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Psychology Project I and C PDF
Psychology Project I and C PDF
Content of intelligence
1. Definition
3. Theories of intelligence
4. Types of intelligence
5. Intelligence testing
6. Extremes of intelligence
7. References
Contents of creativity
8. What is creativity
9. Sources of Creativity
14. Reference
What Is Intelligence?
It might seem useless to define such a simple word. We have all heard this word hundreds of
times and have a general understanding of its meaning. However, the concept of intelligence has
been a widely debated topic among members of the psychology community for decades.
Intelligence has been defined in many ways: higher level abilities (such as abstract
reasoning, mental representation, problem solving, and decision making), the ability to learn,
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emotional knowledge, creativity, and adaptation to meet the demands of the environment
effectively.
Definition
Psychologist Robert Sternberg defined intelligence as "the mental abilities necessary for
adaptation to, as well as shaping and selection of, any environmental context (1997)
The study of human intelligence dates to the late 1800s when Sir Francis Galton (the
cousin of Charles Darwin) became one of the first people to study intelligence.
Galton was interested in the concept of a gifted individual, so he created a lab to measure
reaction times and other physical characteristics to test his hypothesis that intelligence is a
Galton theorized that because quickness and other physical attributes were evolutionarily
advantageous, they would also provide a good indication of general mental ability (Jensen,
1982).
phenomenon (such as intelligence) in measurable terms (such as reaction time), allowing the
Galton’s study of intelligence in the laboratory setting and his theorization of the heritability of
intelligence paved the way for decades of future research and debate in this field.
Theories of Intelligence
Some researchers argue that intelligence is a general ability, whereas others make the
assertion that intelligence comprises specific skills and talents. Psychologists contend that
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intelligence is genetic, or inherited, and others claim that it is largely influenced by the
surrounding environment.
Thurstone (1938) challenged the concept of a g-factor. After analyzing data from 56
different mental abilities tests, he identified several primary mental abilities that comprise
The seven primary mental abilities in Thurstone's model are verbal comprehension,
verbal fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, perceptual speed, memory, and inductive
instead theorized that intelligence consists of both general ability and a number of specific
abilities, paving the way for future research that examined the different forms of intelligence.
Just two years later, in 1985, Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of
intelligence, integrating components that were lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is based
on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve success based on your personal
According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and
applied to analyze or evaluate problems and find solutions. This is what a traditional IQ test
measure.
Creative intelligence is the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and
interesting ideas. This type of intelligence involves imagination, innovation and problem-
solving.
Practical intelligence is the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily
life, when a person finds the best fit between themselves and the demands of the environment.
Adapting to the demands environment involves either utilizing knowledge gained from
experience to purposefully change oneself to suit the environment (adaptation), changing the
(selection).
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Types of Intelligence
After examining the popular competing theories of intelligence, it becomes clear that
On one hand, Spearman claims that intelligence is generalizable across many different
areas of life, and on the other hand, psychologists such as Thurstone, Gardener, and Sternberg
hold that intelligence is like a tree with many different branches, each representing a specific
form of intelligence.
To make matters even more interesting, let us throw a few more types of intelligence into
the mix!
Emotional Intelligence
Emotional Intelligence is the “ability to monitor one’s own and other people’s emotions,
to discriminate between different emotions and label them appropriately, and to use emotional
emotion or another every second of our lives. You may not associate emotions and intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to the ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and to
reason and problem-solve based on them. The four key components of emotional Intelligence are
(i) self-awareness, (ii) self-management, (iii) social awareness, and (iv) relationship
management.
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In other words, if you are high in emotional intelligence, you can accurately perceive
emotions in yourself and others (such as reading facial expressions), use emotions to help
facilitate thinking, understand the meaning behind your emotions (why are you feeling this
way?), and know how to manage your emotions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990).
Fluid intelligence is the ability to problem solve in novel situations without referencing
prior knowledge but using logic and abstract thinking. Fluid intelligence can be applied to any
novel problem because no specific prior knowledge is required (Cattell, 1963). As you grow
older fluid increases and then starts to decrease in the late 20s.
specific facts learned in school or specific motor skills or muscle memory (Cattell, 1963). As you
The Cattell-Horn (1966) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence suggests that
intelligence is composed of a few different abilities that interact and work together to produce
For example, if you are taking a hard math test, you rely on your crystallized intelligence
to process the numbers and meaning of the questions, but you may use fluid intelligence to work
through the novel problem and arrive at the correct solution. It is also possible that fluid
The novel solutions you create when relying on fluid intelligence can, over time, develop
into crystallized intelligence after they are incorporated into long-term memory.
This illustrates some of the ways in which different forms of intelligence overlap and
Intelligence Testing
Binet-Simon Scale
During the early 1900s, the French government enlisted the help of psychologist Alfred
Binet to understand which children were going to be slower learners and thus require more
As a result, he and his colleague, Theodore Simon, began to develop a specific set of
They tested these questions on groups of students aged three to twelve to help standardize
the measure (Binet et al., 1912). Binet realized that some children could answer advanced
As a result, he created the concept of a mental age, or how well an individual performs
Binet finalized the scale, known as the Binet-Simon scale, that became the basis for the
comprehension, and reasoning which Binet deemed the key characteristics of intelligence.
When the Binet-Simon scale made its way over to the United States, Stanford
psychologist Lewis Terman adapted the test for American students, and published the Stanford-
according to five features of cognitive ability, including fluid reasoning, knowledge, quantitative
reasoning, visual-spatial processing and working memory. Both verbal and nonverbal responses
are measured.
This test used a single number, referred to as the intelligence quotient (IQ) to indicate an
individual’s score.
The test's average score is 100, and any score from 90 to 109 is considered in the average
intelligence range. Scores from 110 to 119 are considered High Average. Superior scores range
from 120 to 129 and anything over 130 is considered Very Superior.
To calculate IQ, the student’s mental age is divided by his or her actual (or chronological)
age, and this result is multiplied by 100. If your mental age is equal to your chronological age,
you will have an IQ of 100, or average. If, however, your mental age is, say, 12, but your
Extremes of Intelligence
IQ scores are normally distributed (Moore et al., 2013). That is, 95% of the population
has IQ scores between 70 and 130. But what about the other 5%?
Individuals who fall outside this range represent the extremes of intelligence.
Those who have an IQ above 130 are gifted (Lally & French, 2018), such as Christopher
Langan, an American horse rancher, who has an IQ score around 200 (Gladwell, 2008).
marked by substantial developmental delays, including motor, cognitive, and speech delaySome
Down syndrome, for example, resulting from extra genetic material from or a complete extra
copy of the 21st chromosome, is a common genetic cause of an intellectual disability (Breslin,
2014). As such, many individuals with down syndrome have below average IQ scores (Breslin,
2014).
significant mental disabilities, these individuals demonstrate certain abilities in some fields that
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are far above average, such as incredible memorization, rapid mathematical or calendar
The fact that these individuals who may be lacking in certain areas such as social
interaction and communication make up for it in other remarkable areas, further illustrates the
complexity of intelligence and what this concept means today, as well as how we must consider
all individuals when determining how to perceive, measure, and recognize intelligence in our
society.
Creativity
What is creativity
Creativity encompasses the ability to discover new and original ideas, connections, and
solutions to problems. It is a part of our drive as humans—fostering resilience, sparking joy, and
An act of creativity can be grand and inspiring, such as crafting a beautiful painting or
designing an innovative company. But an idea need not be artistic or world-changing to count as
creative. Life requires daily acts of ingenuity and novel workarounds; in this sense, everyone
Sources of Creativity
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There are many pieces to the puzzle of creativity, including a balance between controlled,
deliberate thought and spontaneous play and imagination. Personality plays a role, as well as
But everyone possesses some measure of creativity, even if they do not realize it. Life is
full of small moments that require the latest ideas or surprising solutions. A choice that you do
not think twice about—how you cook a fried egg or the route you take to work—someone else
Creative people embody complexity; they show tendencies of thought and action that are
They balance intense energy with quiet rest, playfulness with discipline, fantasy with reality, and
current ideas and experiences. People who are low in openness prefer routines and familiarity,
while those who are high in openness revel in novelty, whether that is meeting new people,
experiences and perspectives can help the brain forge creative new connections. other
characteristics that are linked to creativity include curiosity, positivity, energy, persistence, and
intrinsic motivation.
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Many people feel that they have no or extremely limited creative ability—even some who work
in creative fields—and it is true that certain individuals are more creative than others.
Fortunately, however, creativity can be acquired and honed at any age or experience level.
Innovation is not some divine gift; it is the skilled application of knowledge in new and exciting
ways. It requires changing your normal routine, stepping outside of typical comfort zones, and
distraction—is another way of allowing the unconscious mind to process the data in novel and
surprising ways. This often lays the groundwork for a creative insight or breakthrough.
Various lines of research have converged around common insights that provide steps to be more
creative:
1. Aim for output: Creative geniuses often produce their best works at their times of
greatest output. Some pieces may miss the mark, but the quantity of output makes it likely that
2. Be willing to go deep: In the realm of artistic creativity, pioneers often spend time in
solitude, feel emotions and sensations deeply, and aren’t afraid to self-reflect.
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3. Be open and playful: The personality trait most tied to creativity is Openness to
4. Capture your ideas: Remember to record thoughts as they arise so they aren't forgotten.
Creative thinking involves making new connections between different ideas, which is
accomplished by cultivating divergent thinking skills and deliberately exposing yourself to new
experiences and to learning. While research psychologists are interested in tapping innovative
Three key networks operate as a team to spark creativity in the brain, research suggests. The
default mode network helps generate ideas, the executive control network evaluates them and
propels them forward, and the salience network identifies which ideas are relevant and
important. These networks may also influence one another via other feedback loops; for instance,
the executive control network might tune the way the salience network scans internally,
From Vincent van Gogh to Sylvia Plath and Winston Churchill, individuals with mental
illness have unleashed intellectual and artistic genius throughout history. The connection has
fascinated psychologists and everyday individuals alike. What biological theories might explain
the overlap? And what evolutionary advantages might these individuals possess?
Mental illness
are disproportionately diagnosed in highly creative individuals (they've been most often
But this connection can be confounded by the degree of giftedness at play. While creative
types are more mentally stable than are non-creatives, the correlation reverses in the presence of
psychologist Dean Keith Simonton. He dubs this concept the "Mad Genius Paradox."
An inability to filter out irrelevant information is a hallmark of both creative ideation and
disordered thought. The state, known as reduced latent inhibition, allows more information to
reach awareness, which can in turn foster associations between unrelated concepts. The barrage
accounts for both the nonsensical ideas seen in psychosis and for novel thinking.
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One hypothesis for the mystery between genius and mental illness is rooted in the
diametric theory, an idea put forth by sociologist Christopher Badcock and evolutionary biologist
Bernard Crespi to explain how autism and schizophrenia are poles on one cognitive continuum.
(In this theory, paternal gene expression pushes towards mechanistic thinking—autism at its
most extreme—and maternal genes produce mentalizing traits—psychosis at its most extreme.)
The theory makes a key prediction—that epoch-making mind, including John Nash's and
Isaac Newton's, exhibit both hyper mechanistic and hyper mentalizing extremes. These men were
both autistic and schizophrenic—double outliers. True genius in some realms, especially
Dark Creativity
Creativity is typically seen as a socially beneficial trait. But some people use their
“malevolent creativity.”
A fraud artist who devises a novel or foolproof scheme for luring his victims is exercising
creativity. But as it is being deployed to harm others and enrich himself, most observers would
In recent years, researchers have sought a greater understanding of how darkness and
creativity interrelate. Some studies have found that creativity is associated with narcissism;
others have identified a link between higher creativity and reduced honesty and humility. In one
Creativity may be better conceived as neither inherently positive nor inherently negative.
Instead, it may be best to assess motivations and outcomes when judging the value of any
creative act.
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Ruhl, C. (2020, July 16). Intelligence: definition, theories, and testing. Simply
Psychology. www.simplypsychology.org/intelligence.html