TOPIC: EAST ASIAN ARCHITECTURE (PART 2)

ANCIENT KOREA

BACKGROUND

Evidences of human habitation in the Korean Peninsula and Manchuria began roughly half a million
years ago. The earliest known Korean pottery dates to around 8000 BC, and the Neolithic period
began after 6000 BC, followed by the Bronze by 2000 BC and the Iron Age around 700 BC. The
Paleolithic people are not the direct ancestors of the present Korean (Chosun) people, but their
direct ancestors are estimated to be the Neolithic People of about 2000 BC.

History and Culture

The first recognizable political state was Gojoseon, which existed in the second half of the first
millennium BC. According to the mythic accounts in the Samgyuk yusa (Memorabilia of the Three
Kingdoms), the Gojoseon (Old Joseon) kingdom was founded in northern Korea and southern
Machuria in 2333 BC. The Gija Joseon State was purportedly founded in 12th century BC. The first
written historical record on Gojoseon can be found from the early 7th century BC. The Jin State
formed in southern Korea by the 3rd century BC. In the 2nd century BC, Gija Joseon was replaced
by Wiman Joseon, which fell to the Han dynasty of near the end of the century. This resulted in the
fall of Gojoseon and led to succeeding warring states, the Proto-Three Kingdoms period that
spanned the later Iron Age.
RELIGION

By the end of the 7th century, the Silla dynasty (668–935),

which had initiated the introduction of Buddhism into Korea,
controlled most of the Korean Peninsula. It defeated the Kaya
Federation in 562, and thanks to an alliance with the Chinese
T’ang court, it also succeeded in conquering the kingdoms of
Paekche in 660 and Koguryo in 668, thereby unifying Korea for
the first time under a single kingdom, with its capital at Kyongju.
Even after the Chinese troops had withdrawn into Manchuria,
the Silla maintained close ties with T’ang China through trade
and diplomatic exchanges.

ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES

The best surviving remains of Korean architecture from the

period prior to recorded history are megalithic structures,
fortification walls, and stone-lined tombs. Outstanding examples
of ancient Korean dolmens are the table-type structures on
Ganghwa Island which date to c. 1000 BC in the Korean Bronze
Age. Single standing stones (menhirs), unrelated to a burial
context and perhaps used as marker stones, are also found
across Korea.
 Table Dolmen in Ganghwa, Korea
Source: Ancient History Encyclopedia, image by Hairwizard91
Unfortunately, there are few surviving public buildings from ancient Korea prior to the 16th century.
The architecture of ancient Korea is, then, best seen in tomb paintings and those structures which
do still stand such as the stone pagoda of the Baekje Mireuksa temple at Iksan which has six of its
original 7-9 storeys. Stone pagodas are Korea’s unique contribution to Buddhist architecture with
two other fine examples being the Dabotap and Seokgatap pagodas at the 8th century Bulguksa
temple near Gyeongju.

Korea is a peninsula on the north-east seaboard of Asia. It borders Manchuria and the Soviet Union
to the north along the Yalu and Tumen rivers, China to the west across the Yellow Sea, and Japan
to the east and south across the East China Sea and Korea Straits.

Due to its geographical location, Korea has always been of great strategic importance. It had
frequent cultural exchanges with China by both land and sea routes, and when routes were
opened from Korea to the Tsushima and Kyushu regions of Japan. they served as a cultural
channel between China and Japan. Japan thus received Chinese culture by way of Korea.

About two-thirds of Korea is mountainous and mainly granitic. The southern regions is alluvial and
provides fertile lands for agriculture. The mountains are rugged and the rivers are clear. The
climate is temperate, but tends towards continental characteristics. There are four distinct
seasons, of which summer and winter are the longest, the former a monsoon-induced rainy
season. There is a considerable difference in temperature between the seasons.
No wooden structures survive from the period when Korea was divided into three kingdoms (Koguryo,
Paekche and Shilla), only a few stone buildings, including two pagodas of Paekche and one Shilla
construction; also from the latter kingdom is the Ch’omsongdae, an astronomical observatory.

Timber Buildings

Short struts with bearing blocks or inverted V-shaped trusses were fitted on beams and purlins
to sustain the framework of hipped or gabled roofs. Most of the houses depicted in the murals
have tiled roofs. In all probability the architecture of Koguryo was influenced by that of the later
Han (25 – 219) and of the Northern Wei (386-534) dynasties of China.

Stone Buildings

The Miruksa Pagoda, the earliest known example in stone, is believed to have had seven or
nine storeys though only parts of six now remain. Each component was hewn from a separate
stone and fined as though made of timber. The pagoda of Chongnimsa emerged in the process
of improving the constructional technique of the Miruksa Pagoda which had proved
unsatisfactory. It became the prototype for the future Paekche pagodas with its ideal combination
of a simple two-tiered foundation and an elegant five-storey main body.
Ch'omsongdae Observatory (Shilla, seventh century)
Image source: Theculturetrip.com
 Ssangbongsa Ch'olgam Stupa (Shilla,
Pulguksa, Tabot'ap Pagoda (left) and Sokkat'ap
Pagoda (right), (Shilla, eight century) Image ninth century)
source: Korea.net Image source: Picuki.com
Pusoksa Muryangsujon (Koryo, thirteenth century) Image
source: Ancient History Encyclopedia
 Wolchongsa Pagoda (Koryo, 11th C) Image Pulguksa, Hongbop Stupa (Koryo, 11th C) Image
source: dragon5.com source: Cruickshank, 2011

With the flourishing of Buddhism during the Koryo period, a great number of elaborate stupas were built.
The predominant type was octagonal but bell-shaped stupas began to appear towards the end of the
period, rich sculptural embellishment appeared on the body of octagonal stupas, and the size of the
roofstone was reduced. The stupa that enshrines the remains of High Priest Chongjin in Pongamsa
Temple, Mun-gyong, Kyongsangbuk-do, is noted for the bold carving of a dragon and tortoise motif on
its pedestal.
Figure 65 Pongjongsa Temple, Andong (Choson, 13th - 14th century)
Image source: Mayokorea.com
Figure 66 Ch'anggyonggung Myongjongjon Hall (Choson, fifteenth century)
Image source: Wikimedia Commons
Figure 67 Namdaemun (South Gate), (Choson, fifteenth century)
Photo by Joan Cane
ANCIENT TO PRE-MODERN JAPAN

BACKGROUND

Ancient Japan has made unique contributions to world culture which include the Shinto religion and its
architecture, distinctive art objects such as haniwa figurines, the oldest pottery vessels in the world, the
largest wooden buildings anywhere at their time of construction, and many literary classics including the
world’s first novel. Although Japan was significantly influenced by China and Korea, the islands were
never subject to foreign political control and so were free to select those ideas which appealed to them,
adapt them how they wished, and to continue with their indigenous cultural practices to create a unique
approach to government, religion, and the arts. (Ancient History Encyclopedia)

Japan was inhabited by indigenous tribes as far back as 50,000 BC. The Paleolithic Age of Japan ended
around 12,000 BC with the end of the ice age.

Figure 68 Japanese history timeline

Image source: Ancient Japan.
Retrieved from https://www.cadavies.com/ancient-japan.html
ARCHITECTURAL INFLUENCES

Chinese influences has been introduced to Japanese architecture, by way of Korea, although there
are many differences between the two. Whereas the exposed wood in Chinese buildings is painted, in
Japanese buildings, traditionally it has not been. Also, Chinese architecture was based on a lifestyle
that included the use of chairs, while in Japan people customarily sat on the floor (a custom that
began to change in the Meiji period [1868–1912]).

CLIMATE

Japan is composed of a chain of islands considerably further from the east coast of Asia than is
Britain from the European mainland. The four main islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and
Kyushu run from north-east to south- west in that order and innumerable tiny islands add variety to
their coastlines. The much smaller southernmost Ryukyu islands include Okinawa. The Sea of
Okhotsk is to the north-east and then moving counterclockwise, the Sea of Japan and the East China
Sea and the Pacific Ocean. The Tsushima and Korea Straits form a relatively narrow channel with
islands like stepping stones linking northern Kyushu and South Korea.

Volcanic eruptions are common in Japan and relate to the continuing crustal instability. The rugged
mountain terrain which accounts for over two-thirds of the land mass contains many deep gorges cut
by swiftly flowing rivers. Narrow plains along the river bank accommodate rich paddies, and terraced
hillside nurture various other crops. There are a few broad plains such as those of the Kanto and
Niigata regions.
 Shinto Architecture

Shinto shrines are the crystallization of the Japanese homage to tradition. They contribute to the
landscape as opposed to architecture in the normal sense, and reflect the worship of the spirits of the
environment whose vagaries, it was believed, determined the quality and quantity of the crops.

The introduction of agriculture to Japan, from about the third century BC, encouraged the
establishment of permanent villages in which festivals were held at certain times of the year, to
express thanks for good crops and to pray for rain and good harvest in the future.

At first the sacred site was probably distinguished by a simple surrounding fence (tamagaki) and an
entrance gate (torii) – the first architectural elements to be employed. As the festivals developed, the
deities symbolizing natural forces were given physical form, such as a wooden column at the center of
the festival place.

The ‘torii’ is the entrance gate of a shrine precinct, and consists primarily of two pillars and horizontal
beams. Both of the pillars and two horizontal beams. Both of the pillars are usually embedded directly
in the earth. Shimmei torri (those of the Ise Shrine, for example) are the simplest form, and the
Myojin torii (those of the Kamo Shrine, for example) has double lintels curved to resemble the eaves
of temple architecture.
Figure 69 Torii, the entrance gate of a shrine precinct
Image source: Cruickshank, 2011
Ise Inner Shrine, Main Shrine, Ujiyamada Izumo Shrine, Main Shrine, Shimane Prefecture
City Image source: Wikimedia Commons Image source: Britannica.com
Sumiyoshi Shrine, Osaka Image Kibitsu Shrine, Okayama Prefecture (1425) Image
source: Japan Guide source: Japan Travel
Horyuji kondo (late seventh century) Image
source: Japan Visitor
Yakushiji three-storeyed pagoda (early eighth century) Image
source: Wikimedia Commons
Toshodaiji kondo (mid-eighteenth century) Image
source: Japan Visitor
Kongorinji hondo, model cross-section Image
source: Cruickshank, 2011
Figure 78 Todaiji, Great south gate detail (1199)
Image source: Cruickshank, 2011
Figure 79 Todaiji Belfry (1207 - 11)
Image source: Cruickshank, 2011
Figure 80 Kakurinji hondo, front view (1397)
Image source: flickriver.com
 The Karamon gate of Hogonji temple in Nagahama, Shiga
Prefecture, on May 30 after repair work was completed (Sayuri Ide) Photo
from Jiro Tutsui article, http://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/1342404
Kiyomizudera hondo (1633) Image
source: Wikimedia Commons
Shishinden, Imperial Palace, Kyoto (rebuilt 1855). An example of a building in Shinden style.
Photo by Jonathan Tappan
Daisen'in Hojo, interior (1513) Image Myokian tea ceremony room, Kyoto,
source: Cruickshank, 2011 interior (c. 1582)
Image source: Cruickshank, 2011
 Himeji Castle, Himeji City (1608 - 9) Image
source: UNESCO World Heritage Centre
Nijo Castle: Ni-no-maru residence, Kyoto (1603) Image
source: Japan Experience
 Figure 88Yoshijima House, Takayama City, plan (1907)
Figure 89 Yoshiyama House, cross section Image source: Cruickshank, 2011
Image source: Cruickshank, 2011