Advantage of Lecturing The greatest advantage of lecture over other methods is that it is economical.

The Lecturer can supplement a textbook by enhancing a topic and making it come to life. During a lecture, the teacher serves as a role model for students. The teacher is an authority on the subject and is a model of someone who has developed expertise in a field and who cares about knowledge and learning. An advantage of the mostly one-way verbal communication that occurs during a lecture is that it it helps students develop their listening abilities. The Lecture method has enough advantages to warrant its continued use .Good Lecturers are often gifted with some of the same qualities that make a successful actor, that is, a good memory. They like being in the limelight and gestures, A sense of humor and a good memory. (Sandra Deyoung) -Disadvantages of Lecturing The chief disadvantages of the lecture method is that by nature it lends itself to the teaching of facts while placing little emphasis on problem solving, decision making, analytical thinking or transfer of learning. Another serious drawback is that lecturing is not conductive to meeting students individual learning need. Students are limited to learning from an authority figure and learning by the stimulation of only one of the senses hearing. In a formal lecture, students have no opportunity to learn from peers, to learn by manipulation of data, to discover, to learn visually through touch and so on. The lecture works best for auditory, linguistic learners and may disadvantage those with other learning styles. Lecturing brings with it the problem of limited attention span on the part of learners. (Sandra Deyoung) --

Delivering the Lecture Contolling Anxiety If you are at all anxious about giving your lecture , you need to think about contolling your anxiety. An effective contol mechanism is visualization. You visualize yourself as you want to appear to your audience. Do you want to appear organized and in contol? Think about what an organized person looks like in front of a classroom and picture yourself acting that way. Do you want to convey the image of a scholar and an expertin your field? How does a scholarly expert act or talk? That is how you need to picture yourself in your mind. Having this preffered image in your mind can increase your self concept and your confidence. (Sandra Deyoung) --

Spontaneity The most valuable advice I can give about lecture technique is to avoid reading to the class. To avoid the temptation to read , do not write your lecture out in full sentences. If your notes are in form of lists and phrases , you will have to think during the delivery. If you review your notes before the lecture and rehearse the delivery at home , you will feel secure enough without any written script in front of you. Organization of letter could suffer if you forget the order in which you planned your content. It is possible for any educator to draw a blank for a moment and be unable to recall what comes next , notes are a lifesaver in such instances. (Sandra Deyoung) --

Voice Quality If your voice is not loud enough for everyone on the class to hear easily , use a microphone if possible. You can also learn how to project your voice with a few pointers from a speech teacher and with some practice. It is very frustrating for the audience if they have to strain to hear your ,either because your voice is always too soft or because you drop off your voice volume at the end of a sentence ( Lang,2007 ). --

Body Language You can add to the dramatic quality of your lecturing by your movements. Do not stand glued to one spot at the back of a podium. Move to the side occasionally Or stand infront of the podium or even sit on the desk for a while. Use your hands for emphasis , but do not move them to the point that they detract from the message. Be aware of your body language. Keeping your arms folded or wringing your hands or playing with a piece of chalk or a paper clip can all indicate to your audience that you are nervous. If you have ever been in a class with a teacher who has annoying mannerisims, you know how distracting that can be. Common mannerisims are pacing , clicking fingers ,jingiling coins in a pocket , brushing hair off the face , and using two fingers to represent quotation marks. Verbal habits may be even more intolerable for the audience. There are lecturers who frequently say uh or okay? or and so forth . (Sandra Deyoung) --

Speed of Delivery The pacing of a lecture affects both the learners comprehension and enjoyment of the material. Too slow a pace can induce boredom , but too fast a pace can result in writers cramp for students as they struggle to take notes and to understand what

is being said. A pause now and again helps the students to catch up and gives both them and you a few seconds to reflect on what has been said . it also gives the class a chance to ask questions that may be necessary to clarify the material. ( Zerr,2004 ) --

Getting off on the Right Foot The way you begin a lecture sets the tone for all that follows. Try to avoid just walking into the class and immediately launching into the lecture. A little casual conversation for a minute or two in the beginning helps you to relax and to establish some rapport with the audience. Then try to give an opening attention getter . Davis (2005) recommends starting with something novel , incongruent, or emotional, such as a skit, joke, demonstration or storytelling. If these suggestions are too dramatic for you , begin with a thought provoking question or some news breaking information. (Sandra Deyoung) Clarifying during the Lecture Clarifying confusing of difficult concepts during a lecture is essential. Clarification can be done effectively by means of examples and analogies rather than repetition. When Davis (1965) observed master lecturers in his timeless and interesting study, he noted that popular master lecturers used abundant examples. Whether from real life or hypothetical, examples not only clarify but also help to apply concepts. For example , in a lecture about research hypotheses, a score of examples from actual research could be used to explain the need for hypotheses, how they are developed , and types that exist. (Sandra Deyoung) Facilitating Retrieval from Memory There are several techniques that you can use during the delivery of a lecture that will help listeners to later remember the information. One method is Repetition. Although ,as was just mentioned, repetition does not help to clarify confusing or difficult points , it does help to fix information in memory and make it more likely to be retrieved at a later time. Repetition can be overdone, but simple repetition of important ideas at transitional points in the lecture can be effective. Elaboration is another form of repetition ( Parker, 1993). In Elaboration, repeated points are fleshed out in more detail

when mentioned the second time in the lecture. Although many teachers feel that they cannot spare the time to repeat information. If it means the difference between people really learning and remembering the material or forgetting it soon after, it is worth the time. Imagery is another mechanism by which information can be lodged in memory for later retrieval. The Brain encodes information in the form of either words of mental pictures (Parker, 1993) Lecture Frameworks Hierarchical or Classical Lecture Is the most commonly used, especially in nursing. In this approach, information is grouped, divided and subdivided in typical outline form. Example: Research Design 1. Why we need different research designs 2. Research Designs A. Experimental ( clinical trials ) 1. Pre Experimental 2. Quasi Experimental B. Correlational 1. Ex Post Facto ( comparative ) 2. Retrospective and Prospective 3. Cross-sectional and Longitudinal C. Descriptive D. Qualitative 1. Ethnographic 2. Phenomenological 3. Grounded Theory 4. Validity and Reliability of Designs This is the simplest lecture framework and is very way for learners to follow, especially if the outline is visually presented on slides or transparencies. It is most appropriate for teaching of facts and for introducing difficult material ( Bligh, 2000 )

Problem-centered Lecture

In this structure, a problem is posed and various hypotheses and solutions are developed. The structure might look similar to the following example of teaching the basic concepts of fever and its causes and treatment when problems.

Example: Solutions Infection Problem: Fever Hypotheses: Inflammation Dehydration Comparative Lecture The objective is to different between two entities. The chart type format may be actually presented to the learners to help them visualize the comparisons. Example: Variable Education Professional Status Autonomy Clinical Skills Prescription Privileges Salary Nurse Practitioner Physicians Assistants Antibiotics Heat Application Fluids and Electrolytes

Thesis Lecture This involves the lecturer taking a position on an issue or a particular viewpoint on a subject and then supporting or justifying that viewpoint or position with evidence or logic ( Bligh,2000 ). Example: Lecture on the topic of passive euthanasia , with the basis being that , ethically, passive euthanasia the beginning of a slippery slope. Advantages of Discussion The most obvious purpose of discussions is to give learners an opportunity to apply principles , concepts and theories and in that process, to transfer their learning to New and different situations. This approach pre supposes that the learners have already been introduced to a body of information on which they can base their discussion. For example, a group of nurses may have heard an in-service lecture on management styles or read some articles on management as theories. They may then come together for a discussion about management as it takes place on specific patient care units. Another purpose is clarification of information and concepts. The group that was discussing management theory may have been a difficult time grasping a particular complex theory. Discussion of the theory with explanations from the instructor and the group members may help to clarify obscure points. The discussion method, perhaps more than any other , helps the teacher gauge learners understanding as learning is taking place. Misconceptions and hazy thinking can be assessed and corrected immediately. Through discussions, students can learn the process of group problem solving. The discussion group may divided into subgroups so that each can work on some aspect of the problem, or the entire group can work together to fully define the problem and then work toward a solution. From this interaction, participants learn how different people apply the steps of the problem solving process, and they learn to draw on the expertise of group members, capitalizing on each others strengths. An example of group problem solving with beginning nursing students might be a discussion of ways to reduce anxiety in hospitalized adults , with upper level nursing students , it could be a discussion of ways to improve the image of the nursing profession. With a group of parents of asthmatic children, a discussion could be held on ways of balancing the childs need for exercise with the need to prevent exertional attacks. Discussions with nurses of nursing students about professional , societal , or ethical issues can help participants develop and evaluate their beliefs and positions. In the give and take with other group members, they learn whether their position is clear, logical and defensible. They get immediate feedback on the position they have taken. At

the same time, they are listening to the arguments of others, analyzing and weighing them, and accepting or rejecting them. In other words , participants are getting practice in using critical thinking skills. With practice, they realize what they have to say and how they have to say it if they are to make their point and have an impact on the group. Attitudes can be changed through discussion. As Bligh ( 2000 ) points out, the effectiveness of discussion in changing attitudes and values has been so well documented through earlier research conducted from the 1940s through the 1970s that no one spends time anymore trying to prove it. As people hear varying viewpoints and begin to look at issues and situations through the eyes and experiences of others, their own attitudes develop. Therefore, if you identify the need to change attitudes among individuals, discussion strategies should be considered. Finally, an advantage of the discussion method is that many students like it and may even prefer it to other method ( Beishline & Holmes, 1997 ). Disadvantage of Discussion One drawback of discussions is that they take a lot of time. There is no doubt that discussion is an inefficient way to communicate information. Methods such as lecture or computer-assisted instruction are superior in terms of the time efficiency. Conventional wisdom tells us that the discussion method is effective only with small groups, which makes it an expensive strategy. McKeachie ( 2002 ) believes that discussions can be held with groups of all sizes. One approach is to divide a large class into smaller discussion groups. The disadvantage of this procedure is that the teacher cannot be moderator and facilitator for all groups at the same time. Another approach advocated by McKeachie is an inner circle or fishbowl technique in which an inner circle of 6 to 15 students is involved in most of the discussion while the outer circle observes. You can rotate students through the inner circle in sub sequent discussions. There is no doubt that small group discussion is more effective in most situations because more students can take an active role. Finally, many discussions are valuable only if the participants come prepared with the necessary background information. The contribution of uninformed opinions and misinformation benefits no one, and the discussion becomes simply a sharing of each others ignorance.