Ethics – Study of morality
Morality – Practices of Ethics
Non Moral – The preference of Morality
Immorality - Violates the Morality
Moral and Non-Moral Standards
Morality
● a code of conduct that would be accepted
by anyone who meets certain intellectual
and volitional conditions, almost always
including the condition of being rational
Standards
● Level of quality of attainment
● Idea used as a measure, norm, or model in
comparative eval
Moral Standard
● norms that individuals or groups have
about the kinds of actions believed to be
morally right or wrong
● promote what is “the good” like the
welfare and well-being of humans as well
as animals and the environment
● May differ from society to society and
culture to culture
Why need to distinguish moral standards from non-
moral ones?
- Some values do have moral implication while
otherwise doesn't
● Moral standard affect other people and
non-moral doesn't
● Norms + Values = ✨Moral Standard✨}
Characteristics of Moral Standard
● Welfare of Beings - Deal with matters we
think can seriously injure or benefit
humans, animals and the environment;
● Relies on Sound Reasoning - Not
established or changed by the decisions of
authoritative individuals or bodies; ●
Overriding Hegemony
- Hegemony means a type of
domination based primarily on
dominated people's and groups'
consent rather than purely on a
leader's coercion and exerted
force.
○ Impartial, Fair, and Just - Based on impartial
considerations;
○ Emotions and Vocabulary -
Associate with special emotions and
vocabulary.
Non-Moral Standard
● rules that are unrelated to moral or ethical
considerations
● act or action is not subject to moral judgment
because morality is not taken into consideration
● Basic examples of non-moral standards include
rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
games, and various house rules.
● Some non-moral standards of any society could
be grammar and language expectation, clothing,
etc.
● Matters of taste and preference
● It is goal oriented. They are a means to an end we
wish to achieve
● It includes independence, prestige fame, wealth,
and popularity,
Immoral Person
● Knowingly violates human moral standard
Amoral Person
● May also violates moral standard because they has
no moral sense
● Basic examples of non-moral standards include
rules of etiquette, fashion standards, rules in
games, and various house rules.
● Some non-moral standards of any society could be
grammar and language expectation, clothing, etc
● Matters of taste and preference
● It is goal oriented. They are a means to an end we
wish to achieve
● It includes independence, prestige fame, wealth,
and popularity,
Characteristics of Non-Moral Standard
● Welfare of non-beings
● Relies on authority-law
● Religion, tradition
● Limits hegemony
● Self interest
● No emotions and vocal
What is Ethics?
● The word ethics comes from the Greek ethos which
means customs or habits.
● Ethics is the study of what is right or good in
human conduct or character. Ethics is also the
‘science of the highest good.’ It is the science of
morality. Morality
● The word moral is from the Latin mores which
also means customs or habits.
 ● Morality can be a body of standards or principles
derived from a code of conduct from a particular
philosophy, religion, or culture.
Ethics VS Morality
Ethics
● It analyzes concepts such as right and wrong. It
seeks to establish principles of right behavior that
may serve as guides
● Guiding principles of conduct of an individual or
group.
● Influenced by profession, field, organization, etc.
Morality
● It is a effort to guide one’s conduct by reason,
giving equal weight to the interests of each
individual who will be affected by what one does.
● Rightness or wrongness of an action.
● Influenced by society, culture, and religion.
Why Should We Study Ethics?
● Ethics is used in our daily lives
○ Ethics is applied everywhere, to your
personal life, professional life, etc. In
everyday life we make decisions
continually about what is right or wrong.
Most of these decisions are made quickly
and without a lot of thought or reason.
Ethics helps us to reduce the chances of
getting a negative outcome whenever we
make certain decisions that will affect our
lives.
● Ethical issues are becoming more subjective and
confusing
○ Sensitive topics such as abortion, suicide,
racism, discrimination, sexuality, etc. have
come into more attention in society. Many
are getting confused on what truly is the
right thing to do in these topics. Ethics
helps us in this matter to critically dissect
these topics to weigh what outcomes are
more beneficial to the world and people
around us.
● The rise of social media has made people
distracted
○ Social media has indeed made people
closer to each other because of the ease in
communication. People tend to forget
etiquettes in the virtual world is just as
important to the physical world, many
people often forget to act with
consideration to what they do in social
media, some get into trivial arguments,
post vulgar stuff, etc. Ethics helps us in
using social media with proper
consideration as we are not the only
person in the virtual world.
● Ethics applies to social norms and rules
○ It goes without saying that there are many
unwritten rules in society such as not cutting in lines,
giving your seat to PWDs, the elderly, pregnant women,
returning lost things, throwing away trash properly,
etc. The most simplest things are tend to be forgotten
by a lot of people, ethics reminds us to be conscious
and aware of our actions to help us in being better
human beings.
● Ethics is the core of all decisions
○ Ethics is what guides us to tell the truth,
keep our promises, or help someone in
need, it is the basis of how we judge from
right or wrong. There is a framework of
ethics underlying our lives on a daily
basis, helping us make decisions that
create positive impacts and steering us
away from unjust outcomes
● Ethics helps us in being future professionals
○ Business ethics is equally important to
ethics in personal life, it refers to how we
behave in a professional environment
such as respecting company rules, clients,
and workmates. It also helps in the
integral part of being a leader because of
the responsibility that involves in it.
Classifications of Ethics
● Metaethics or Analytic Ethics
- The prefix Meta- came from the Greek
word meta which means "beyond".
- This classification is the philosophical
aspect of Ethics, as it discusses ethical
language and morality itself.
- It studies the foundation, properties, and
scope of morality. It answers the
questions, ''Where do moral values come
from?", "What do people mean when
referring to the terms 'good', 'bad', and
'right', 'wrong'?", "How does morality
over certain issues or actions vary on
different kinds of people?", and many
more.
- For example, if one person strongly
believes that an emerging social issue is
wrong, then can his/her opinion be called
just a personal belief, a moral value, or
simply irrelevant?
● Normative Ethics
 - This studies which ethical actions are
considered morally right or wrong. Also
including which character traits are good
or bad.
- This is often based on the consequences
of one's actions, or punishments once a
rule was violated when doing the said
action.
- Such actions can sometimes be classified
easily as they are the norms or what most
people know. For example, kicking
someone suddenly is not right, as it will
hurt the other person physically. This
action being wrong or bad is known by
most that's why they don't do it.
● Applied Ethics
- Based on the name itself, applied ethics is
the application of the ethical actions
imposed in society or in different fields. It
is the practice of morality in the real
world.
- There are different sets of ethics followed
in different fields like social ethics,
political ethics, business ethics,
biomedical ethics, environmental ethics,
etc.
- In someone's daily life, it is concerned
with the practice of good character traits
in making decisions and interacting with
other people. It is also about ensuring that
before doing a certain action,
consequences are kept in mind.
Moral Dilemma:
First, let us define what is Dilemma?
• When we must make a choice, but the options
have undesirable consequences, it can be difficult
to decide which path to take. This is what we call a
dilemma.
• Dilemmas can happen anywhere at any time may
it be at school, in our house, outside, or while
shopping in the mall.
• As imperfect beings, we tend to make bad
decisions and questionable choices that we must
live with for the rest of our lives.
Interesting Fact:
• The Shorter Oxford English Dictionary defines a
dilemma as “a choice between two (or loosely
several) alternatives which are or appear equally
unfauvorable”.
• If there were three alternatives, strictly speaking it
would be a “trilemma” and, if four, a
“quadrilemma”; many alternatives could be
referred to as a “polylemma”.
• Now, however, “dilemma” is the word for all cases
Differentiate Problem and Dilemma?
So, what is Moral Dilemma?
• It involves the situation where you are put in dilemma
of choosing two options that may affect your moral
principles. That whatever you choose, it will still
violate your moral principles.
• A situation that, although offering potential benefits, is
unethical.
• A more complicated situation wherein one is torn
between choosing one of two goods or choosing
between the lesser of two evils.
3 Levels of Moral Dilemma
1. Personal Dilemmas -
Definition - These dilemmas are ones that people deal with
personally. Since every one of us has made individual
choices throughout our life, almost everyone has
encountered personal dilemmas.
This type of dilemma often has to be solved by one
individual person that got into that situation. Most people
have their own morals they follow, and those morals could
potentially contradict one another. This contradiction leads
to Personal dilemmas where no one can help you, but
yourself.
Example: Abortion, should you kill your own potential
child or should you raise her and learn that you’re not
ready for parenthood.
2. Organizational Dilemmas
Definition – Organizational Dilemmas is about when there
is a matching discrepancy between the needs and
aspirations of an individual on the one hand and the goals
of the organization on the other. This is when a person has
a hard choice of choosing either his own interest or goals
or he should choose the goals of the organization they are
in.
Example: Conflict between Workmate due to
Personality/goal difference, are you choosing to just
benefit yourself or you will sacrifice your personal goal
order to achieve the goal of your company.
Basically, anything related to Businesses or Company
related Issues that can only be solved within the
organization. Moral dilemmas also arise in professional
work. Administrative bodies in business are confronted
with situations in which several courses of action are
possible but none of them provide a totally successful
outcome to those affected by the decision or actions taken.
For example, a hospital that believes that human life should
not be deliberately shortened, and that unpreventable pain
should not be tolerated encounters a conflict in resolving
whether to withdraw life support from a dying patient.
This is a common moral dilemma faced by healthcare
organizations and medical institutions.
3. Structural Dilemmas
Definition - These structural moral dilemmas pertain to
cases involving network of institutions and operative
theoretical paradigms. As they usually encompass multi-
sectoral institutions and organizations, they may be larger
in scope and extent than organizational dilemmas. (My Info
Basket, 2021)
There are different types of structural dilemmas those are;
• Gap vs Overlap in roles and responsibilities.
• Differential vs Integration. Should different
divisions be divided and have their own culture or
should two or more divisions be integrated for
cooperation.
• Excessive autonomy vs Excessive
interdependence. Be distracted with too much
coordination or be isolated from other groups or
divisions.
• Irresponsible vs unresponsive. Adhere to strict
rules or be too accommodating for it to result in
inconsistency. Example: The government trying to
come up with a new budget for Education.
Freedom As the Foundation Moral Act We, the
people, have our own freedom, and there are no
limits to it, so it is important that we set a limit
based on ethics for our freedom to not be abused.
That is why even though we have freedom, it is
important that we can comply with the moral
principles to avoid being misguided to the wrong
path. In short, having the freedom to have your
own moral principles, you need to know what the
moral norm is. You need to learn how others may
think about a certain situation and how they
would act on it based on principles. Not only does
this give you more perspective and create a
structurally stable moral standard, but people who
you talk to about those moral standards will be
able to understand your point. In doing so, both
sides will be able to communicate much.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- Cultural relativism contents about its moral and
social norms that is a reflection of the culture
from which they are derived.
- According to cultural relativists, the moral
frameworks that govern relationships within
various civilizations and cultures are essentially
different from one another. Cultural relativists use
the ethical norms of the society in which the
activity takes place to judge whether an action is
"just" or "wrong" in the context of international
relations. Whether value judgments can be made
across cultural boundaries is a topic of discussion
in the field. Moral relativism, which contends that
there are no moral absolutes governing individual
action, should not be confused with cultural
relativism.
TYPES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM
1. ABSOLUTE CULTURAL
RELATIVISM
- a culture even when considered strange
should not be questioned. It indicates
that whatever activities are practiced
within a culture, no matter how weird
and dangerous they appear to be, should
not be questioned by other cultures.
- EXAMPLE: tying of feet of Chinese
women in the 19th and 20th centuries.
- Chinese people found small feet in
women as a symbol of beauty. Therefore,
for women to get married, they had to go
through the process of feet beautification
2. CRITICAL CULTURAL RELATIVISM
- it asks questions about cultural practices
and why they are practiced. It seeks
answers about the cultural practices in
line with who is accepting them and why
they are doing so. The importance of
finding out why some cultures are
practiced so asking questions is fine.
- EXAMPLE: the residents of Spain practice
El Colacho, which is a baby-jumping
ritual practiced since 1620.
- It is said that jumping over the babies
chases the devil and keeps them safe.
This practice has been critiqued by
people seeking answers as to its
relevance in protecting the children.
WHAT IS CULTURE
 - Culture reflects the moral values and ethical
norms governing how people should behave and
interact with others.
- It describes a collective way of life, or way of
doing things. It is the sum of attitudes, values,
goals, and practices shared by individuals in a
group, organization, or society.
- According to the theory of cultural relativism,
there is no singular truth on which to base ethical
or moral behavior, as our interpretations of truths
are influenced by our own culture.
How does Culture define our Moral Behavior?
- Culture reflects the moral and ethical beliefs and
standards that speak to how people should
behave and interact with others. Cultural norms
are the shared, sanctioned, and integrated
systems of beliefs and practices that are passed
down through generations and characterize a
cultural group.
- Culture can highly affect our moral judgements
and behaviors. Because our reactions and beliefs
are based on what our culture was, we
unconsciously react that way. For example, in
Starbucks, employees are not supposed to call
their seniors or customers "sir" or "ma'am" as
they do in a culture like Americans that called
people by their names. If some people with
different culture or beliefs experienced it, it will
make them think or believe that the employees
there are a bit rude. It will strongly affect their
judgements to people and such.
Attribute facets of personal behavior to culture.
- Based on anthropology, culture refers to the ways
of thinking or how people behave based on the
groups or in a particular population or society.
Based on that, it is
composed of such a things as LANGUAGE,
KNOWLEDGE, LAWS, RELIGIOUS BELIEFS, FOOD
PREFERENCES, MUSIC, WORK HABITS, and
CHILD-REARING PRACTICES.
Advantages of Recognizing Cultural Differences
● Helps break down cultural barriers and build
bridges to those who are different from us.
○ Recognizing and accepting the fact that
other people have different cultural
backgrounds will help one to be aware
how a culture is different from one
another and this leads people to connect
to one another.
○ Example: For example, Person A has a
different set of standards than Person B.
If Person A or Person B tried to
understand and be aware of their
differences, it would help them to
connect with one another, avoiding
unintentional discriminatory remarks
that may disconnect them.
○ Example: Kunware may hapon (Japanese)
kang nakilala mo kailan lang nakilala.
After niyo bumili ng food sa bilihan,
sinabi mo na kainin niyo na lang yung
food niyo habang naglalakad kayo para
hindi sayang sa oras.
■ Dahil hindi mo alam ang kultura
nila na bawal kumain habang
naglalakad, you unknowingly
offend yung bagong kilala mo na
sana naging friend mo.
● Create a more inclusive environment.
○ Having an understanding that people
have different cultural backgrounds, it
would help them to treat others with
respect. Knowing that they hold different
set of standards and behavior, it would
help the minority to feel closer to their
environment.
○ For example, a certain company is
predominated by culture A while culture
B is the minority. Making the company
recognize their presence and accept them
would provide an avenue for culture B to
be at ease in their working environment.
■ Asian employees were treated
with discrimination in the
United States for having brought
the said virus into the country.
Being the minority in the
country, they are subjected to
hate.
● Minimizes personal conflicts and
misunderstandings
- It would be inevitable for people to cause
misunderstanding and create small
conflicts, even in the workplace. This is
caused by differences in cultural
backgrounds, set of standards, behavior
etc. However, recognizing that a culture of
a person is different from one’s
 perspective, you will notice what to avoid making any progress in eliminating
and what makes others feel immoralities that are dressed as “culture”.
uncomfortable. This would help in However, it would also be difficult for any
minimizing conflicts that could be other nations to show intervention when
avoided with conscious decision. a nation exercises their sovereignty and
- In some cultures, it would be rude to thus, the change must start in its citizens.
stare for too long while staring might be a ○ For example, you see a person that is
way for intimacy. By knowing a person’s culturally different physically violates her
perspective towards that act, it would partner. You know that they are part of
help you avoid any unnecessary conflict the minority and thus, if you lay your
and may even build a relationship hands against them, you will get canceled
towards them. and thus, you let it happen without any
intervention.
Weaknesses of Cultural Relativism
● Might cause aversion towards others out of
self-preservation.
○ Since it is in human nature to look out for
themselves to survive, we think of things
that would benefit us and avoid what
might cause us trouble. In our society, we
don’t want to be canceled because of
sexism, racism etc. so we would rather
choose to avoid people with cultural
differences so we would not
“offend” and be discriminatory.
○ For example, you want to befriend someone
that is part of the minority. You know that
you must be extra careful with how you
treat them so that you will not be tagged
as racist. Rather than taking the first step,
you decided to avoid the person entirely
so that you won’t potentially offend them.
● May remove the concept of what is 'right' and
'wrong.'
○ Since people cannot be exactly wrong
because their culture says so, you may
not have the ability to “correct” them
precisely because you are not part of
their culture.
○ For example, in China, the feet of the
women are bound because the small feet
in women are their standard of beauty, or
it symbolizes beauty. However, it is
required for these women before they get
married. It may seem that it is wrong in
our perspective but the people there
would say that it is right.

● Could limit Humanity's progress against

immorality.
○ Being tied with compromising may lead
people to prioritize inclusion rather than