre for
H Legs Q Pin rail with brakes for nying w Auditorium ceiling lhl' Arts in Edmon1011,
lines X Auditorium light fixtures
J Border R Apron or rorcstagc 11n Ca11ada, ,villi tlrl'
z Fly tower (exterior)
artlflrltdl~J lit ptrint
Typical proscenium slagr. "'ltlifly lolller. shop be!}oml.
28
 THE TIIEATRE Bl ' ll.DI:-.:G
THE THEATRE BUILDING
n three sides of the stage. the other one being
TYPES OF STAGE ~ccupied by a rear-stage area where there is some

~
Audience
possibility for scenic effect. The m~in . advantage is
. . . de variety of configurations.
Theatres ex,st a "1
111 I ti I · to a sense of intimacy caused by str1ppmg away the

, .. I
nerall classified by tJ1e audience's re a on~ 11_p proscenium barrier. but more than half the
ge Y . • Below are brief descnpllons
the performing space. ed , audience is generally looking across the stage
of some of th e most fr>"'uently
,_., encounter ,orms. ,
towards the audience al the opposite side and this Stage / St.age \

The Proscenium Stage .. ,.

Still the most popular format. usually compnsmg a
can create a sense of disadvantage when compared
wilb the view of those sitting al the front. ~--,___' '
',,

raised platform "1th the audience all seated ~t one

side. and some form of physical separation m the
Theatre-in-the-Round or Arena Stage ~· . . ~•n.·a ,
,' :\1.:rinu 1

Any form of staging with the audience completely Audience Audience

form of a prosceniwn or picture l'rame betw,een ~e
audience and the performing area. Somet1m~ an
apron or forestagc juts out through the proscemum
into the audience. This type of theatre usually
contains some facilities for rigging scenery, stage
lighting and effects, r,mging from the merely basic
to the extremely elaborate. This is the theatre
designed for scenic iUusion, in which il is easier lo
control exactly what an audience sees than in any
other form. However. the ·proscenium is both a
physical and psychological barrier between
performer and audience, emphasizing the two
separate worlds they inhabit. This rather alienating
sense of separation can sometimes be mitigated by
the design of the set.
The Thrust Stage
Here the stage juts out into the auditorium rather
like an extended apron. The audience usually sits
Rear stage
Stage
surrounding an acting area of virtually any
shape or size. The barrier of the proscenium is
removed completely and more intimacy wilb the
audience is possible. but the audience is generally
conscious of the audience on the opposite side of
lbe stage and the performer often has difficulty
communicating to those parts of the audience
·seated behind him. No complete scenic illusion is
possible here.
The Traverse or Alley Stage
The audience sits at both sides of a longish
performing area, with offstage areas at either end
that may be used for actors' entrances and for
minimal scenic effects. Again, there is a sense of
intimacy with the performers, but the same
restrictions apply as with theatre-in-the-round and
the thrust stage.
Audience
Tra\'<erse or alley stage Flexiblr or black bo:1 siagr
Plans of typical tra,•erse or alley.flexible or black box and promerrmle stages.
The Flexible or Black Box Stage
Currently popular in schools and colleges because
of its versatility. this is actually an empty space in
which the audience's and the performance areas
may be configured to suit the n1.'t.-ds of each
individual production. In it simplest form it may be
merely an empty room, but this type or stage may
be fully equipped with versatile seating units.
counterweighted Dying facilities and complete
lighting and sound systems. making it an excellent
type of venue for experimental staging.
Promenade Staging
Here the audience moves physically from one area
to another during the performance, often in the
open air. This form can be effective when used with
skill. but not all plays lend themselvl'S lo this type of
staging. Its effectiveness generally depends more
Pmmc:nade ,ofa)t<'
Plays have lxc.en pcrfonn,-d in barns. tents. on
Iakt.'S. in telephone boxt'S ,md in domestic kitchens.
There is no perti.-ct stage. It will be seen that ,m y
fonn of staging has both advantagt.-s and
disadvantages. and the designer n ..'t.'d to analyse
these carefully to decide upon the most ,1ppropriatc
approach to the work in hand.
STAGE DIRECTIONS
These arc now USt.'-d in a more or less standardu<.'ll
l'ormat. In Britain and North r\merica s r11yr, rr"/11
(SR) and s11me 1.-Jl ISU are a lways usc.-d !rum an
actor's point of view as he faces 1he audicnc.-c.
Old stages were usually built with a mkt.-d Dour
USR use L'SL

~c:t
---------------
~---+---------------1----- upon the skill of the director than that of the set
(Up-s tagl'
.......
\Li p-stage 11J p-s1ai;c
> designer. rli;htl L"t.· nr·re ) idt1
III III "
C
11111 Stage 11111 5 C.
;;- ~
'o
<
::, Stage ::,
n Site-specific Staging
This is theatre performed in some spedfically
·c:
~
:=
RC
(Right
C LC
tlcli ~
I
.,
~~-===-~~~ 1Ccntr~ 1

~~~
ccnLrc) L't:'lllrc )
selected space other than a theatre. It may be
virtually anywhere: a derelict warehouse. a
~ USR DSC DSL
;,;
=-
'h ------ "!:-.::;
1Down•stagc
Audience disused factory. a wood or a railway station. It is a 10ow11-s1ai;o: 1Down-s1ai;c
Audjence rii;hn
Audience form of theatre for which it is impossible to LCUlrl! ) lcfl l
Proscenium stage Thrust stage formulate any rules. It may contain no sc:cnk Pros.
Theatre-In-the round Pr, ,!'11.
or arena stage element whatsoever or it may contain a vast
Plans of l!Jpic,d proscenium, thrust and t/1eatre-i11-t/1e round or arena stages. amount of elaborate scenic and lighting effects. S1119e dirt't'tious.
30
11
THE THEATRE BUILDING TH E TH E .-\TRE Bl' ILDI~ G
will vary considerably from stage to stage, even on
t ·d perspective scenery. It was higher at t_hc !,ark
toh:~ the front. Thus upstage (US) is rused lo m~1calc
th b k or the stage and downsIag (DS) indicates
e ac to the audience - so any part or the
stages of approximately the same size and format.
This onen causes problems when a show ls to tour
to several different venues: it is not just a question
house. Nole that the worst seals may well be at the
ends of the front row or they may be end seats of a
row much further back in the auditorium. Imagine
7
the part nearer b. t· of 'Will the scenery fit?' that you are sitting in one of these seats and work
stage may be ind1·cated bu, the use or a com ma ion It is useful to visit the actual stage where the out how much of the stage you will be able lo see.
or twO Or •L- letters (see diagram). These terms and what would prevent your seeing the other
UU'-" ' • performance incorporating your design is to take
are •m genera1usc, in both their spoken and wnttcn place, and you should always try to do this before parts (usually, the proscenium). You will find that
starting work. Stand on the stage and face the anyone in an end seat or the front row will be able
ror;;;;r black box or arena stages modified compass to see a large part or the opposite side or the stage, C
directions arc usually adopted. In these cases North auditorium in a position where you can see every
scat in the house with the minimum amount of but the proscenium will prevent his seeing much or
should be indicated on the stage plan as on a the stage at the side on which he is sitting. We can
head movement. This is a 'point of power', that is, a
conventional map. draw then lines on the plan indicating the limits of
position where every member of the audience can
his field or vision: these are referred to as the
clearly see the actor's face. This special place will be
SIGHTLINES somewhere near the front of the stage in a sightlines.
You will see from the diagram that a spectator
A sightline is simply a line or vision towards the conventional theatre, but probably not right al the
stage from a particular location in the auditorium. front. In a conference, or even al an informal
sitting at the right-hand end of the front row can ,I
Whatever form or staging is to be employed the meeting, the participants will be able to
see everything between sightlines A-A. whereas ·I
the spectator at the other end or the front row can
designer should always make a careful study of the communicate with far greater ease if the seating see everything between sightlines B--B. Sightlines
arrangement Is sympathetic, and this means ease ,,
sightlines in that specific situation. that is. simply
consider which part or the acting area is in full of eye contact even more than physical closeness.
are also indicated from the worst seats in the house •
(C-C and D-D). Thus the shaded area is the only
view of the entire audience and which parts of that The same situation occurs in the actor-audience part of the stage that can be seen from e1>rry seat in Stage pl,m with slghlline1.
area are most ravourable to the performer. They relationship. Nole that any stage usually has areas the house. This does not mean that everything on
from which it is remarkably inappropriate to stage should be situated only in the area between
communicate with the audience, such as near the the sightlines, but any feature that must be dearly seating and then. of course. the consideration of
back wall or at the extreme sides. This does not seen by every member of the audience, for sightlines bt.-comes even more important. This
mean that these are wasted areas. We shall see example, the doors through which Oedipus is to purely technical matter or sightlim:s is deliberately
later that. without them, the designer's task enter aner blinding himself or Richard m·s throne, placed right al the start of our consic.leration of lhc
becomes a much more difficult one. Do not feel that may be set in this area only, and other scenic design process because good stage design Is
your setting has to occupy every square centimetre elements must be organized to accommodate this. attained by combining the creative imagination
of a large stage. As far as possible, concentrate the The method of determining sightlines described with a good working knowledge: of thc
action of the play on that part of the stage where above refers to a typical proscenium stage, but the technicalities involved. In many ways thc stage
an actor can relate to his audience with the sightlines can be worked out in a similar rashion designer may considered to be more artisan tha n
greatest ease. for almost any type of stage. with or without a artist. But this is not an ignoble calling, lor
Every theatre should have scale drawings of the proscenium. In some flexible forms of staging the Michelangelo. who not only designed and paintL-c.l
stage and auditorium available and you should designer may be presented with the opportunity to the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel but plastered It tex>.
make sure that you have copies of these. A detailed design the particular arrangement of audience also referred lo himself as an artisan.
and accurate stage plan Is essential, but a stage
section and elevation are also usually needed.
Technical drawings will be discussed in much more
detail in a later chapter, but, for now, let us use a
stage plan to examine the important question of
sightlines.
The plan should include the entire stage area
and at least the front part of the auditorium,
showing the positions of the end seats of the front
Plan of stage and a11ditorl11111.
row, and the positions of the worst scats in the
32
H
4 THE DESIGN PROCESS
READING THE SCRIPT
The design process usually starts ,,~th a tex1. This
may be for a new work or one already produced. It
may be a classic that has been produced many.
many limes. In each case the designer should try to
read it as if it were completely new and fresh to
him. In fact, read ii several times. It is a good idea to
read ii straight through at a sitting for the first
lime. to get the general feel of the piece and
see what impressions ii product-s. At a St.-cond
reading have a notebook bc.-sidc you and make
notes and rough sketches as you read. Make a
careful note of any specific physical requirements
that may be necessary. items that ii would be
impossible to do the play without. These arc
generally few: in Rom('O 1111d /11/i(•t . for example. you
may note that a balcony is essential. or at least an
upper level which can s11uyrs1 a balcony. In a
thrUler ii may be a large chest to contain a dead
body. In a farce it may be the door to a room where
some unfortunate character is trappc.-d ,,;thout his
trousers. A second list may contain physical items
ii may be desirable to include but which are not
really essential to the production. a samo\'ar or an
icon. for example. to give a sense of Imperial Russia
in a Chekhov play.
Make sketches of any inmges that occur tu you
as you read the text. At this stage du not attempt
the drawings of a complete set but small sketches
of specific moments: Juliet on the balcony with
Romeo below. a character silting on a t·hcst. nut
knowing that it contains a dead body. or the
Ol'POSITE: A smlll/, bur detlli/(•d s,·t modt'//or"
sdwols lour lms just bun comp/eted bu llu•
d1•sl911er.
positions of actors in a farce when the dnor ,,pcns
revealing the actor who has lost hLs trnus...·rs. \",,u
ran rhoosi: specific moments throughout rhe play
and gradually buil<l up a swryboard. nnl
m:cessarilv one 1hat is entirely logical bul a ,;,•nes ,,f
speedy sk~tchcs lo get 1h.: at:ali\'c imaginal ion
working.
MEETl'.'.G HIE DIRECTOR
Arrange 10 ntl'CI 1he dirL-ctor al 1hc carlil-st pc,s.sible
opportunity aticr reading the st:ripl. The wo rkl ni:
relationship hctwt-cn director an<l dL-,;igncr is
crucial. an<l you must tin<l a cnmmon mcth,><I of
,1pproach. If you ar<' thinking of. say. Ro1m<'o <1111/
/11/i,•1, as a romantil· cale of star-cross..-<l lovers and
he St.'t.'S ii as a hard-<.-<lgt-<l. pc,lilical pc,l.:m1c. I hen
one of you will ha\'e 10 change or at rhe wry lea,1
severely modify your point of \'icw.
You may prefer the first mL'tClinl( wilh ii <lirccrur
to be an informal one. perhaps o\'cr a .:off,:e ,>r a
drink. maybe in your own home. Yuu 11<-'t.-<l ,1
chan.:c to gt·l lo know caL·h other at this slil!-(e. lo
examine each other's \'iews ,lll the theatre and life
generally and disco\'cr the b...-st way 10 work
together. No two dirL-ctors will ha\'C 1he ,,ame
approach. somctimL-s a dinxtur will ..:omc tu you
with spccilk rt-quiremL·111s. and sometime:, he will
appear Lo ha\'c t.:w opinions al all. Do nut be 11.10
com:ernL-<l if the dirL-ctur·s \' iews , onll ic1
somewh<1t with yours. If you can d,·\'clop ii mu1ual
respect lor each olher"s work. ths•n the res uh, will
be beltt.'r than t.'ither of you .:uul<l produn·
indi\'idually. The wor,t kin<l of dirL-ctor cu work
wi1h will somctilllL'S make a remark such as,
'l'nt sun.• yuu art· a \'l.•rv talt.·nh....J dt'~i).!11t:r. :.,,() \\'hv
don ' t you just show ;ne your ideas- anJ I'll ~
perfcc1ly happ~· lo gn along " ith LhL·m.' Thb
1-5
THE DESIGN PROCESS
·matcl depressing statement
nattering. though ultr Y, rrii of coopcrat ivc
I I out any ,o
complete Y ru cs d , k of both of you will be
arlislic creation an I11c \\ or
diminished. . . . be difficult to resist
. meeting 11 \\,11
At t h rs , • These may be very
scribbling some ideas on paper. • . k" 1 or the
. deed frequently on a paper lldP u
rough m bee.
back of a
t and having very lilllc meanmg
r-ma · • t
for anyone not prescn a I
.
the discussion. Do not
. be .
w them away. for they can sometnues. a usually spend many hours in solitary activity,
~~,~~able source of inspiration at a later stag~ mhthe
d•csrgn
. roccss K•-p a special folder for eac s ow
P · · -~ . th' f
you work on in which you place any mg o
The Designer and the Director
The relationship bctwl'cn designer and director
is a crucial one. If lhc right creative partnership
de\·dops. 1101 only will the sci be belier. but the
production as a \\'hole will bmcfit loo. ~hen the
relationship is really successful. design and
production bct·omc so closely fused together that
ii becomes impo:--sihh: to scparntc them. For
example. it is now difficult for us lo think of a
play by Bertoli Breehl without the distinctive
stvlc of the Berliner Ensemble and Caspar
N~her's innovative design work immediately
springing to mind. The relationship may not
always be a cosy one. but, provided that there is a
mutual rL'S(lCCI for each other's work. even the
friction of opposing views can often be
productive. When a good working relationship Is
established you will find that you are able lo
make suggestions to the director about his
production in the same way as be will make
suggestions to you about the set. Always be
tactful when doing this, however, for some
directors may strongly resent It. When you find a
director with whom you can produce really good
work you will probably rmd that you will be
invited lo work together again on other shows.
This wlll give you both the opportunity to build
upon previous experience and may often prove to
be a very producllve. creative and long-lasting
working relationship.
36
TIIE OF.S i l;:,.; PROCESS
relevance lo the design proccs~. These hasty
).j .•.■ ··.
scribbles may be added to the wntten notes you
made 011 first reading the play.
DEADLINES
In spite of the fact that theatre is ~ communal
activity resulting from the collaborative work or a
creative team of specialists. the set designer will
1;, .,· .
-r
-
-= . ~ .'.:'\
drawing and making models. This will require a
certain amount of self-discipline for the deadline is
precisely nxed, and. al a specific time on a certain
• . Al-
day. the first performance will begin. All your
design work must, of course, be completed long
before then. The production manager will give you
deadlines for several stages of the design work,
such as when drawings are required for costing,
when the build period will begin and when the
model should be available. An important date to
note is the first rehearsal, when you will usually be
expected to present your designs to the acting
company. You will probably fmd it helpful lo make
out a personal schedule for yourself, showing what
stage in the process you intend to reach by a
specific date. Deadlines have a way of creeping up
unexpectedly.
RESEARCH
You will probably need to do some form of research
for almost any show you design. and it can be
a valuable source of inspiration. The form il
takes will. of course, depend upon the nature
of the production and your own particular
interests. A period play will probably involve
searching through books for pictures of period
rooms and details of period decoration and
style; here the Internet may also be a valuable Storyboard/or J.M. Sy11gr 's Riders to the Sea.
research tool.
Go to original sources whenever this is possible.
Church in Covent Garden where Eliut Dooliule sat inlu line with L"a.:h uther. The 11nal pruJu.:tiun wa~
Looking al paintings or period objects in an art
gallery or museum can often stimulate a creative
with her basket of violets. and we later visitL-d consid.:rably imprun-J in scvo,ral asprt:t,, .L, ,1 n"'ult
Wimpolc Street to look for Professor Higgins's of the exp,,Jilio n .
excitement that is absent from photographs of the
house. and Cheyne Walk for ~lrs Higgins's house. Do not ignon- the valuo: ul sc,ro:nJipily Junr1i:
same objects. When designing a production or
During this time we spent several hours Jis.:ussing re-search. it l.'illl SolUt'lllllf..."S pruJ.ul."t: uncx pc:\.'.lcJly
Shaw's Pygmalion the director and I went in scare~
the produ<·lion and bringing our creative altitudes ri.:h n,sults. Pic·tun,s ur ubic-.:ts 1h,1t J u nut
of the actual plinth under the portico of St Paul s
THE DESIGN PROCESS
. mediately appear to be relevant can ofien turn
t
imt to be a source of inspiration. Apart from the
l that it is an enjoyable activity. ii is probably nol
ac ood idea to ask an assistant to carry out
:e!arch for you since a search concentrated s~lely
on specific items would mean th~I potenltally
valuable peripheral material may be igno~ed._ M_ake
a collection of pictures from ma~azmes ~nd
newspapers in 8 large box file, selectmg not 1usl
those which have an obvious research value but
any pictures which have some kind of appeal to
you personally. Your collection can become a
f ~"'''''''['''''"''"«<~
Rough skelc/1es made afler a meell119 wil/1 lite director.
38
treasure trove of inspiration. IL is nol necessary lo
organize the pictures systematically since looking
through them to find a specific item means that a
large amount of other visual material must be
sorted through along the way and frequently it is
the randomly discovered pictures that prove to be
the most valuable sources of inspiration.
The research period for a show can often prove
to be so enjoyable that it is easy to forget that there
are deadlines to meet. You may fmd It useful to set a
predetermined date on your work schedule for the
completion of this initial research.
BEGINNING WORK
Having read the play, made out a number of lists.
met the director. pinned up schedules. assembled
the research material and sharpened your pencils.
it is now time to start the actual design. This first
step is one we often find difficult to take. Try
beginning with a review of the collection of
sketches in your folder: some of these may
represent an idea in plan form. while others may be
rough perspective sketches. Bear in mind that the
theatre is a three-dimensional space and the stage
layout needs to be planned at the same time as the
pictorial composition of the set. For this reason.
now develop your most promising sketches a little
further. drawing a small. rough plan and
perspective view. one above the other on the same
page. This technique will force you to consider your
set as a series of inter-relating spaces and not as
just a two-dimensional stage picture.
At this stage il is oficn helpful to cut out pieces of
paper or thin card to represent various elements of
the set. especially if parts of it are to move from
scene to scene.
FURNITURE
Most sets require furniture of some kind and this
must be an important consideration for the set
designer. You may find that you need a completely
furnished, F.dwardian dra\ving room or a junk-
filled basement. On the other hand. you may net.-d
nothing more than a single throne. lf you are
designing an exterior scene. the furniture might
include objects that we do not normally consider to
be furniture - a low wall for sitting on. a large
stone, a wooden bench or some old boxes. Even in a
completely abstract setting there may be objects
designed specifically for an actor lo sit or recline
upon. These all count as furniture in theatrical
terms.
In a normal room the distribution of furniture is
governed by the dimensions of the room and the
activities that usually take place in it. No
consideration is given to the possibility of unusual
or unexpt.-cted events. On stage. however, the
arrangement of furniture is based upon slightly
THE DESIG:'>i PRO C ESS
different considerations: how many need to sit
down at t.he same time! Do 1hcy nt.•ed to sit dose to
each other: Does the seating a rr.m!!ement allow
them to converse with each other and
communicate with the audience at the s.1m•· tim••:
The set designer knows in advance. tc,r e."tampt.-.
whether a munler or a s..-ductinn will take pla•·e on
his set and will arrange the stage so that chis can
take place effectively in 1hearrical 1enns.
On stage. the dimensions of a room •·;m be
adjusted to accommodate the furniture it is lo
contain. However. although an apparently random
arrangement of furniture ,1cross the acting area
may sometimes be convenient from a 1hemrkal
point of view. it can never be convincing without
some degree of logic behind 1he arrangement.
In everyday life furniture is usu;1lly arrang<-<l
around a focal point such as a fireplace. a television
set or some kind of table. try to emulate this
on stage.
Carefully estimate 1he size of the pit.-ccs of
furniture you require. ,\ole-dSUJ"ing your own can
help. even if is not exactly like the lurniture you
will eventually use. Dr-Jw plans of chairs. 1abk-s
and so on to scale and i_-ut them out of paper or thin
card so that you can move them about on yo ur
plan. You can thus grJdually build up a small
library of these scale furniture plans and kt."t!p
them for reuse. A collection of scale plans o f
standard piano shapes and sizes is invaluable w hen
designing a set that needs to contain one.
ROSTRA
The actual floor of the stage is ine\•itably llat.
However. you can ofien create a more e."tciting set
by incorporating variations in the lt,"'•el of the lloor.
Temporary platforms used on stage are referred 10
as 'rostrums· or 'rostrn'. Cht.-ck 10 see whether anv
stock rostra are available and find out their
dimensions. They may be built either as solid units
or collapsible for easy storage. Irregular shap..-s and
heights will need to be specially built. but you can
economize by using sto.:k units where this is
possible. Remember that an actor will feel insecure
performing on a high level with no handrail, so
plan for these where necessary. Remember too that
3'J
 THE DF.SI G 1' PRO C ESS
THE DESIGN PRO CESS

~ 152.l)(lcm •I
V T
Armchair
Two-seater sofu §
Upright model
8
'- ..... ,-.;
..c

J_
E
..._
..c
,-.;
"'
r r -.,
/
Boudoir grand

Three-seater sofa ;;;

8
.,;
.....
-- Baby grand
"'

IE 145.90 cm
J ~ 146.-.0 cm ~

N
Scalefurniturepla11s (scale: 1:25).

Drawing room grand Concert grand

a rostrum running Into the wings will need steps
for actors to get access to It, placed oul of sight on
the off-stage side. These access steps are usually
referred to as 'get off steps'.
Sometimes you will need a platform that is high
enough for actors to walk underneath it. A
domestic doorway is about 2m (6ft 6in) high. so
you should not consider anything lower than this.
40
Remember as well that the upper level will require
some thickness to support an actor's weight and so
you should probably allow another 15cm (6in),
making the lowest height of a rostrum designed to
be walked beneath about 2.15m (7ft). Check with
the costume designer: if an actor is to wear a top
hat or a tall headdress you may have to make il 147.39cm 154.J i cm
higher.
Scale piano plans (scalr: 1 :25).
-l l
 T H E DES t G :-- PR OC ESS
THE DESIGN PROCESS
be easily negotiated and without the need for him

=
STEPS AND STAIRS to look down al every step. Examine the steps you
~
encounter in your daily life: which are the easy
Ir higher than about 2 5cm (9in) will ones? Which take the most effort when you walk ;;;;; -;-;;~ ~ ~ I
Any r;'5
1
a step or steps to provide easy access
up and down them? Measure the height of the
usua ,Y n h Id be designed so that the actor can I;;;;._.;
to II. Steps s OU . ease• The number 1· • risers and the depth of the treads and make a note
o steps Steps with I 5cm risers - .-
negotiate thcm ,,~111 · of those that work best. Do you fmd that there is an
will of course. depend upon the height of t l~e and 30cm treads can be ~

-- --
ideal ratio of riser to tread? negotiated with case and
upper• Icvcl . The vertical piece between each step is
.
referred to as the 'riser· and the part you step on is If the set is to contain a rostrum that is, say, have elegant proportions.
:,
-
90cm (3ft) high. you should decide at an early
-- -
-'
called the 'tread'. . . stage how many steps you will require to reach this
The risers and treads in domestic sta irs v~ry I
considerably in size: the riser may be anything height. A riser of 15cm (6in) is fairly low and has
from around 15cm (6in) to 18cm (Sin) in height. the added advantage that it will divide equally Into
the height of the platform: You will need five steps,
~ l.5o m - 1
and the depth of tread has an even wider variation.
On stage. an actor needs lo negotiate steps with not six. The rostrum itself can form the top step.
greater ease than in real life. He needs to be able to You now need to decide upon the depth of the
speak distinctly as he walks up the stairs without tread so that you can work out the total length of
ha,~ng to catch his breath. and sometimes needs to the steps for which you will need to allow space on
stop al a particular step to play a short scene. the plan. I.et us be generous and construct a ~~
which Is diflicult if the risers are high and the comfortable flight of steps with each tread 30cm ~~
~~
treads are narrow. He should never have to be
concerned about avoiding a stumble. As designers,
(1ft) deep. Still working with our 90cm-high
rostrum, the stairs will need to be 1.5m (5ft) in
18cm risers and 28cm treads
take up less space but are
not so easy to negotiate and
~
'
I
we can help him by designing a staircase that can total length. Check that you have sufficient space do not look so elegant. - ..-
-
-~ -
- ::--

- =
I I

An elegant staircase
n•ltli passage\\lay
underneath, designed
by Lisa Hancliarek/or Dimensions of strps.
The Beaux' Stratagem,
receives Its finishing
touclies in the at an early stage in the design process because you that stairs can negotiate angles or ..:urves and
,vorksl1op of tl1e Timms may have to adjust by lowering the height of the contain intermediate levels. 0..-Stgning ste ps tu 111
Centre /or tl1e Arts In rostrum, which will also, of course. shorten the an available space need not be detrimental to vuur
Ed111011to11, Alberta. run of steps. Alterna tively. you could slightly dl>sign. In fact. tht-se technical consideration,; can
Tl1e \\lell-proportloned shorten each tread. with a corresponding loss in ofien be a source of creative inspiration. u· you are
treads and risers make comfort for the perfonner. Remember to incorpomtc considering the incorpora tion of rostra. slopes or
tl1e staircase easy to handrails or banisters where these are needed. stairs into your set. start designing these demems
negotiate. TIie banisiers I have chosen a relatively low rostrum in this at an early stage.
and handrall pro1•ide case, but these considerations become really
11ecess,1ry support crucial when the rostrum is considerably higher.
RAKES, R:\\IPS :\'.'.D SLOPES
/or the actors, bur Occasionally a rostrum will need to be so high tha t
also emphasize Its to fit in sufficient steps to reach the top in the space Our olde r theatres were oli en bwlt with slupini:
available can be problematic. Remember. however. stage tloors tu assist the sighllinc:s a nd enhance
sn•eeplng curve.
42
THE DESIGN PROCESS TH F. DE S ll~ :-,; PR OCES S

di
=-
:II
di
:II
=-
::s
Estimating the dimensions of a ramp.
::s
::II
perspective scenery. Most modern thca_trcs ha~e DEVELOPING THE ROUGH ::II
nat stage noors. but sometimes the designer Will SKETCHES :s
'l\1Sh to incorporate a ramp or a raked stage into his
set as a design feature. A raked stage can have the
effect of presenting the performers to the audience
How you proceed from this stage depends much
upon the type of set and your own preferences. You
=-
::II
in a dramatic and forceful way. However. there are may like to develop the stage plan in greater detail,
inherent dangers: read the play again. Imagining it working accurately to scale, or you may prefer to
::II
taking place upon a slope. Are there any essential branch out into the third dimension by making a ::s
wheeled objects that may cause a problem. a
wheelchair or a pram for instance? Is anything
rapid sketch model. This may be quickly done by :a
cutting out the main pieces of the set from
dropped on to the noor during the play that may
roll? Stage fights can sometimes be difficult on a
cartridge paper. sticking them together with
Sellotape and drawing on features such as doors or
=-
=-
rake. Discuss it "1th your director at an early stage windows with a felt-tip pen.
and give a great deal of attention to the precise It is not a good idea to begin making the final RIGHT: Developing die ro11g/1
::II
degree of slope, an angle of 7. 5 degrees is generally model until all the preparatory work is complete. sketches for a prod11cllo11 of We ::II
=-
considered safe. but one between this and about 20 Model making is a lengthy process and you will not Won't Pay! We Won't Pay! (ser
degrees may be considered accident-prone. No want to waste a great deal of time building features following pages).
definitive guidelines can be given here since many that will eventually have to be changed. You may
factors need to be taken into account. such as the find it helpful to complete all the plans and working
type of surface, the action that is to take place upon drawings before beginning the model. This method
ii, the type of footwear to be worn and the style of of working has many adva ntages: costs can be
the production. It is a good idea to ask your builder estimated from the drawings and, if possible. the
lo make a mock-up of the slope so that you can try construction of the set can begin without the need
il out for yourself and demonstrate it to the for the model to be completed: by building the
director, and the performers too, If possible, to gain model from the working drawings you may be able
their approval before work begins on the actual to detect any errors before the build and possibly
construction.
avoid expensive alterations at the construction
Do not make the mistake of thinking that you stage. Whichever working method you choose. you LEFT: RupiJl!I
~ substitute a ramp for a run of steps and expect should arrange frequent meetings with the ,·011strm·1-,J. rou(lh so,i
it lo occupy the same amount of floor space. The
director throughout the process so that you may modrlfor" bluck -bmc
ramp will always need to be considerably longer
benefit from his creative Input and he may become produniu11 Courage
~hru_i a flight of steps leading to the same height or
it will be loo steep to be practicable. familiar with the opportunities offered to· h im by lo Kill with C:Ul-UUl
your design. flyurr w /Jivo, sc uk
44
 THE DE S I GN PROCES S

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 THF. !1F.S ll; :-,; P RO CF.S:-
THE DESIGN PROCESS

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We Won't Po)'! tll 1ht•
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\Ve Won"t Pay! S/iorl

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48