History of Islamic Art and Architecture (650-1250)

The Chronology the Islamic Dynasties

Instructor: M. Tarek Swelim, Ph.D.
Student: Aymen Aiblu

 Umayyad caliphate, 661 –750.

 The Umayyad of Al-Andalus, 756 – 1032.
 Abbasid caliphate, 750 –1258.
 Samanids, 819 –1005.
 Seljuk Dynasty 1040 – 1307.
 Almoravids and Almohads, about 1062–1147; 1130–1269.
 Mamluk Sultanate, 1250 – 1517.
 Ottoman empire, 1299–1923.
The Umayyad Caliphate (661–750)
Greater Iran, the Arabian Peninsula, Egypt, the Maghrib, Andalusia, and the Levant

The Umayyad Caliphate was the second of the four major caliphates established after the death of
Muhammad. The caliphate was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty (Sons of Umayyah). The third caliph of
the Rashidun Caliphate, Uthman ibn Affan (r. 644–656), was also a member of the Umayyad clan. The
family established dynastic, hereditary rule with Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan, long-time governor of al-
Sham (Greater Syria), who became the sixth caliph after the end of the First Fitna in 661. After
Mu'awiyah's death in 680, conflicts over the succession resulted in the Second Fitna, and power
eventually fell into the hands of Marwan I from another branch of the clan. The region of Syria remained
the Umayyads' main power base thereafter, and Damascus was their capital.

The Umayyads continued the Muslim conquests, incorporating the Transoxiana, Sindh, the Maghreb
and the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) into the Muslim world. At its greatest extent, the Umayyad Caliphate covered 11,100,000 km2 (4,300,000
sq mi), making it one of the largest empires in history in terms of area. The dynasty in most of the Islamic world was eventually overthrown by a
rebellion led by the Abbasids in 750. Survivors of the dynasty established themselves in Cordoba which, in the form of an emirate and then a
caliphate, became a world centre of science, medicine, philosophy and invention during the Golden Age of Islam.

The Umayyad Caliphate ruled over a vast multiethnic and multicultural population. Christians, who still constituted a majority of the caliphate's
population, and Jews were allowed to practice their own religion but had to pay a head tax (the jizya). There was, however, the Muslim zakat tax,
which was earmarked explicitly for various welfare programmes for the benefit of Muslims or Muslim converts only. Prominent positions were
held by Christians, some of whom belonged to families that had served in Byzantine governments. The employment of Christians was part of a
broader policy of religious accommodation that was necessitated by the presence of large Christian populations in the conquered provinces, as in
Syria. This policy also boosted Muawiya's popularity and solidified Syria as his power base. The Umayyad era is often considered the formative
period in Islamic art.
The Umayyad of Al-Andalus (756 – 1032)
Andalusia and the Maghrib

At the beginning of the 8th century, the Arab-Berber forces reached the lands bordering
what they called the “Surrounding Ocean” (the Atlantic) and killed the last Visigoth king
of Hispania on the battlefield. A new page had turned in the history of the Iberian
Peninsula, which from this moment would be re-named al-Andalus. What was one of the
last provinces to be annexed by the Damascus caliphate, would over the following
centuries become the most powerful state of the western Mediterranean, capable of
successively facing up to the Carolingians and the Fatimids as well as keeping up
privileged diplomatic relations with Byzantium. The Umayyad family must have found it
hard to imagine that this far off land was to become their final refuge after they had been
wiped out in the Orient. The Abbasid revolution in 750 had put a brutal end to the dynasty
through the massacre of its principal members. One of the survivors ‘Abd al-Rahman b.
Mu’awiya, the grandson of caliph Hisham b. al-Malik managed to establish himself as the
emir of al-Anadalus after a long odyssey involving many alliances and an equal number
of conflicts. From this moment, al-Andalus would no longer be under the control of
Abbasid caliphate recently come to power in Iraq.
The first centuries of Umayyad power on the peninsula were marked by numerous revolts, bringing into question the legitimacy of their rule. This
cumulated in the second half of the 9th century (879 – 880) with a period of anarchy (fitna). The Islamic state of al-Andalus was finally consolidated
when Abd al-Rahman III adopted the title of caliph. More than a simple declaration of prestige aimed at Baghdad, this constituted a political
weapon with which they could confront the Shiite, Fatimid caliphs, who had been the rulers of Ifriqiya (today’s Tunisia) since the beginning of the
10th century. This new regime, known as the caliphate of Cordoba, experienced its years of greatest splendour under the reign of al-Raman II and
his son al-Hakim II. In 976 however, a chamberlain named al-Mansur snatched power, imposed a military government and set about creating his
own dynasty. The situation worsened and in 1009 civil war broke out involving the Berbers, Arabs and Christian mercenaries. The caliphate was
eventually abolished in 1031 but al-Andalus was broken up into numerous principalities led by local warlords (muluk al-tawa’if).
Throughout this period the capital and seat of government was Cordoba (Qurtuba), an ancient Roman town, set in the middle of fertile plains
irrigated by the Guadalquivir. The city soon expanded beyond the walled madina, where the principal administrative and religious institutions were
situated (the great mosque, the residences of the emirs, the souks etc) as well as public services (the bathhouse, the funduk) and private residences
and a score of densely populated, partially planned suburbs sprouted up. At its zenith in the 10th century, Cordoba was the political, economic and
cultural centre of al-Andalus as well as being the largest city in Western Europe. It was known as “the mother of all towns” and was admired by
Muslims and Christians alike.
Qurtuba was both a model and an exception on the landscape of al-Andalus. On one hand it acted as a framework for the introduction of elements
of the new religion: the mosque, the bathhouse… On the other, it acted as a centre for administrative, fiscal and military institutions as well as
centralizing commercial activity and thus necessitating the creation or re-activation of distribution networks to compliment the establishment of a
unique centralized monetary system. This period of economic success was subject to fluctuation however, especially during the caliphate. This was
due to a series of natural disasters as well as political instability and is illustrated by the irregular minting of coins and money.
The city’s status as an ideological centre linked directly to the ruling power made it an exceptional case. During this period, both architecturally
and artistically, Cordoba played heavily on ostentation as an integral part of the dynasty’s propaganda policies. The most obvious examples of this
are the Great Mosque and the Madinat al-Zahra palace, whose splendour and size were equalled by the human and material investment in its
construction.
The Great Mosque was founded in 786 by ‘Abd al-Rahmân I to replace the existing primitive house of worship that in part occupied a former
church. His successors continued to enlarge it over the years partially to welcome an expanding population but also through their desire for prestige.
From the very first phase of its construction, this edifice was a combination of Oriental and local as well as traditional and innovative elements. Its
hypostyle prayer room with its naves perpendicular to the qibla wall differs from the tradition by the addition of superimposed arcades combining
semi-circular and horseshoe arches, a precedent which would be respected during later modifications. The sumptuous décor of epigraphical and
floral motifs on a gold background decorating the tiles of the mihrab date from the reign of al-Hakam II and for which he employed the skills of
Byzantine craftsmen. It is the culmination of a hierarchical layout involving materials salvaged from elsewhere and the playful use of polychromes
and volumes.
This technique of manipulating space and architectural ornamentation can be seen at its best in the Madinat al-Zahra (Literally “the shining palace”),
where it is perfectly integrated into this palatial complex designed to underline the power of the Umeyyad state. Its construction was begun on the
orders of Abd al-Rahman III between 936 – 940. It required heavy investment in transportation routes, a hydraulic system and quarries for the
stone. It has an area of 112 hectares within its walls, which reach as far the buttresses of the Sierra Morena, 8 km to the west of Cordoba. It is
divides into three terraces occupied by gardens private residences and military quarters. The topography, which was designed as an integral element
of the “staging” of the complex, adds enormously to the originality of this small town, conceived to house the administrative services of the state.
The reception room (the salon rico) is a concentration of the symbolism of the complex based on the tree of life and the decorative palm leaf.
The smaller art objects also include elements of the caliphal ideology: ivory chests and pyxides destined for members of the caliph’s close personal
circle are decorated with great refinement and complexity and include distinctive signs of sovereignty. Even more explicit, is the epigraphic message
that decorates the distinctive green pottery: al-muluk (power), which was the general motto of the Ummeyad of al-Andalus.
Abbasid Caliphate, 750–1258.
the Arabian Peninsula, Greater Iran, Egypt, the Levant, the Maghrib, and parts of Central Asia

The Abbasid Caliphate was the third caliphate to succeed the Islamic prophet
Muhammad. It was founded by a dynasty descended from Muhammad's uncle,
Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib (566–653 CE), from whom the dynasty takes its
name. They ruled as caliphs for most of the caliphate from their capital in
Baghdad in modern-day Iraq, after having overthrown the Umayyad Caliphate
in the Abbasid Revolution of 750 CE (132 AH). The Abbasid Caliphate first
centered its government in Kufa, modern-day Iraq, but in 762 the caliph Al-
Mansur founded the city of Baghdad, near the ancient Sasanian capital city of
Ctesiphon. Baghdad became a center of science, culture, philosophy and
invention in what became known as the Golden Age of Islam.

The Abbasid period was marked by reliance on Persian bureaucrats (notably

the Barmakid family) for governing the territories as well as an increasing
inclusion of non-Arab Muslims in the ummah (national community). Persian
customs were broadly adopted by the ruling elite, and they began patronage of artists and scholars. Despite this initial cooperation, the Abbasids
of the late 8th century had alienated both non-Arab mawali (clients) and Persian bureaucrats. They were forced to cede authority over al-Andalus
(current Spain and Portugal) to the Umayyads in 756, Morocco to the Idrisids in 788, Ifriqiya and Sicily to the Aghlabids in 800, Khorasan and
Transoxiana to the Samanids and Persia to the Saffarids in the 870s, and Egypt to the Isma'ili-Shia caliphate of the Fatimids in 969.

The political power of the caliphs was limited with the rise of the Iranian Buyids and the Seljuq Turks, who captured Baghdad in 945 and 1055,
respectively. Although Abbasid leadership over the vast Islamic empire was gradually reduced to a ceremonial religious function in much of the
Caliphate, the dynasty retained control of its Mesopotamian domain during the rule of Caliph Al-Muqtafi and extended into Iran during the reign
of Caliph Al-Nasir. The Abbasids age of cultural revival and fruition ended in 1258 with the sack of Baghdad by the Mongols under Hulagu Khan
and the execution of Al-Musta'sim. The Abbasid line of rulers, and Muslim culture in general, re-centred themselves in the Mamluk capital of Cairo
in 1261. Though lacking in political power (with the brief exception of Caliph Al-Musta'im of Cairo), the dynasty continued to claim religious
authority for a few years after the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517.
Samanids, 819–1005
Greater Iran and parts of Central Asia

The Samanid Empire was a Sunni Iranian empire from 819 to 1005. The
empire was centred in Khorasan and Transoxiana; at its greatest extent
encompassing modern-day Afghanistan, large parts of Iran, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and parts of Kazakhstan and Pakistan.

Four brothers—Nuh, Ahmad, Yahya, and Ilyas—founded the Samanid state.

Each of them ruled territory under Abbasid suzerainty. In 892, Ismail Samani
(892–907) united the Samanid state under one ruler, thus effectively putting
an end to the feudal system used by the Samanids. It was also under him that
the Samanids became independent of Abbasid authority.

The Samanid Empire is part of the Iranian Intermezzo, which saw the creation
of a Persianate culture and identity that brought Iranian speech and traditions into the fold of the Islamic world. This later contributed to the
formation of the Turko-Persian culture.

The Samanids promoted the arts, giving rise to the advancement of science and literature, and thus attracted scholars such as Rudaki, Ferdowsi,
and Avicenna. While under Samanid control, Bukhara was a rival to Baghdad in its glory. Scholars note that the Samanids revived Persian language
and culture more than the Buyids and the Saffarids while continuing to patronize Arabic for sciences as well as the religious studies. They
considered themselves to be descendants of the Sasanian Empire. In a famous edict, Samanid authorities declared that "here, in this region, the
language is Persian, and the kings of this realm are Persian kings."
Seljuk Dynasty 1040– 1307
vast area stretching from the Hindu Kush mountains to eastern Anatolia
and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf

The Seljuk dynasty, or Seljuks was an Oghuz Turkic Sunni Muslim dynasty that
gradually became Persianate and contributed to the Turco-Persian tradition in
the medieval Middle East and Central Asia. The Seljuks established both the
Seljuk Empire and the Sultanate of Rum, which at their heights stretched from
Iran to Anatolia, and were targets of the First Crusade.

When Seljuk, the leader of the Seljuk clan, had a falling out with Yabghu, the
supreme chieftain of the Oghuz, he split his clan off from the bulk of the Oghuz
Turks and set up camp on the west bank of the lower Syr Darya. Around 985,
Seljuk converted to Islam. In the 11th century the Seljuks migrated from their ancestral homelands into mainland Persia, in the province of
Khurasan, where they encountered the Ghaznavid empire. The Seljuks defeated the Ghaznavids at the Battle of Nasa plains in 1035. Tughril,
Chaghri, and Yabghu received the insignias of governor, grants of land, and were given the title of dehqan. At the Battle of Dandanaqan they
defeated a Ghaznavid army, and after a successful siege of Isfahan by Tughril in 1050/51, they established an empire later called the Great Seljuk
Empire. The Seljuks mixed with the local population and adopted the Persian culture and Persian language in the following decades

After arriving in Persia, the Seljuks adopted the Persian culture and used the Persian language as the official language of the government, and
played an important role in the development of the Turko-Persian tradition which features "Persian culture patronized by Turkic rulers". Today,
they are remembered as great patrons of Persian culture, art, literature, and language. They are regarded as the ancestors of the Western Turks –
the present-day inhabitants of the Republic of Azerbaijan (historically known as Shirvan and Arran), Azerbaijan (historic Azerbaijan, also known
as Iranian Azerbaijan), Turkmenistan, and Turkey.
Almoravids and Almohads, about 1062–1147; 1130–1269
The Maghrib and Andalusia

The Almoravid dynasty was an imperial Berber

Muslim dynasty centered in Morocco. It established
an empire in the 11th century that stretched over the
western Maghreb and Al-Andalus. Founded by Abu
Bakr ibn Umar, the Almoravid capital was
Marrakesh, a city the ruling house founded circa
1070. The dynasty originated among the Lamtuna
and the Gudala, nomadic Berber tribes of the
Western Sahara, traversing the territory between the
Draa, the Niger, and the Senegal rivers.

The Almoravids were crucial in preventing the fall

of Al-Andalus to the Iberian Christian kingdoms,
when they decisively defeated a coalition of the
The Almoravid empire at its greatest extent The Almohad empire at its greatest extent
Castilian and Aragonese armies at the Battle of
Sagrajas in 1086. This enabled them to control an
empire that stretched 3,000 kilometers (1,900 mi) north to south. Their rulers never claimed the title of caliph and instead took on the title of Amir
al-Muslimīn ("Prince of the Muslims") while formally acknowledging the overlordship of the Abbasid Caliphs in Baghdad. However, the rule of
the dynasty was relatively short-lived. The Almoravids fell—at the height of their power—when they failed to stop the Masmuda-led rebellion
initiated by Ibn Tumart. As a result, their last king Ishaq ibn Ali was killed in Marrakesh in April 1147 by the Almohad Caliphate, which replaced
them as a ruling dynasty both in Morocco and Al-Andalus.

Almohads, Arabic al-Muwaḥḥidūn (“those who affirm the unity of God”), Berber confederation that created an Islamic empire in North Africa and
Spain (1130–1269), founded on the religious teachings of Ibn Tūmart (died 1130).
A Berber state had arisen in Tinmel in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco about 1120, inspired by Ibn Tūmart and his demands for puritanical moral
reform and a strict concept of the unity of God (tawḥīd). In 1121 Ibn Tūmart proclaimed himself the mahdī (a promised messianic figure), and, as
spiritual and military leader, began the wars against the Almoravids. Under his successor, ʿAbd al-Muʾmin, the Almohads brought down the
Almoravid state in 1147, subjugating the Maghrib, and captured Marrakech, which became the Almohad capital. Almoravid domains in Andalusia,
however, were left virtually intact until the caliph Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf (reigned 1163–84) forced the surrender of Sevilla (Seville) in 1172; the
extension of Almohad rule over the rest of Islamic Spain followed. During the reign of Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb al-Manṣūr (1184–99) serious Arab
rebellions devastated the eastern provinces of the empire, whereas in Spain the Christian threat remained constant, despite al-Manṣūr’s victory at
Alarcos (1195). Then, at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa (1212), the Almohads were dealt a shattering defeat by a Christian coalition from Leon,
Castile, Navarre, and Aragon. They retreated to their North African provinces, where soon afterward the Ḥafṣids seized power at Tunis (1236), the
ʿAbd al-Wādids took Tilimsān (Tlemcen; 1239), and, finally, Marrakech fell to the Marīnids (1269).

The empire of the Almohads had kept its original tribal hierarchy as a political and social framework, with the founders and their descendants
forming a ruling aristocracy; however, a Spanish form of central government was superimposed on this Berber organization. The original puritanical
outlook of Ibn Tūmart was soon lost, and the precedent for building costly Andalusian monuments of rich ornamentation, in the manner of the
Almoravids, was set as early as Ibn Tūmart’s successor ʿAbd al-Muʾmin. The Booksellers’ Mosque (Kutubiyyah) in Marrakech and the older parts
of the mosque of Taza date from his reign. Neither did the movement for a return to traditionalist Islam survive; both the mystical movement of
the Sufis and the philosophical schools represented by Ibn Ṭufayl and Averroës (Ibn Rushd) flourished under the Almohad kings.

Rabat, an important cultural centre during the Almohad period, was known particularly for its polychrome pottery. The wares are colourful, usually
painted in yellows, greens, and bright blues on a buff background. Almohad pottery wares, however, never reached the artistic level of the work
from Syria, Egypt, and Persia, and most are considered products of “folk” rather than “fine” art.
Mamluk Sultanate, 1250 – 1517
Egypt, parts of the Arabian Peninsula, and the Levant

The Mamluk Sultanate was a medieval realm spanning Egypt, the Levant and
Hejaz that established itself as a caliphate. It lasted from the overthrow of the
Ayyubid dynasty until the Ottoman conquest of Egypt in 1517. Historians have
traditionally broken the era of Mamluk rule into two periods, one covering 1250–
1382 (the "Baḥrī" period) and the other 1382–1517 (the "Burjī" period), named
after the ruling dynasties of the respective eras. Modern sources also refer to the
same divisions as the "Turkish" and "Circassian" periods to stress the change in
the ethnic origins of most Mamluks.

The term "Mamluk Sultanate" is a modern historiographical term. The sultanate's

ruling caste was composed of Mamluks, soldiers predominantly of Cuman-
Kipchaks (from Crimea), Circassian, Abkhazian, Oghuz Turks, Albanian,
Slavic, Greek, Armenian and Georgian slave origin. While Mamluks were
purchased, their status was above that of ordinary slaves, who were not allowed
to carry weapons or perform certain tasks. Mamluks were considered to be "true
lords", with social status above citizens of Egypt. Though it declined towards the end of its existence, at its height the sultanate represented the
zenith of medieval Egyptian and Levantine political, economic, and cultural glory in the Islamic Golden Age.
Ottoman Empire, 1299–1923
Anatolia; parts of the Balkan Peninsula and eastern Europe;
parts of the Maghrib (excluding Morocco), the Levant, and
the Arabian Peninsula; and Egypt

The Ottoman Empire was a state that controlled much of

Southeastern Europe, Western Asia, and Northern Africa
between the 14th and early 20th centuries. It was founded at the
end of the 13th century in northwestern Anatolia in the town of
Söğüt (modern-day Bilecik Province) by the Turkoman tribal
leader Osman I. After 1354, the Ottomans crossed into Europe
and with the conquest of the Balkans, the Ottoman beylik was
transformed into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended
the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in
1453 by Mehmed the Conqueror.

Under the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman

Empire marked the peak of its power and prosperity as well as
the highest development of its government, social, and
economic systems. At the beginning of the 17th century, the empire contained 32 provinces and numerous vassal states. Some of these were later
absorbed into the Ottoman Empire, while others were granted various types of autonomy over the course of centuries.

With Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as its capital and control of lands around the Mediterranean Basin, the Ottoman Empire was at the
centre of interactions between the Eastern and Western worlds for six centuries. While the empire was once thought to have entered a period of
decline following the death of Suleiman the Magnificent, this view is no longer supported by the majority of academic historians. The empire
continued to maintain a flexible and strong economy, society and military throughout the 17th and for much of the 18th century. However, during
a long period of peace from 1740 to 1768, the Ottoman military system fell behind that of their European rivals, the Habsburg and Russian empires.
The Ottomans consequently suffered severe military defeats in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. The successful Greek War of Independence
concluded with decolonization following the London Protocol (1830) and Treaty of Constantinople (1832). This and other defeats prompted them
to initiate a comprehensive process of reform and modernisation known as the Tanzimat. Thus, over the course of the 19th century, the Ottoman
state became vastly more powerful and organised, despite suffering further territorial losses, especially in the Balkans, where a number of new
states emerged.

The Committee of Union and Progress (CUP) established the Second Constitutional Era in the Young Turk Revolution in 1908, turning the Empire
into a constitutional monarchy which conducted competitive multi-party elections. A few years later, the now radicalized and nationalistic Union
and Progress Party took over the government in the 1913 coup d'état, creating a one party regime. The CUP allied the Empire with Germany hoping
to escape from the diplomatic isolation which had contributed to its recent territorial losses, and thus joined World War I on the side of the Central
Powers. While the Empire was able to largely hold its own during the conflict, it was struggling with internal dissent, especially with the Arab
Revolt in its Arabian holdings. The Empire's defeat and the occupation of part of its territory by the Allied Powers in the aftermath of World War
I resulted in its partitioning and the loss of its Middle Eastern territories, which were divided between the United Kingdom and France. The
successful Turkish War of Independence led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk against the occupying Allies led to the emergence of the Republic of
Turkey in the Anatolian heartland and the abolition of the Ottoman monarchy.
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