Table of Contents

PHYSICS
COURSE MANUAL

Physics | 1
Table of Contents
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION TO SCUBA DIVING PHYSICS ........ 3
Introduction and Chapter Objectives .................... 3
BUOYANCY ................................................................. 4
Buoyancy Types...................................................... 4
Positive Buoyancy ................................................. 4
Neutral Buoyancy .................................................. 5
Negative Buoyancy ............................................... 5
Controlling Buoyancy ............................................. 5
Proper Weighting ................................................... 5
Moving From One Water
Environment to Another......................................... 6
PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND DENSITY ...................... 7
Pressure, Volume, and Density Relationships .... 7
Effects of Pressure, Volume,
and Density on Scuba Diving ................................ 8
Examples of Pressure Change
in Scuba Diving ..................................................... 10
Mask Squeeze ..................................................... 10
Descending.......................................................... 10
Ascending ............................................................ 10
Ear Equalization .................................................. 10
Lungs................................................................... 10
Key Points on Pressure Changes ....................... 11
Calculating Absolute Pressure and
Gauge Pressure .................................................... 11
Pressure Change and Lungs ............................... 12
Staying Underwater With a Cylinder................... 13
GAS ............................................................................ 14
Effect of Gases on Scuba Diving ........................ 14
Oxygen and Nitrogen ........................................... 15
PARTIAL PRESSURE OF GAS ................................ 16
Effect of Partial Pressure on Scuba Diving ....... 16
Calculating Partial Pressure ................................ 17
Maximum Open Circuit Depths ........................... 18
AIR, VISION, COLOR, SOUND, AND HEAT ............ 19
Contaminated Air .................................................. 19
Vision ..................................................................... 19
Color ....................................................................... 20
Sound ..................................................................... 21
Heat Loss in Water ............................................... 21
Physics | 2
Introduction to
Scuba Diving Physics

INTRODUCTION TO
SCUBA DIVING PHYSICS
INTRODUCTION AND CHAPTER
OBJECTIVES
Diving requires you to pay attention to some things that fall
into the diving physics category. Don’t be alarmed. You do
not need a PhD in quantum mechanics to understand what is
required in this section. All that’s needed is familiarization
with a couple of ratios and being able to work with a formula
or two—and these you can bookmark or write down in the
back of your logbook.

And of course, there is an extremely good reason for you to

pay attention to and understand diving physics: your safety.

When you are underwater, hearing, breathing, seeing,

feeling, and moving are not the same as when you are above
water. And because of this, you need to pay attention, be
aware, and be careful.

For instance, it is important to pay attention to the following:

• Water density causes drag and effectively

decreases our ability to move freely.
• Colors appear different because certain
wavelengths of light are absorbed by water, even
clear water.
• Another visual change is that objects seem a little
larger underwater, so making a grab for something
like an anchor line can leave you empty-handed!
• Water is a much better conductor of heat than air.
As a result, you’ll lose heat much more quickly in
water.
• Most importantly, at sea level, water weighs about
800 times more than air. Therefore, as you descend
underwater, you are quickly subjected to increased
pressure. This greatly affects what happens inside a
scuba diver’s body—your body.
• Lastly, things such as dive gear seem to weigh less
underwater, and of course, this has some
advantages. However, take those first couple of
steps slowly after your dive and when you’re back
on the surface. You’re heavier than you think.

Physics | 3
Buoyancy

You do not need to understand every part of every physics law or equation, but you must understand how physics can affect you
and your body when you are underwater.

The following are the course objectives:

• Explain some of the physical effects on divers underwater
• Describe the three states of buoyancy
• Explain pressure, volume, and density relationships
• Describe the effects on light and sound underwater
• Explain how to calculate surface air consumption rates (SAC)
• Explain why an important part of pre-dive planning is to calculate air consumption rates and project how long a diver’s gas
supply will last.

BUOYANCY
BUOYANCY TYPES

The ancient Greek scientist Archimedes was the first to discover the principle of buoyancy. He observed that an object immersed in
a fluid (water in the case of divers) would be pushed up by a force equal to the weight of the fluid it displaced. In other words,
buoyancy (Archimedes’ Principle) is of significant importance to you as a diver because you will witness its effects whenever you
dive.

Buoyance is broken down into three types.

Positive Buoyancy
When an object weighs less than the weight of the water it displaces, this generally means the object will float on the surface. If the
object were held underwater and if it were to be released, it would head straight for the surface.

Divers achieve positive buoyancy by inflating their buoyancy control devices (BCDs) while on the surface to keep them floating, and
they save energy because they do not need to swim to keep afloat.

Physics | 4
Buoyancy

Neutral Buoyancy
The diver’s goal while underwater is to neither sink nor float. So, according to the rules of buoyancy, the amount of water displaced
is equal to the combined weight of the diver and the equipment used. Neutral buoyancy—holding position in the water column
without moving your arms or feet—is important when you swim over a reef because you do not want to touch or damage marine
organisms, such as corals. Neutral buoyancy also prevents you from crashing into the bottom, especially important if the bottom is
silty. Imagine the mess that can make. And being neutral will allow you to complete your safety stop at a fixed depth.

This feeling of weightlessness and the sensation of flying through the water in complete control is a fun part of the dive experience.
This skill takes some time to master but is well worth the effort.

Negative Buoyancy
This is when the object sinks. The weight of the object is more than the weight of water it displaces. A diver achieves this by
deflating the BCD and sinking.

CONTROLLING BUOYANCY
The sensation of floating in a three-dimensional underwater world is one of the most exciting aspects of diving. Being able to move
up and down in any direction in between, or sideways, or just being able to float weightless and effortlessly increases the fun of the
dive and is extremely relaxing. As you gain more experience, you will find it much easier to redistribute your weight to achieve
optimum buoyancy and trim. The following guidelines will help.

Lead weight is used to compensate for the (positive) buoyancy effects of your body and the exposure protection worn in water. The
thicker the wetsuit, the greater the positive buoyancy. While swimming underwater, you can displace more or less water by adding
or dumping gas in your BCD. Your lung volume also affects buoyancy. When you breathe in (full lungs), your body size increases
slightly but enough that you will displace more water than when you exhale (empty lungs). This allows you to achieve positive
buoyancy at the surface and neutral buoyancy while underwater and to fine-tune buoyancy when diving.

Proper Weighting
To correctly weight yourself, you need to adjust your weights before you go for a dive or any time you change part of the equipment
you dive with. This is particularly important when changing thermal protection and when you move between fresh and saltwater dive
sites.

• Adjust weights so that while holding a full breath (with no gas in your BCD), you float with just the top of your head breaking
the surface.
• Make sure your cylinders have only around 30 bar/500 psi of pressure when adjusting your weight. This simulates a near-
empty cylinder much like at the end of a dive. This is important because your cylinder will be more buoyant at the end of
your dive because air has been used and air has mass. (For example, 100 liters of air has a mass of around 130 grams.
Using imperial units, 13 cubic feet of air tips the scales at approximately 1 pound.) Because of the buoyancy shift between
the beginning and the end of your dive, you need to adjust your weighting. Without this additional weighting, you could float
to the surface or be unable to complete a safety stop at the end of the dive. Both are potentially harmful situations.
• When you have established the correct weighting, simply dump the gas from the BCD, and breathe out through your
regulator to descend.

Spend time finding your correct weighting, and the rewards will be noticeable. Overweighting yourself can be dangerous and make it
hard to control your buoyancy correctly. Experience and the guidance of more skilled dive buddies will help you build on this skill
and fine-tune your buoyancy.

Physics | 5
Buoyancy

Moving From One Water Environment to Another

Buoyancy is affected by diving in salt or fresh water because they have different densities (unit weights) and, thus, different
buoyancy characteristics. The Dead Sea (salt water) is so dense that people can float easily without needing to swim, while fresh
water is less dense and to stay afloat you probably need to swim. Sea water is heavier than fresh water by 2.5% to 3% because of
the amount of salts dissolved in it.

• When moving from fresh water to salt water, a diver has to ADD weight. There is not a precise calculation because it
depends on factors other than just the buoyancy effects of salt water.
• REDUCE weight when moving from salt to fresh water. Fresh water is less dense and, therefore, has less upward force
and provides less buoyancy, resulting in the necessity for less weight to be carried by the diver.
• It is recommended you complete a buoyancy check before diving in a new environment. Don’t waste a dive because your
weighting is incorrect.
• Also, as you learn to relax more in the water, your control of lung volume will improve.

One interesting situation you’ll sometime encounter when diving that is directly related to the different densities of salt and fresh
water is called a halocline. Halocline describes the phenomenon when lighter fresh water floats on top of heavier salt water like
layers of a cake, except these layers are usually transparent. You may not notice the layers until you see someone swim through
one layer into the one above or below it. This sets up a minor turbulence when the layers of water mix, creating a very strange and
noticeable optical effect as light traveling through the changing water densities is refracted at slightly different angles.

Physics | 6
Pressure, Volume, and Density

PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND DENSITY

PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND DENSITY RELATIONSHIPS
Pressure is one of the most important physical factors to understand as a scuba diver. The pressure on you underwater consists of
two forces that act together: the weight of the water above you, and the weight of the surface atmosphere acting on the surface of
the water.

You do not feel much pressure underwater because you are made up mostly of liquids—mostly of water, in fact—and unlike air and
other diving gases, water does not compress. However, you will feel the changes in pressure as the weight of water at depth exerts
pressure on gas cavities, such as your sinuses, your middle ears, and the air space in your mask.

Pressure can be expressed in pounds per square inch, bar, or atmospheres. At sea level, the pressure is 1 atmosphere (ata), which
is approximately equal to 1 bar or 14.7 psi or 760 mm Hg (mercury). You are used to living at 1 atmosphere (ata) of pressure, so you
rarely take notice of it. You will notice changes of pressure in your ears when swimming deeper, flying, or driving up in the
mountains. This is because your ears and sinuses have air spaces in them; therefore, they are compressible. The gas will compress
or expand proportionately to the changes in the pressure exerted on it.

Gas can be compressed. This is wonderful for divers because breathing gases (air, nitrox, etc.) can be squeezed into the diving
cylinders so that divers can take a huge volume of gas on their dives in a much smaller container. Divers need to understand that as
gas is compressed into less space, the pressure inside the space—a scuba cylinder, for example—increases proportionally. This
relationship is described by Boyle’s Law.

A potential pressure-related problem comes when you consider your lungs. If you were to take a lungful of compressed gas at depth
and were to hold your breath and start to surface, your lungs would overexpand and rupture as the air expanded. This is why divers
are told from the very first scuba lesson to never hold their breath when diving. Boyle’s Law is behind the mechanics of lung
overexpansion.

Let’s say a diver takes a full breath of compressed gas at 10 meters/33 feet/2 bar. There would be twice as much pressure on his or
her body at that depth as there is on the surface. To overcome that increased pressure and to fill the lungs, the gas would have to
be twice the density. Scuba regulators help a diver to do this.

As the absolute pressure in the water (the ambient pressure) increases or decreases as you descend or ascend, the density of gas
in your lungs increases or decreases proportionately. This means that if pressure increases, the density of gas in your lungs
increases. And so, you have to breathe out to expel the expanding “extra” gas as you surface. Grasping this concept is vitally
important to you when you are diving.

Physics | 7
Pressure, Volume, and Density

Left: A breath-hold diver’s lungs on descent will compress and then expand again on ascent.
Right: A scuba diver breathes more air on descent to keep the lungs full but must exhale on
ascent to let the expanding gas escape.

EFFECTS OF PRESSURE, VOLUME, AND DENSITY ON SCUBA DIVING

Table 1 below shows the balance between gas volume and gas density in a flexible container, like a lung. As the pressure increases
with depth, the volume will decrease, and the density will increase. This is what happens with any gas space in your body and
equipment, for example, your ears, sinuses, mask, and lungs.

DEPTH PRESSURE GAS VOLUME GAS DENSITY EXAMPLE

Sea Level 1 bar/ata/14.7 psi 1 ×1

10 m/33 ft. 2 bar/ata ½ ×2

20 m/66 ft. 3 bar/ata ⅓ ×3

30 m/99 ft. 4 bar/ata ¼ ×4

Physics | 8
Pressure, Volume, and Density

Table 2 shows that even though a diver’s lungs stay the same size at depth (the same volume), the volume of gas needed to fill
them increases proportionally as depth increases (Boyle’s Law in action). This is because as the ambient pressure surrounding a
diver increases, the air in her or his lungs has to increase as well. Increased pressure means the gas is denser, and denser gas
means more gas. Therefore, as a diver ventures deeper, he or she consumes more gas per breath.

DEPTH PRESSURE LUNG VOLUME LITERS OF GAS INHALED TO FILL LUNGS

Sea Level 1 bar/ata 4L 4L

10 m/33 ft. 2 bar/ata 4L 8L

20 m/66 ft. 3 bar/ata 4L 12 L

30 m/99 ft. 4 bar/ata 4L 16 L

As absolute pressure decreases during ASCENT, the gas volume in your lungs will increase proportionately. So, the volume of gas
expands. If a diver should hold his or her breath at 10 meters/33 feet and ascend with 8 liters of compressed gas inside lungs that
can hold only 4 liters (as in Table 1), the expanding gas would cause serious damage to the diver’s lungs.

Have you noticed anything? The biggest pressure and gas volume change is between 10 meters/33 feet and the surface. The
volume of gas doubles on ascent or halves on descent. In only a couple of meters or a few feet, the pressure differential is large.
Because of the rapid change in just 10 meters/33 feet, this is the area where you have to be the most cautious, especially with
regard to barotraumas (lung overexpansion), which can occur when you hold your breath.

REMEMBER…
Never hold your breath when scuba diving. Move up and down slowly, and do your safety stop on ascent.

Physics | 9
Pressure, Volume, and Density

EXAMPLES OF PRESSURE CHANGE IN SCUBA DIVING

The following are examples of pressure change when you scuba dive.

Mask Squeeze
As you descend, the volume of gas inside your mask will decrease due to increasing pressure. Add gas to the mask to make the
volume consistent by blowing out enough gas through your nose to equalize it.

Descending
As you descend, you will add gas to the BCD to control your descent. Also, your exposure suit has gas in it—either in the neoprene
material of a wetsuit or in the gas within the suit itself for a dry suit. So, any gas in your exposure suit will compress, making you
more negative. You will master how to deal with this and achieve neutral buoyancy using your BCD in your confined water session.

Ascending
The opposite happens during your ascent due to the decreasing ambient pressure. Gas in both your exposure suit and your BCD
will expand, and it needs to be vented to control your ascent. It is important that a diver should never ascend faster than 9 meters/30
feet per min. The reason why slow ascent rates are important will be explained in detail in the “Physiology” chapter.

Ear Equalization
Ear equalization is necessary during descent. The volume of gas in the air space in the middle ear will decrease as the ambient
pressure increases. This can cause discomfort and must be equalized (just like being in an aircraft and feeling the pressure in your
ears). This will be explained in much more detail in the “Physiology” chapter.

Lungs
As previously explained, lungs need to be equalized by continuous breathing. Not doing so can cause serious injury. Remember to
never hold your breath while scuba diving and to continuously breathe.

Physics | 10
Pressure, Volume, and Density

KEY POINTS ON PRESSURE CHANGES

Here are some key points on pressure changes.

• As pressure increases, volume decreases and vice versa. This is why you add gas to your BCD, mask, and ears as you
descend and why you gas air out of the BCD when you ascend.
• As pressure increases, gas density increases. This is why you breathe more at depth and you need to inhale more gas to
fill your lungs as you descend.
• Remember, at depth, the gas density increases, and you will consume more gas. Monitor your instruments frequently. You
will have longer dive times the shallower you are.

CALCULATING ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AND GAUGE PRESSURE

Absolute pressure is the entire or total pressure. For example, the atmospheric pressure (bar/atm) plus the water pressure. For
recreational and technical divers, bar and atm are said to be equal, whereas ata accounts for the atmospheric pressure pushing
down on the water’s surface.

Gauge pressure is a measurement that ignores the atmospheric pressure (atm—pressure of the air pushing down). At sea level
with no added pressure, gauge pressure is zero, and underwater, your submersible pressure gauge will show 10 meters/33 feet at a
depth of 10 meters/33 feet.

What is the gauge and absolute pressures at a depth of 12 meters/40 feet in salt water?

Metric

Gauge pressure (g) 1.20 atmospheres gauge and it will read 12 meters.

Absolute pressure: 1.20 bar + 1 atm = 2.20 bar/ata

Imperial

Gauge pressure (g) 1.20 atmospheres gauge and it will read 39 feet.

Absolute pressure: 1.20 bar + 1 atm = 2.20 bar/ata

To calculate absolute pressure at depth in salt water, use the following formula. (Note: msw = meters of sea water, fsw = feet of sea
water)

Metric

Depth (msw)
+ 1 atm = Pressure (ata)
10 m

Use the formula to determine the pressure at 15 msw.

15 msw
+ 1 atm = 2.5 bar/ata
10 m

Imperial

Depth (fsw)
+ 1 atm = Pressure (ata)
33 ft.

Physics | 11
Pressure, Volume, and Density

Use the formula to determine the pressure at 49 fsw.

49 fsw
+ 1 atm = 2.5 bar/ata
33 ft.

Table 3: Salt Water

DEPTH PRESSURE
(GAUGE PRESSURE) (ABSOLUTE)

6 m/20 ft. 1.6 bar/ata

15 m/49 ft. 2.5 bar/ata

20 m/66 ft. 3.0 bar/ata

25 m/82 ft. 3.5 bar/ata

32 m/105 ft. 4.2 bar/ata

Note: If you did not have to add the atmospheric pressure, then the pressure at 15 meters/49 feet would be 1.5 bar/ata. By adding
the atmospheric pressure of 1 bar/atm, you get 2.5 bar/ata.

PRESSURE CHANGE AND LUNGS

Now, you know that salt water is denser (weighs more) than fresh water. So, to get the same pressure in fresh water as salt water,
you need to descend just a little more. This means you also need to carry a little extra lead weight (ballast) in salt water compared to
fresh water to overcome the increased buoyant force. This will be discussed in more detail in the next level of training.

While freediving (with no scuba unit) on the surface, the swimmer takes a breath at 1 bar/ata on the surface and holds it. While
descending, the increased water pressure compresses the air in the diver’s lungs. When they ascend, the air expands to its original
volume—1 bar/ata. And so, it follows that a freediver can hold his or her breath while freediving with no scuba unit because the
freediver is not breathing compressed air at depth.

Scuba diving is very different. Underwater, divers breathe air at a pressure equal to the surrounding ambient pressure (atmospheric
and water pressure). Therefore, their lungs will always be at their normal volume at any depth. Refer to Table 1 again below. If
divers held their breaths on ascent, their lungs would overexpand and likely rupture. Lung overexpansion can force air into the
bloodstream and chest cavity, which can lead to serious injuries, paralysis, and even death. Lung injuries are very difficult to treat,
but we can greatly reduce the risk of them happening!

Therefore, the most important rule in scuba diving is to never hold your breath and to breathe continuously.

Physics | 12
Pressure, Volume, and Density

DEPTH PRESSURE GAS VOLUME GAS DENSITY EXAMPLE

Sea Level 1 bar/ata/14.7 psi 1 ×1

10 m/33 ft. 2 bar/ata ½ ×2

20 m/66 ft. 3 bar/ata ⅓ ×3

30 m/99 ft. 4 bar/ata ¼ ×4

STAYING UNDERWATER WITH A CYLINDER

How long can an open circuit diver stay underwater with a cylinder? The amount of time depends on a diver’s breathing rate per
minute (respiratory minute volume, or RMV) at depth. This is always converted to surface air consumption (SAC).

You will learn how to calculate your personal air consumption rate and how to use that information to estimate how much air you’ll
need for a planned dive in the “Management” chapter.

When diving open circuit, a regulator supplies air that is equal to or very slightly higher than the surrounding pressure. The deeper
you go, the more air you will consume per breath. For example, at 20 meters/66 feet/3 bar, you will breathe three times as much to
fill your lungs to their normal volume. Therefore, your air supply lasts only one-third as long at 20 meters/66 feet/3 bar as at the
surface. Simply put, if a cylinder lasts 60 minutes on the surface, it will only last 20 minutes at 20 meters/66 feet/3 bar. And in reality,
it may last even less time, because at depth you may be a little more excited and breathing a little faster!

The “Management” chapter explains this in detail and will explain how to work out the duration of your scuba cylinder for a given
dive profile. It’s an easy and straightforward process that will help to prevent you from the stress of unexpectedly running out of gas
at depth.

Physics | 13
Gas

GAS
EFFECT OF GASES ON SCUBA DIVING

All divers must always know what gases they are breathing. Divers must also understand how being underwater affects those gases
and how those changes affect their body.

As we breathe diving gases at greater and greater depths, the increased pressure required to fill our lungs starts to affect gas
behavior. Water cannot be compressed, but in contrast, gases can be compressed.

Diving too deep with gases can have serious effects on a diver’s body and can cause serious injury, even death.

Physics | 14
Gas

OXYGEN AND NITROGEN

Oxygen is the gas your body uses to maintain life. Too little of it and you’ll pass out and eventually perish, but too much of it can also
be harmful. As a gas on the periodic table, it is represented by the symbol O and has an atomic number 8. It is an important
component of the air that you breathe. It makes up about 21% of normal air.

Nitrogen is called an inert gas, but it is not truly inert at more than 1 atmosphere of pressure. Unlike a noble gas, it reacts with
various biological processes in a diver’s body as he or she goes deeper. Air is about 78% nitrogen. Nitrogen gas is represented by
the symbol N and has an atomic number of 7. It is a component of all living organisms. However, in its pure form, it has no vital use
for humans above water. Underwater, nitrogen needs to be carefully tracked. Nitrogen gas that has built up in body tissues as you
breathe at greater pressures at depth needs to be released from the body slowly as you ascend. If not, it can lead to decompression
problems.

Many other gases make up the remaining 1% of compressed air. A few of them are argon, carbon dioxide, helium, hydrogen,
methane, and neon. Except for carbon dioxide, most of these gases have no effect when underwater.

Physics | 15
Partial Pressure of Gas

PARTIAL PRESSURE OF GAS

EFFECT OF PARTIAL PRESSURE ON SCUBA DIVING

The total pressure of a gas, such as air, is calculated as the sum or total of all the partial pressures of its component gases. For
example, the air you breathe every day here on the surface is made up of a mixture of gases, mainly oxygen and nitrogen. The
pressure of air/gas at sea level is 1 bar/ata, and it is approximately 21% oxygen plus 79% nitrogen (78% N2 +1% inert gas).
However, an important variable component in the air you breathe on the surface is water vapor. At tropical temperatures and when
the relative humidity is high, the partial pressure of water vapor in the air can be considerable (as much as 4%). However, the
compressed air you use for diving has had almost all the water vapor removed, so at sea level, you can say the pressure of oxygen
in your breathing gas is 0.21 bar/ata and nitrogen is 0.79 bar/ata, and the total pressure is calculated as 0.21 bar/ata + 0.79 bar/ata
= 1 bar/ata.

Open circuit works with a fixed amount of oxygen, but the oxygen partial pressure changes as the depth of the dive increases or
decreases. For example, the 21% oxygen in a cylinder of air is affected by the pressure at depth and its partial pressure increases in
direct proportion to the ambient pressure. For example, at 20 meters/66 feet (the depth limit for an Open Water 20 diver), the oxygen
partial pressure is increased to 0.63 bar/ata—three times its partial pressure on the surface—because the air you breathe at that
depth has three times the density.

Partial pressure is important to know on a rebreather or open circuit nitrox dive, which are both covered in additional diver training
courses.

Physics | 16
Partial Pressure of Gas

CALCULATING PARTIAL PRESSURE

The table below shows that with a fixed gas percentage (%), the partial pressures (pp) will change in open circuit diving.

Table 4

OXYGEN OXYGEN NITROGEN NITROGEN TOTAL

DEPTH PRESSURE
(%) (PP) (%) (PP) PRESSURE

Sea Level 1 bar/ata 21% 0.21 79% 0.79 1 bar/ata

10 m/33 ft. 2 bar/ata 21% 0.42 79% 1.58 2 bar/ata

20 m/66 ft. 3 bar/ata 21% 0.63 79% 2.37 3 bar/ata

30 m/99 ft. 4 bar/ata 21% 0.84 79% 3.16 4 bar/ata

40 m/132 ft. 5 bar/ata 21% 1.05 79% 3.95 5 bar/ata

These calculations are very simple. You just need a calculator, and you need to refer to Table 4.

• What is the total pressure at sea level?

Answer: 0.21 + 0.79 = 1 bar
• What is the pp of oxygen at 20 meters/66 feet/3 bar?
Answer: The fraction of oxygen = 0.63
• How do you get 0.63?
Answer: 0.21 oxygen (at 1 bar/sea level) x 3 (3 bar) = 0.63

Questions (using normal air)

a. What is the pp of oxygen at 30 meters/99 feet?

b. What is the pp of nitrogen at 40 meters/132 feet?
c. What is the total ppO2 and ppN2 at 20 meters/66 feet?

Answers

a. 0.21 × 4 = 0.84 ppO2

b. 0.79 × 5 = 3.95 ppN2
c. 0.63 + 2.37 = 3 bar

Table 4 is in reference to open circuit scuba, air is a fixed fraction of gas in the cylinder which cannot change while underwater. You
will notice the percentage of gas (fraction) does not change. If the percentage of gas remains the same, then the partial pressure will
change. This has some advantages, although there are more disadvantages, and you can read more about this in the “Physiology”
chapter.

Physics | 17
Partial Pressure of Gas

DALTON’S LAW
The total pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is the sum of the pressures that would be exerted by each gas if it
were alone, present, and occupying the entire space:
Ptotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + … + Pn

MAXIMUM OPEN CIRCUIT DEPTHS

The maximum depth advanced recreational (non-decompression) divers should go to is 40 meters/130 feet. But remember that you
need to log experience at shallower depths and then take additional training programs to explore these depths.

At 40 meters/130 feet, there is little time to do anything because you will consume your limited air supply more rapidly, and your
nitrogen loading is building up fast. Have a look at your dive computer and see what the planned time for 40 meters/130 feet is.
Allowable time at these depths (without getting into required decompression) is so minimal that some divers go on to learn about
technical or decompression diving to allow them longer bottom times. There are certain benefits to decompression diving, but this is
a subject of further high-level training.

For now, you are concentrating on your first program and the exciting things you can see when diving less than 20 meters/66 feet.
The great benefit is that we have much more time to relax and to enjoy what we are seeing.

REMEMBER…
For the Junior Scuba Diver and Scuba Diver programs, you will be certified to dive to a maximum depth of 12
meters/40 feet.

For the Junior Open Water program, you will be certified to dive to a maximum depth of 15 meters/50 feet.

For the Open Water 20 program, you will be certified to dive to a maximum depth of 20 meters/60 feet.

Physics | 18
Air, Vision, Color, Sound, and Heat

AIR, VISION, COLOR, SOUND, AND HEAT

CONTAMINATED AIR
Scuba cylinders are filled using a compressor designed for scuba. The compressor has a filter that reduce the potential for
contaminated air. Two potential contaminants are carbon monoxide and oil vapor. They can cause serious injury if inhaled,
especially underwater. Trace contaminants may produce mild or no symptoms on the surface. But as ambient pressure increases at
depth, so does the partial pressure of the contaminants in the breathing gas.

You may be able to taste or smell certain contaminants. However, many are odorless and tasteless. Common symptoms of
contaminated air are dizziness, headaches, and nausea. If a diver breathes in a lot of carbon monoxide, he or she may have lips
and fingernail beds that are bright red or pink. If you suspect that you have contaminated gas, DO NOT DIVE. In severe cases, and
certainly when signs and symptoms persist, seek medical attention.

Instances of getting contaminated gas are rare. With regular compressor service and filter changes, it is highly unlikely. But always
purchase your air fills from reputable and professional dive stores.

VISION

Vision is affected greatly underwater. Objects will appear about a third larger and closer underwater. This is because of the way light
refracts, or bends, through the mask lens. The magnification of an object depends on the following.

• Turbidity of the water

• Design of the mask lens
• Distance from the mask lens to the diver’s eyes

You need a mask because your eyes are designed to resolve an image in air. The ability of human eyes to focus depends on how
the light enters the eye. When underwater, light enters a diver’s eyes at a different angle, and if the scuba mask did not have an air
gap, the diver would see objects that were out of focus. New divers may have a tough time adjusting to the magnification of near
objects when underwater. After a few dives, they may hardly notice its effect.

Look at the image of the pencil in the glass of water. You can see how the pencil appears to be larger in the water.

Physics | 19
Air, Vision, Color, Sound, and Heat

COLOR

Color becomes visible when certain wavelengths of light reflect off an object. Colors change quite dramatically underwater. The
wavelengths of light bend or are filtered out. Long wavelengths, such as red and orange, are absorbed by water. Short wavelengths,
such as blue, are scattered. This gives clear water its blue appearance.

In murky water, there is less light penetration. Things have a greenish-yellow appearance. If you were to cut yourself, the blood will
look green or brown. Even under the best conditions, colors will fade the deeper you dive. The way colors are absorbed impacts
underwater photography. A good light source is needed for vibrant images. Photographers often use a red filter to get images with
deep natural light. The filter helps remove some of the blue color.

The sun’s angle also has a direct effect on visibility. The water surface can behave like a mirror. When the sun is directly overhead,
most of the light will enter the water. But at dawn and dusk, the light may reflect off the surface. It may also not penetrate the water.

Poor light source Good light source

Physics | 20
Air, Vision, Color, Sound, and Heat

SOUND
Sound travels farther and faster in water than in air. As a result, marine animals, such as whales, can use sounds to talk with one
another from far away. Other animals, such as shrimp, use sound to hunt.

When underwater, divers can struggle to locate the direction of the sound. On land, sound has time to enter the ears at different
instances. Therefore, human brains can find out the direction of the sound more easily. In water, the sound will seem to be coming
from directly overhead. While underwater, an open circuit diver will continually exhale gas. That sound is loud and reduces the
diver’s ability to hear other sounds.

HEAT LOSS IN WATER

Have you ever noticed that you feel perfectly comfortable walking around in 20° Celsius/68° Fahrenheit but that water of the same
temperature feels quite cold? It is because water is a much better conductor of heat than air. When diving, the water that comes in
contact with your body warms up, expands, and quickly carries the heat away from you. As a result, you feel cold in no time. In
effect, your body will lose heat (through thermal radiation and heat conduction) about 20 times faster in water than in air, thus
emphasizing the importance of good thermal protection for a wetsuit, semi-dry suit, or drysuit.

Another reason for greater heat loss when diving is breathing on open circuit. Breathing on open circuit generally accounts for about
a quarter of your body’s heat loss because your body has to heat inhaled cold compressed air for the gas exchange in your lungs to
happen efficiently. After warming it up, warm air is exhaled, and the heat is lost. The inhaled gas from a regulator can be as much as
15° Celsius to 20° Celsius/27° Fahrenheit to 36° Fahrenheit colder than the surrounding water temperature. So, a diver cools from
the inside out on every open circuit exhalation.

Temperature is important to consider when immersed. Even in warm water, a small drop in body temperature can be serious. Divers
wear exposure suits to reduce heat loss. Diving suits are either sealed dry suits that do not allow any water in or wet suits where
some water gets in.

Unfortunately, underwater physics throws divers another problem: the increasing pressure compresses the insulating gas bubbles
inside the exposure suit, making it less effective the deeper you go. That’s why there are recommendations as to what type and
thickness of wetsuit you should wear in different water temperatures. Consult the dive center in the area you are planning to dive
regarding what type of protection would be best for you.

Physics | 21