Nickel

Nickel is an essential element for at least several animal species. These

animal studies associate nickel deprivation with depressed growth,
reduced reproductive rates, and alterations of serum lipids and glucose.
Although there is substantial evidence of an essential status for nickel in
animals, a deficiency state in humans has not been clearly defined.

Nickel is a silver-white metal with siderophilic properties that facilitate the

formation of nickel-iron alloys. In contrast to the soluble nickel salts
(chloride, nitrate, sulfate), metallic nickel, nickel sulfides, and nickel oxides
are poorly water-soluble. Nickel carbonyl is a volatile liquid at room
temperature that decomposes rapidly into carbon monoxide and nickel.
Drinking water and food are the main sources of exposure for the general
population with the average American diet containing about 300 μg Ni/d.
Nickel is highly mobile in soil, particularly in acid soils. There is little
evidence that nickel compounds accumulate in the food chain. Nickel is
not a cumulative toxin in animals or in humans.

Almost all cases of acute nickel toxicity result from exposure to nickel
carbonyl. The initial effects involve irritation of the respiratory tract and
nonspecific symptoms. Patients with severe poisoning develop intense
pulmonary and gastrointestinal toxicity. Diffuse interstitial pneumonitis
and cerebral edema are the main cause of death. Sodium
diethyldithiocarbamate is an investigational drug used to chelate nickel
following exposure to nickel carbonyl.

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resources of nickel and status of different processes/technologies in
vogue or being developed for extraction of nickel and associated
metals from both primary and secondary resources .

 Nickel extraction from primary resources such as ores/minerals (sulfides,

arsenides, silicates, and oxides) including the unconventional one viz., the
polymetallic sea nodules, and various secondary resources has been
examined. Though sulfide ores after concentration are generally treated
by the pyro-metallurgical route, most processes for lateritic ores deal with
either the acid leaching at ambient temperature and pressure, or high
pressure, and a few based on the microbial treatment and owing to the
extensive research on laterites, a special emphasis is put forth in this
review. Prominent sources that are covered in some detail include the
solid wastes like spent batteries viz., end-of-life nickel-cadmium (NiCd) and
nickel metal hydride (NiMH), spent catalysts, and spent/scrap superalloys,
and liquid wastes such as copper bleed stream and electroplating
effluents. In particular pre-treatment of the spent nickel-based batteries,
leaching of metals from the electrode materials in different lixiviants,
besides separation/solvent extraction of nickel/other metals from the
leach liquors, are highlighted.
Physical and chemical properties of nickel Nickel
is one of the essential elements found in abundance in the earth’s crust
occurring at an average concentration of about 75μg/g. It is a metallic element
belonging to group VIII b of the periodic table. It is hard, silvery-white, lustrous
and found in nature as a component of silicate, sulfide or arsenide ores. It’s
atomic number is 28, atomic weight is 58.71, specific gravity is 8.9 with the
melting and boiling points of about 1.455°C and 2.732°C respectively. It has
high electrical and thermal conductivity and is resistant to corrosion at
ambient environmental temperatures between -20°C and +30°C and is
therefore often electroplated as a protective coating (Chau and Cordeiro,
1995). Although it has oxidation state of -1, 0, +1, +2, +3 and +4, it exists
principally in the divalent state (Ni2+) and it is the stable form in the
environment. In biological systems, nickel in its ionic state forms stable
complex components with various ligands and bind to organic material

Properties, occurrence, and uses

Silvery white, tough, and harder than iron, nickel is widely familiar because of its use
in coinage but is more important either as the pure metal or in the form of alloys for
its many domestic and industrial applications. Elemental nickel very sparingly occurs
together with iron in terrestrial and meteoric deposits. The metal was isolated (1751)
by a Swedish chemist and mineralogist, Baron Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who prepared
an impure sample from an ore containing niccolite (nickel arsenide). Earlier, an ore
of this same type was called Kupfernickel after “Old Nick” and his mischievous
gnomes because, though it resembled copper ore, it yielded a brittle, unfamiliar
metal. Twice as abundant as copper, nickel constitutes about 0.007 percent of
Earth’s crust; it is a fairly common constituent of igneous rocks, though singularly
few deposits qualify in concentration, size, and accessibility for commercial interest.
The central regions of Earth are believed to contain considerable quantities. The
most important sources are pentlandite, found with nickel-bearing pyrrhotite, of
which certain varieties contain 3 to 5 percent nickel, and chalcopyrite, and nickel-
bearing laterites, such as garnierite, a magnesium–nickel silicate of
variable composition.
The metallurgy of nickel is complicated in its details, many of which vary widely,
according to the particular ore being processed. In general, the ore is transformed to
dinickel trisulfide, Ni2S3 (with nickel in the +3 oxidation state), which is roasted in air
to give nickel oxide, NiO (+2 state), which is then reduced with carbon to obtain the
metal. Some high-purity nickel is made by the carbonyl process mentioned earlier.
(For information about the mining, refining, and production of nickel, see nickel
processing.)

Nickel (atomic number 28) resembles iron (atomic number 26) in strength and

toughness but is more like copper (atomic number 29) in resistance to oxidation and
corrosion, a combination accounting for many of its applications. Nickel has high
electrical and thermal conductivity. More than half the nickel produced is used
in alloys with iron (particularly in stainless steels), and most of the rest is used in
corrosion-resistant alloys with copper (including Monel, which contains some 60 to
70 percent nickel, 30 to 40 percent copper, and small amounts of other metals such
as iron) and in heat-resistant alloys with chromium. Nickel is also used in electrically
resistive, magnetic, and many other kinds of alloys, such as nickel silver (with copper
and zinc but no silver). The unalloyed metal is utilized to form protective coatings on
other metals, especially by electroplating. Finely divided nickel is employed to
catalyze the hydrogenation of unsaturated organic compounds (e.g., fats and oils).

Nickel can be fabricated readily by the use of standard hot and cold working
methods. Nickel reacts only slowly with fluorine, eventually developing a protective
coating of the fluoride, and therefore is used as the pure metal or in the form of alloys
such as Monel in equipment for handling fluorine gas and corrosive fluorides. Nickel
is ferromagnetic at ordinary temperatures, although not as strongly as iron, and is
less electropositive than iron but dissolves readily in dilute mineral acids.

Natural nickel consists of five stable isotopes: nickel-58 (68.27 percent), nickel-60
(26.10 percent), nickel-61 (1.13 percent), nickel-62 (3.59 percent), and nickel-64
(0.91 percent). It has a face-centred cubic crystal structure. Nickel is ferromagnetic
up to 358 °C, or 676 °F (its Curie point). The metal is uniquely resistant to the action
of alkalies and is frequently used for containers for concentrated solutions of sodium
hydroxide. Nickel reacts slowly with strong acids under ordinary conditions to
liberate hydrogen and form Ni2+ ions.

China is the world’s largest nickel producer. Other major nickel-producing

countries include Russia, Japan, Australia, and Canada.

Compounds
In its compounds nickel exhibits oxidation states of −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, and +4, though
the +2 state is by far the most common. Ni2+ forms a large number of
complexes, encompassing coordination numbers 4, 5, and 6 and all of the main
structural types—e.g., octahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, tetrahedral, and square.
Compounds with nickel in the +2 state have a variety of industrial applications. For
example, nickel chloride, NiCl2, nickel nitrate, Ni(NO3)2·6H2O, and nickel sulfamate,
Ni(SO3NH2)2∙4H2O, are employed chiefly in nickel electroplating baths. Nickel sulfate,
NiSO4, is also used in nickel plating as well as in the preparation of catalysts, ground-
coat enamels, and mordants (fixatives) for dyeing and textile printing. Nickel oxide,
NiO, and nickel peroxide, Ni2O3, are prepared for use in fuel cells and storage
batteries, respectively. Nickel ferrites are utilized as magnetic cores for various types
of electrical equipment such as antennas and transformers.

Typical compounds of nickel in nature, in which it occurs primarily as minerals in

combination with arsenic, antimony, and sulfur, are nickel sulfide, NiS;
nickel arsenide, NiAs; nickel antimonide, NiSb; nickel diarsenide, NiAs2; nickel
thioarsenide, NiAsS; and nickel thioantimonide, NiSbS. In the sulfide nickel is in the
+2 oxidation state, but in all the other compounds cited it is in the +3 state.

Among other important commercial compounds are nickel carbonyl, or

tetracarbonylnickel, Ni(CO)4. This compound, in which nickel exhibits a zero
oxidation state, is used primarily as a carrier of carbon monoxide in the synthesis of
acrylates (compounds utilized in the manufacture of plastics) from acetylene and
alcohols. It was the first of a class of compounds called metal carbonyls to be
discovered (1890). The colourless, volatile liquid is formed by the action of carbon
monoxide on finely divided nickel and is characterized by an electronic
configuration in which the nickel atom is surrounded by 36 electrons. This type of
configuration is quite comparable to that of the noble-gas atoms.

Nickel availability
The terms “reserves” and “resources” are used to describe the availability of raw
materials. The Committee for Mineral Reserves International Reporting Standards
defines the terms as follows: “A mineral resource is a concentration or occurrence
of solid material of economic interest in or on the Earth’s crust in such form, grade
or quality and quantity that there are reasonable prospects for eventual economic
extraction. A mineral reserve is the economically mineable part of a Measured
and/or Indicated Mineral Resource.”

‘Reserves’ imply an increased level of knowledge and confidence. Mining

companies continuously convert resources into reserves by exploration. In most
cases therefore, limitations in the availability of raw materials are less an issue of
whether there is enough raw material in the ground, than whether there is enough
production capacity available in a short time frame to satisfy a sharp increase in
demand.

The world’s nickel resources are currently estimated at almost 300 million tons.

Australia, Indonesia, South Africa, Russia and Canada account for more than 50%
of the global nickel resources. Economic concentrations of nickel occur in sulphide
and in laterite-type ore deposits.

Despite the fact that nearly 80% of all nickel historically mined was extracted over
the past three decades, known nickel reserves and resources have also steadily
grown. Various parameters play a role in this evolution, including better
knowledge of new deposits in remote areas and increased exploration activities by
mining companies, driven by attractive commodity prices. Improved technologies
in mining, smelting and refining, as well as increased capacities, also allow for
lower-grade nickel ore to be processed. Decreasing ore grades are therefore not
necessarily a sign of diminishing resources, but a reflection of innovation and
improvements made in mining and process technology.

There are also reckoned to be significant nickel deposits in the deep sea.
Manganese nodules, which are found on the deep-sea floor, contain significant
amounts of nickel. Recent estimates indicate more than 290 million tons of nickel
contained in such deposits. The development of deep-sea mining technologies is
expected to facilitate access to these resources in future.

Nickel mining &

production
Nickel occurs naturally, principally as oxides, sulphides and silicates. Primary
nickel is produced and used as ferro-nickel, nickel oxides and other chemicals, and
as more or less pure nickel metal.  Over two million tonnes of new or primary
nickel are produced and used annually in the world.

There are many different nickel ores requiring a variety of techniques to extract the
nickel. 
Nickel-containing ores are currently mined in more than 25 countries worldwide.

First use of nickel

'First use' of nickel is defined as the conversion of nickel products into
intermediate products, which form the basis for nickel-containing end-use
products. In almost all cases, these first-use products undergo further
processing before they are ready for use.

STAINLESS STEEL
69%
BATTERIES
11%
NON-FERROUS ALLOYS
7%
PLATING
6%
ALLOY STEELS
3%
FOUNDRY
2%
OTHER
1%
MORE INFORMATION ON FIRST USE APPLICATIONS
More than two thirds of global nickel production is used to
produce stainless steel. As an alloying element, nickel enhances
its important properties such as formability, weldability and
ductility, while increasing corrosion resistance in certain
applications.
Stainless steel has been in use for more than one hundred years. It
comprises a wide range of iron-based alloys, but unlike conventional steel
they are resistant to corrosion and do not rust when exposed to water alone.
The alloying element that makes steel ‘stainless’ is chromium; however it is
the addition of nickel that enables stainless steel to become such a versatile
alloy.
IT IS THE ADDITION OF NICKEL THAT ENABLES STAINLESS STEEL
TO BECOME SUCH A VERSATILE ALLOY.
In addition to their inherent corrosion resistance, nickel-containing
stainless steels are easy to form and weld; they remain ductile at very low
temperatures and yet can be used for high-temperature applications. In
addition, unlike conventional steel and non-nickel-containing stainless
steel, they are non-magnetic. This means they can be made into an
exceptionally wide range of products, spanning applications in the chemical
industry, the health sector and domestic uses. In fact, nickel is so important
that nickel-containing grades make up 75% of stainless steel production.
The best-known of these are Type 304, which has 8% nickel and Type 316,
which has 11%.
Nickel provides these properties by changing the crystal structure of steel to
an austenitic (face-centred cubic crystal) structure at almost all
temperatures. Conventional steel has a ferritic (body-centred cubic crystal)
structure at ambient temperature. It is the addition of sufficient nickel -
typically 8-10% - that imparts these unique properties.

NICKEL IS SO IMPORTANT THAT NICKEL-CONTAINING GRADES

MAKE UP 75% OF STAINLESS STEEL PRODUCTION.
The properties of nickel-containing stainless steel
 Formability
The austenitic structure provides stainless steels with good ductility and
formability. The common 18% chromium/ 8% nickel Type 304 in particular
shows good stretch-forming characteristics. A slightly higher nickel content
further increases the stability of the austenite and reduces the work-
hardening tendency, increasing suitability for deep drawing. Unlike low-
nickel, high-manganese alloys, these alloys are not prone to delayed cold
cracking. Their excellent formability has led to 300-series austenitic alloys
being widely used for items such as kitchen sinks and cooking pots.
 Weldability
Many pieces of stainless steel equipment are fabricated by welding. In
general, nickel austenitic alloys are better for welding than other alloys,
with Types 304 and 316 being the most widely-fabricated stainless steels in
the world. Unlike ferritic alloys, they are not prone to brittleness as a result
of high-temperature grain growth and the welds have excellent bend and
impact properties. They are readily weldable in both thick and thin
sections.
 Toughness
Toughness - the ability of a material to absorb energy without breaking - is
essential in many engineering applications. Most stainless steels have good
toughness at room temperature, however, as temperature decreases the
ferritic structure becomes progressively more brittle, making ferritic
stainless steels unsuitable for use at cryogenic temperatures. In contrast,
the common austenitic stainless steels retain good toughness even at liquid
helium temperatures (-270oC), which is why grades such as Type 304 are
widely used for cryogenic applications.
 High-temperature properties
Adding nickel gives the austenitic alloys of stainless steel significantly
greater high-temperature strength than other alloys, particularly the ability
to resist the tendency to move slowly or deform permanently under
mechanical stresses, known as creep. These alloys are also much less prone
to forming damaging brittle phases when exposed to temperatures in excess
of 300oC. Nickel also stabilises the protective oxide film and reduces
spalling during thermal cycling. This is why austenitic alloys are preferred
for high-temperature applications and where fire resistance is needed.
 Sustainability
Most nickel-containing materials are fully recyclable at the end of the
product’s useful life; indeed their high value encourages recycling. This, in
turn, lessens the environmental impact of nickel-containing stainless steels
by reducing both the need for virgin materials and the energy that their
production uses. For example, the amount of stainless steel scrap currently
being used reduces the energy required for stainless steel manufacture by
around one-third over using 100% virgin materials.
The durability of stainless steels can be seen in buildings. The restorations
of St Paul’s Cathedral and the Savoy Hotel canopy in London, U.K. (1925
and 1929 respectively), the Chrysler Building in New York City and the
Gateway Arch in St Louis in the U.S.A (1930 and 1965), the Progreso Pier in
Mexico’s Yucatan state (c. 1940) and the Thyssen Building in Düsseldorf,
Germany (1960) all testify to the longevity that can be expected from
nickel-containing stainless steel.
 Ease of production
Ease of production is not something that is immediately apparent to the
end user. However, long experience of manufacturing the common
austenitic alloys, their widespread use, their versatility and the scale of their
production have allowed them to become widely and economically available
in all shapes and quantities and in all parts of the world.

Nickel alloy
Nickel will alloy readily with many other metals, including
chromium, iron, molybdenum and copper. This allows for a wide
variety of alloys that demonstrate outstanding resistance to
corrosion and high-temperature scaling, exceptional high-
temperature strength and other unique properties, such as
shape memory and low coefficient of expansion.
The following is a simplistic categorisation of the various nickel alloy types.
 Wrought Nickel
Pure nickel UNS N02200 is used in the chemical industry for its corrosion
resistance - particularly to alkalis. It is also used for its properties in
shielding against electromagnetic interference and in transducers.
 Nickel-Iron Alloys
These are used as soft magnetic materials, as glass-to-metal seals and as
materials with defined thermal expansion properties.
Invar® (UNS K93600), with 36% nickel and the remainder iron, is unique
in having an almost zero coefficient of thermal expansion around room
temperature. This makes it valuable where high dimensional stability is
required, such as in precision measuring instruments and thermostat rods.
It is also used at cryogenic temperatures because of its very low thermal
expansion rates.
Alloys containing 72-83% nickel have the best soft magnetic properties and
are used in transformers, inductors, magnetic amplifiers, magnetic shields
and memory storage devices.
 Nickel-Copper Alloys
These are highly resistant to corrosion by alkaline solutions, non-oxidizing
salts and seawater. The best-known is Alloy 400.
 Nickel-Molybdenum Alloys
These are highly resistant to reducing acids in the absence of oxidizing ions,
such as ferric and cupric or dissolved oxygen. The best-known is Alloy B-2.
  Nickel-Chromium Alloys
These are characterised by their high resistance to corrosion at both normal
and high temperatures (resistance to scaling), good high-temperature
strength and high electrical resistance. There are three main groups of
alloys:
o Ni-Cr (and also Ni-Cr-Fe) alloys with high electrical resistance
for heating elements, such as 70-30 (UNS N06008) and C-
Grade (UNS N06004)
o Ni-Cr alloys (with Fe and other alloying elements) with good
corrosion resistance. The best-known are Alloy 600 (UNS
N06600) and Alloy 601 (UNS N06601)
o Ni-Cr alloys with high-temperature strength and creep
resistance, mostly age-hardenable, such as Alloy X-750 (UNS
N07750)
 Nickel-Chromium-Iron Alloys
There are basically two groups of alloys:
o Ni – Cr – Fe alloys with excellent strength at high temperature
and the ability to resist oxidation, carburisation and other types
of high-temperature corrosion. The best-known is alloy 800
(UNS N08800) and its variants 800H (UNS N08810) and
800HT (UNS N08811). (Recently, these alloys were classified
as stainless steels reflecting their high Fe content)
o Ni – Cr – Fe (with Mo and Cu) alloys with excellent corrosion
resistance in specific applications. Probably the best-known is
alloy 825 (UNS N08825), which offers exceptional resistance to
sulphuric acid. Alloy G-3 (UNS N06985) offers exceptional
corrosion resistance to commercial phosphoric acids as well as
many complex solutions containing highly oxidizing acids.
 Nickel-Chromium-Molybdenum Alloys
These are highly corrosion-resistant, of which Alloy C-276 (N10276) is the
best-known. They offer exceptional resistance to reducing acids such as
hydrochloric and sulphuric. There are a number of variants based on this
composition, which have modified the Cr and Mo levels and, in some cases,
added Cu or W in order to extend the corrosion resistance to conditions
that are more oxidising or more reducing. These include Alloy C-22
(N06022), Alloy 59 (N08059), Alloy C-2000 (UNS N06200), and Alloy 686
(N06686).
  Nickel-Chromium-Cobalt Alloys
The addition of cobalt and molybdenum imparts solid-solution
strengthening and high levels of creep-rupture strength to alloy 617 (UNS
N06617). The addition of cobalt to HR-160 (N12160) provides outstanding
resistance to various forms of high-temperature corrosion attacks, such as
sulphidation and chloride attack in both reducing and oxidizing
atmospheres.
 Nickel-Titanium Alloys
55% nickel-titanium alloy (UNS N01555) (also known as Nitinol) has
shape-memory properties. When formed at one temperature and then
deformed at a lower one, it regains its original form when reheated. The
transition temperatures can be adjusted through careful control of the
composition. Medical devices and specialised connectors are two of specific
the applications. The same alloy can also undergo considerable elastic
deformation and still return to its original shape (super-elastic property).
This property has been exploited for applications as diverse as spectacle
frames and shock absorbers that provide earthquake resistance in historic
stone buildings.

End use of nickel

Due to its outstanding physical and mechanical properties, nickel is used in
a wide range of end-use sectors.
Nickel socio-economic impact
Socio-economic data on nickel show the importance of industries
throughout the nickel value chain, from mining through end use to
recycling. The data quantify important metrics, such as employment or
value added. They also serve as the basis for modelling the positive and
negative impacts of, for example, market developments or regulatory
initiatives. In cooperation with Roskill, the Nickel Institute collects and
updates socio-economic data for the main nickel producing and using
countries.
In Europe, a socio-economic assessment was done for 12 of the most
relevant economies where significant nickel production or use occurs. In
these countries, the total value added by the nickel industry and its value
chains is estimated to be €43 billion. In addition, the output generated by
nickel and related industries is around €130 billion, implicating around
750,000 jobs which depend directly or indirectly on nickel (reference year
2017).
Globally, the nickel value chain supports large numbers of jobs, many of
which are high skill manufacturing occupations.
Find out more about the socio-economic impact of nickel in the EU, USA
and Canada using the interactive map below.

Nickel sustainability
Society cares more and more about sustainability
and needs to know more about the materials that
contribute to a sustainable future. Nickel is one of
those materials.
Nickel is an element. It cannot be created nor
destroyed. Its attributes - corrosion resistance,
high-temperature stability, strength, ductility,
toughness, recyclability, as well as catalytic and
electromagnetic properties help achieve
sustainability. Nickel in its various forms is often
unseen, yet it plays hundreds of roles in
thousands of products and applications we use
every day.
While its role is often hidden, nickel is an enabler of many technologies required
for sustainability. Nickel contributes to the achievement of many of the UN
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), in lots of ways.
Responsible and sustainable production practices are a priority for Nickel Institute
member companies. Responsible sourcing programs are being developed by
upstream and downstream sectors aimed, in many cases, at ensuring that they do
not contribute to human rights abuses or conflict. Many of these programs are
based on the OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply Chains of
Minerals from Conflict-Affected and High Risk Areas (OECD DDG).
The NI supports its members by building on existing frameworks and
commitments, advocating for responsible sourcing tools and standards that are in
line with internationally recognized standards for the responsible production and
sourcing of minerals, such as the OECD Due Diligence Guidelines. The NI does
not provide independent frameworks or tools, or operate an accreditation role or
provide certification to companies. It remains the individual company’s
responsibility to demonstrate responsible production and compliance with
responsible sourcing programs.
Nickel is one of the elements that plays a critical enabling role in the energy
transition required to reduce CO2 emissions
The pace of energy transition is increasing as green growth stimulus packages are
introduced, and economies and companies alike commit to net carbon neutrality.
The metals industry has a responsibility to support and facilitate the transition to a
'net-zero' low carbon economy.
Clean energy technologies generally require more metals than their fossil
counterparts. And nickel, although unavoidably energy intensive to produce, has a
critical role to play. Its unique properties are what make it a key part of the energy
transition.
Nickel Institute Member companies have set ambitious targets and are
implementing innovative responses to reduce their carbon footprint and ensure a
sustainable future.
Actions are being taken by Nickel Institute Members at environmental, social and
governance levels such as energy efficiency, reduction of air and water pollution
emissions, land reclamation and reforestation, waste management, increased use of
recycled metals ... as well as community initiatives, occupational health and safety
measures and human rights strategies.
Collectively they give a flavour of an industry that is taking responsibility to
ensure that critical nickel is available for the energy transition while minimizing its
environmental impact. 

Nickel recycling
Nickel is a natural resource, which cannot be consumed. Like many other metals,
nickel is fully recyclable. It can be recycled again and again without loss of quality,
contributing to the Circular Economy (CE) model.

As nickel-containing products have value, there is an infrastructure for gathering

and processing them. Gathering, sorting, preparing, transporting and using scrap
metal generates significant employment and adds economic value.