CHAPTER MISCELLANEOUS (6) ROLE OF SURVEYORS IN MINES Previously the job of mine surveyors was mainly an activity following the mining work. Later the survey measurements increased in importance by the precalculation of direction and height of the mines in relation to mines safety and operation. Due to rapid mechanisation of the mines today, survey planning in advance of mining operation has gained importance. With nationalisation of mines in India, high degree of specialisation is inevitable to cope up with massive reconstruction problems and mining risk and loss of production will have to be reduced to minimum. A mining surveyor can certainly assist in reducing cost and mining risk both by controlling subsidence damage and taking seam interaction into account at the planning stage, the latter factor becoming important as more and more seams are worked. In view of the changing climate of the industry a mine surveyor will be required to play an importantrole in planing and management and will be required to provide a liason between operational and planning officials. Checking Accuracy of Old Plans : For checking accuracy of old plans, the attention should be” directed to the following heads : (1) Magnetic meridian with date on the plans; (2) Scale of the plan; (3) Whether plotted by the co-ordinates or by protractor, (4) Shrinkage and deterioration of the material on which the plan has been drawn; (5) Omission to show any workings; (6) Omission to correlate the underground workings with the surface. In a number of old mines, the original plans and sections have been maintained on tracing cloth alone, without having any base plan. In a majority of mines a standard practice for survey, compu- tation, finding out closing error and its distribution, and plotting through co-ordinate system, does not exist. In some mines, updating of the plans has been done by making galleries along the projected drawings without conducting any survey. Such vital matters must be carefully looked into. The following procedure should be adopted for testing accuracy of such plans : (2) The pit notes from which the survey plans had been plotted should be checked, if avail- able. (b) Shrinkage of plans should be ascertained. in large plans it may not be uniform, being greater at some parts than at other. (©) Methods of correlation should be scrutinised and check made as to whether the whole of the underground working have been surveyed. (@) The method of plotting the surveys should be noted. Plotting by co-ordinates is obviously more accurate than by any other means. Having established that the old plans are upto the required standard surveyor should make further checks as follows : 14. Calculate distances between established survey points on the plan and compare to scaled distance.202 MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING 2. Check survey into any working on the old plans which may still be accessible. 3. Compare levels or contours shown on the plan with the levels that should be expected froma present survey. . 4. Compare the position of surface features shown on the old plan with their known surveyed position. 5. Acareful correlation survey should also be carried out and the underground working sur- veyed to check the authenticity of the old plan. . To make the Scheme Realistic : In addition to being capable of handling all survey problems from running a short traverse to establishing a precise control net work, he must have thorough knowledge of all aspects of mine surveying including such delicate operations as shaft plumbing or problems of piercing a long tunnel. He should be able to perform work with speed, efficiency and economy and be familiar with regulations. At the same time he should be familiar with and be capable of handling modern ‘electronic distance measuring instruments; electronic data processing, photogrammetry, etc. equally well and be able to make decision spontaneously., He should have a basic understanding of mining engineering, geology, rock mechanics, etc. for the success of his job. A certain amount of training in subsidence engineering will be useful to a mine a surveyor as he is also dally In contact with the Workinfy face and is able to note changes in condition and recording these changes in plans. Mining companies should make a realistic appraisal of the survey and supporting personnel réquired to fulfil statutory and other obligations : ‘ + @ They should recruit survey apprentices from fresh science graduates with sound know!- edge inmathematics. ~ (0) , They should take steps for training of the existing surveyors either by opening specialised courses in the existing institutions or entering into collaboration with Mining Polytechnics. (©) Asuitable survey cadre scheme should be formulated to attract and retain qualified and competent surveyors. : () _ Basic requirements to carry out efficient survey work and preparation of plans in terms of equipment, material and accommodation should be ensured. (€) _ Existing survey personnel should be given refresher training and exposed to modem sur- vey instruments and techniques. (f. The work of correlation of mine plans and linking them upto the National Grid to the re- quired standard of accuracy should be expedited. (g) Suitable techniques should be developed for assessing the positions and conditions of inaccessible old waterlogged and other workings. SHAFT SURVEYING Shaft surveying includes not only the detail surveying of vertical shafts, but also the methods employed to keep them vertical and to ensure their depths. This work usually involves the suspension Of plumb-wires and is by no means a simple and straight forward matter. Centre Mark of Sinking Shaft : When a new vertical mine shaft has to be sunk it is part of the Surveyor's duly to set out the shaft ir !ts correct position leaving, al the same time, sufficient contro! Points for setting out the winding-engine houses and major surface buildings and to maintain the verti- ‘ality and correct shape of the shaft during sinking.MISCELLANEOUS 203 When the site, shape and size of the shaft has been decided upon and plans of the surface plant and buildings drawn, the next step. is to set off the centre of the shai. It is usually necessary to consolidate around the site of the proposed shaft and a certain amount of levelling the ground may be necessary prior tothe erection of the surface plant. ee ats ‘The precise position of the St et shaft centre may be fixed by lining out two cross-lines in line with the winding engine and at right angles thereto, thelr point of intersection being the shaft centre. The perimeter of the area to be excavated is 6 pegged out, using a radius rod, the ea actual diameter of this will depend. IRONBOLTS ATCENTRE a upon the finished diameter of the shaff, the permanent lining and na- ture of the ground. As the centre peg will be removed when sinking is begun, some permanent marks are fixed in the ground at specified and recorded distances from the centrdlgn the two diameters. The station marks are formed by concrete pillars, 0.6 m square and 1 mdeep having iron bolts inserted into each pillar with centres marked as shown in the figure. The exact centre of the shatt may be found at any time cross- stringing from these pillars. 2 Checking Verticality: During sinking a shaff, itis essential to makeerrangements for suspending a « plumb line in the exact centre of the shaft. The preliminary excavation through any surface deposits down to the rockhead rarely represents difficulty form the point of view of maintaining verticality, as the distance is not generally great. Upto this depth the intersection of the two lines may be marked on the surface, scaffolding erected across the shaft top and a temporary plumb wire suspended from the position when required. a z LAYING OFF SHAFT CENTRE A....Rack & Pinion Gear B....Plumb Wire Reel Plumb Wire Outer Pulley foothed Rack Cavity for Plumb Bob Centre-Line Apparatus The first part of the shaft lining, whether it be a brickwork, concrete or metal tubbing usually .204 MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING : ‘erected on the rockhead, and at the same time the massive foundations for the headgear structure are laid down at the surface. During sinking a plumb line is suspended in the exact centre of the shaft with a special centre line apparatus as shown in the figure when it is intended to set out the work from the vertical line. Apparatus required : 1. Centre-line apparatus. « 2. Radius rod, 4 cm * 4 cm x Gross radius of shaft. 3. Long spirit level. 4. Bucket of water. The centre-line apparatus consists of (a) a centre pulley frame running in a _ (bya centre pulley, (c) a plumb-wire reel, and (d). rack and pinion device for sliding the frame into the shaft. When the apparatus is in use the accurate positioning of the centre pulley is ensured with the stop blocks provided for the purpose. These stop blocks are adjusted at the start of sinking to set the positions of the plumb-wire in correct shaft centre as it hangs in the shaft is checked at regular intervals and any adjustment ta compensate the wear, etc. can then be made by adjusting the position of stop blocks. - During the plumbing operation, the winding of debris, etc. from the shaft bottom Is stopped and the centre pulley frame is racked forward into the shaft to the required distance. The plumb-wire is then unwound and the plumb bob is lowered to the required depth. The plumb bob is allowed to hang freely ‘In a bucket of water to cut down its oscillations. ‘A graduated radius rod having a length equaltto the gross radius of the shaftis used to ensure that the shaft and its walling are being maintained at the correct rddius from the centre line. A spirit level isused to make the rod truly horizontal. When the plumbing of the shaft is completed, the bob is wound to the surface and the centre pulley frame Is withdrawn in the recess provided. Where the shaft is very deep, it may considered more expedient to carry out the plumbing in stages. A second centering device Is to be built on the shaft lining after a-certain depth (about 400m - 500m) so that the plumb-wire again occupies the central position. Forlarge diameter shafts, it may be preferable to use more than one plumb-wire ‘for setting out the shaft-lining curbs. In such cases four wires are suspended to ensure most accurate results. : ‘The laser alignment aytem has been used for shaft plumbing and verticality survey. Marking offset measurements to spot drilholes and Using the radius-rod with the laser beam as a centre, drillhole patterns may be laid out which will save both time and manpower in shaft sinking. BOREHOLE SURVEYING ). Deep boreholes are liable to deflection either due to faulty drilling technique or due to certain geological factors. Surveying of boreholes, thus becomes essential if the geological data obtained by driling is to be assembled in the correct perspective or correlated with the data obtained by driling in the adjacent areas. Itis, In fact, a method of underground surveying under special circumstances where the survayor has no direct access. Boreholes are usually tested for verticality at intervals of 75 metres to 150 metres. : There are various methods of surveying boreholes. These are— 4. Photographic method or by Photociinometer. @>MISCELLANEOUS 205 .2. Inclinometer method— (2) Using Hydrofluorie acid in glass cylinder. (b) Using copper sulphate solution in Iron cylinder. 3, Mac Geoge’s Gelatine method. 4. Mass compass method. 5. Gyro compass method. . 6. Briggs clinophone method. 7. Syfo clinograph method. In the methods of borehole surveying, distances ([.e. depths either vertical or inclined) are measured by means of the drill rods. The inclination of the borehole, at the point of measurement, is indicated by a plumb bob arrangement, either directly or indirectly. A magnetic compass or gyro com- * pass is employed for obtaining the bearing of the borehole at the point of measurement. All dala .e., the inclination and the bearing are recorded elther directly or photographically. ‘The most modem and accurate method of borehole surveying is by means of a gyro compass. This is suitable for work in areas even where magnetic influence is very pronounced. Gyro Compass Method : The gyro compass Is essentially a gyroscope or spinning disc. In effect, the. gyro is very much like the spinning top. Just as the upper end of the top's axis, while spinning steadily and after standing vertically, shows a circular movement about its vertical axis, the gyro also behaves similarly. This movement of the axis, is akin to that of the earth's axis and is known as precession. When the gyro axle (3-3) is oriented in a random position, making an angle with the true north, then the torque Is impressed on the spinning wheel (w) about 3-3. This is mainly caused by the rotation of the earth from west to east, which makes the wheel (w) titton 1-1. This tit iniiates a precession. If, however the axle 3-3 can be maintained in a horizontal position, by the use of a pendulum (x) attached tothe 1-1 axis, hen precession Is about the 2-2 axis, The precession stops once the 3-3 axis aligns itself with the true North-South direction. The gyro compass was first available for use, only in the large diameter boreholes, but now models for use in holes upto about § cms. diameter are available. The instrument is housed in a shell with a diameter of 4.5 cms. Once the gyro compass Is set in motion and corrected for precession, the ‘exis maintains a ‘constant direction irrespective of the movement of the housing. Thus the gyro device is206 MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING proof, against effects of deflection as well as that caused extraneous magnetism, and provides the basis of directional correlation azimuth. A plumb bob is included in the assemblage, for indicating the inclination of the hole. The measurements are made continuously on a 16 mm camera film. The entire equipmentis lowered into the borehole, by wire line, and the time taken for recording each exposure is only 30 seconds. The spool containing enough film length, for even the deepest borehole. Continuous Photographic recording of the position of the gyro axis and the plumb bob simultaneously, provides a very clear picture of the deflections and deviations of boreholes. Photographic Method : In this method, the apparatus used comprises a metallic cylinder (c) which is attached to the end of the drill rods (T). At the bottom of the cylinder, is a spring loaded marking device or scriber (S) which makes deep linear mark on the top of the stub at bottom of the hole. Within the cylindrical housing, Is a sensitised disc of photographic paper (P), over which is a free moving magnetic needle attached to a graduated transparent scale (D). Immediately above the centre of the trans- parent disc is a plumb bob (B). The centre of the disc and the point of suspension of the plumb bob are in alignment when the equipment is vertical. On the same alignment Is, a collimation hole (H) above which is a small battery operated electric lamp (L). The shadows of the magnetic needle, and the plumb line fall on the photographic paper, ‘and thus the direction of the deviation and amount are recorded. A continuous record Is possible, where the disc of photographic paper is replaced by a roll of paper moved by electric motor. Maas Method : This utilises a glass tube closed at each end by a cork and partly filled with hydrofiuo- tic acid. The lower cork algo fits Into the neck of a thermos flask holding worm gelatine in which is a floating ane compass. The whole assembly is mounted within a brass cassing and screwed to the end of the bore rods. The gelatine is heated to the liquid state and the apparatus is lowered into the borehole with the result that the tube and flask become tilted according to the deviation of the hole. The surface of the acid and the gelatine, however, remain level and the mark etched by the acid on the glass is an Indication of the angle of deviation at the point of observation. The gelatine when cooled, becomes: congealed and fixes the compass needle, so en- abling the direction of deviation also to be deter- mined, as well as giving further Indication of the angle. 1. Hydrofuric acid 2. Compass 3. Gelatine In some sections of Khetri Copper belt, Rajasthan, drill holes have been surveyed by this method with good result. Mac George's Method : In this case a glass tube with a bulb at one end, fits within alarger glass tubeMISCELLANEOUS 207 with a bulb at the opposite end, the whole being enclosed within a brass sheath. Each bulb is filled with hot gelatine which cools slowly and congeals. One bulb houses a ‘small floating magnetic compass, and the other a small floating glass phummet. The position of the magnetic needle and plummet after the gelatine has set enable the deviation of the borehole to be ascertained. SURVEY WORK FOR ABANDONED MINE PLAN When the workings of any mine are to be abandoned, the owner of the mine at the time of abandonment has to submit within 30 days after abandonment two true copies of the Abandonment Mine Plan, ie. the underground plan and section of the workings of the mine. The position of the up-to- date workings in relation to important surface structures and boundary of leasehold must be shown on the plan. The survey work consists of three main steps— . 4. Toperform surface traverse with theodolite, steel band and tape to determine the positions of important surface features. 2. Toperform correlation work to fix underground points in relation to surface points. 3. To perform underground traverse with theodolite to the last point of every gallery and to collect all particulars required to make the plan accuraté and up-to-date. The spot levels at the ends of workings should also be taken. Particulars to be Shown: The Abandoned Mine Plan shall show— (@) The bearing and distance of at least one of the shafts or openings of the mine from a ._ trijunction or revenue pillar or from any other prominent surface feature. (b) . . The position of all water dams built belowground with their dimensions and other particu- lars of construction. (c) The spot levels at the ends of the workings. (@) Whether the workings are connected to adjacent mines (or other seams) and If so, the connection should be shown on the plan. : (©) Positions of all pumps and lodgements underground. If the workings are inaccessible for inspection and surveying purposes, the-fact should be clearly indicated. Whenever possible, in addition to the mouza boundaries, all important surface fea- tures of permanent nature (railway, roads, etc.) should be shown. When the village boundaries a7e shown, the names of the village on all sides should be given on the plan. SIZE OF SHAFT PILLAR There is diversity of opinions for determining the size of a shaft pillar. There are— (a) Mines Engineer's Rule - D R= 183+ oN Where R = Radius of pillar in metres, D = Depth of shaft in metres and t= Thickness of seam in metre.208 MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING (b) Pamely's Rule ‘ Upto 90 metres of depth, pillar size = 36m For greater depths, pillar size = 36m +1 m for every 4 m depth. (©) Wardte's Rute Size of shaft pillar should not be less than 36.5 m x 36.5 m upto 110 m depth, thereafter for every 36.5 m depth increase by 9 metres. (@) Dron’s Rule Size of pillar = a) beyond the line enclosing the area to be supported at surface. ;(@) Hughes's Rule R=3D fH) Foster Rule R =35r (g) Roberton’s Rule R =2 + 2VDt All the above rules are for calculating shaft pillars in flat coal seams. The size of a shaft pillar depends on the value of the angles of draw of overlying strata which may vary in different kinds of strata, and even for similar types of strata it may vary in different localities. In 4oose strata this angle will be much flatter than in the solid strata. (h) O'Donahues Rule ‘Angle of draw with vertical plane in horizontal beds of sand stone and shale Is positive and equals 8°. : Ininctined beds, the angle of draw (@ ) for the rise side of pillar, er=8+2p For dip dise of pillar, 3 : 0d =8- = 2-8 tag S42 where cod = 1908-1143 = 7.65 units; o+d 2 ord 2 = 19.08 + 11.43 = 30.51 units, (C+D) +2 = (180°- 80) +2 = 50°, tan 50° = 1.1917596. 4.1017536 = 02981172 = tan 16°98. 20 NE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING +, Angle C= 50+ 10°38, = 068 Now invangle CAE. angle CAE = 00°- 66738 = 2°22 Bearing of a dip = 5 (30-2972) W= 8 38 W. tan tans? tanue dps MEE tue dee “cos cos 28722 “Rate oft dp = 527 =4 In 1049, = uns2r (CROSS-MEASURE DRIFT PROBLEMS Where the gradients are expressed as a ratio of 1 vertical io N horizontal, cross-meas- Lure deft problems are simple I tackled in the manner shown in the folowing examples. A sketch, not necestarly to scale, should be drawn to ilustrate the conditions. 12. Two seams of coal are separated by 42 metres (vertical) of strata which dip at ‘20° to the hortzontal, Calculate the length of the cross-measure drift driven to 6 deft is level, (0) if trises 1 in 10 towards the dip ofthe seams and, : ‘of the coal seams = 20° to the horizontal. Cot 20° = 2.74748 or 2.75, (approx), hence dip ofthe coal seams = 1 in 2:75. (a) Level drt: The drift AB inthe adjoining figure forms the base of a right-angled tiangle [ABE representing a gradient of 1 vertical worizontal, the perpendicular AE being 42m tong, Length of rit AB = 2.75 x 42 = 416.60m,DIP ANO FAULT PROBLEMS: a (2) Orting 1 10: Here ft Ac ane sear EB are dipping opposte recto. Pai tucn thse were the cit and seus dp epposke ecto, be afbcve rae of soon anon nos. “a ‘Ths the ae of 2 akan are "to “ae 0 Ac approaches Ba the at of 51 vericaln Hnarzoa butAC and sa 42 imeves vera apa EA) The cit meets th seam aa hrzontal stance of x10 = 600m. ut we reaure ne Hope lang of As which rare a 0 tenain ora nc 90.50% Tw 904m, (©) Ont épping 1 m2 nthe cate the cin ED and he seam AD both re ping nthe Sone tree orth cit and seams pnt eae direction, te omectverte of epeouch I scua!to tne drone ofthe racers 4 3 oy wh ek Trustee otapprect = = ote 8 ‘Therefore ED i approaching AD by 3 nt vera i 2 orn. Bu iy sa 42 mmorec varia apt. ‘rect meets the seam aa horzontl stance of x22 mets = 208m, But we require the slope length of ED which dips at 1 in 2. e “. Length of drt ED = 308 x > = 344.36 metres, Example 13, Two seams of coal are SO metres vertcaly apart and.p 1 vertical in S horizon- {al Calculate in metres, te length ofa cross-measure dif criven to convict them I itdips + In 3 in the same direction as the seams, What would be lis length if itrises 1 in 10 towards the dp of tre seams 7 (Lin €. 1986) Solution : Orit dipping 1 in 3. In this case the crf and the seams dip in he same direction, ana Rate of approach = vcoanmon ata © i 1, 37S metres. But the drift rises at 1 in 3 w Length ofc = 75x “T° = 396.288 matres 2m * Length of it = Cotapparent dip = Cot full dip x Sec (a debra = @xsee (200"- 140") = 6 sec 60° = 12 Hence apparent dip of seams = 1 in 12 Pr been wo sonra = 40 meee Since the drift at 1 in 7 and the seam at 1:in 12 (apparent dp) are approaching each the same point whichis reached by the dit from the surface 72 MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING ‘deph at which the seam would be reached by a shaf at any other point inthe neighbourhood ‘ofthe borehole. Problems ofthis ype are usualy solved by deducing the two apparent ine of the seam from the data given, Example 27. Three boreholes A,B and C are put down 1 prove a coal seam, Th A,B andG are 245m, 350m, 300mm respectively. B is 400m from A in a drecton N 300m from in a cirection NSS? W. Find, by plating, the direction and amount ‘ofthe seam. Assume the surface tobe level. (Survey co ‘Solution : On ploting the positions ofthe boreholes A,B andC and marke ing thelr Gepins in metres, i is seen {tat the seam dips along AB and AC. ‘The fall rom A fo B is 250-245 = 4105 metres and from A to C is 300 - 245 ='55 metres. ‘Apparent dip along AB = 105 in 400=tin 381 CALE deme 80m “Therefore Full dip Is 1 in 2.86 in a direction N7*W. Example 28. Three bore-holes A.B and C have begn put downto a coal seam. B is due North [ofA 1250m and Cis N 60°WY 800m from A. The surface levels of boreholes are the same The depth of A= 750m, B= 1300m, and = 950m, Calculate the rate and direction of fll seam. (Survey Comp. 1979) ‘Solution : The positons of tree boreholes A,B and are roughly plotted and the ip along [AB and AC are worked out from the given depihs ofthe seam. ip AB = (1300-750) in 1550, ip AC = (850~ 750) in 800 ‘AC 4 units and AD (along AB) =2. lar C0, is the ful dp. ‘Bearing of full ip = N 24°48" W.2a (MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING ‘Agian, tan fll ip = tan apparent ip + cos 24°45) 1 1 1 war * “a2 uae Rate ofl dip= 1 in 34.48 = 1°40" ‘Example 20. Three boreholes A, B and C were put ina virgin area to prove a coal seam. 8 fies 300m north of A and C les 360m east of A. The coal seam was touched by boreholes A, Bland C respectively at 130m, 205m and 170m. Find by calculation the directon and amount ‘of true dp of the seam. (Burvey Comp. 1977) Solution : Letus assume R.L. at surface to be 1000 metres. RL at botiom of seam Depth of Borehole at A= 130m 70m Depth of Borehole at B= 205m 705m Depth of Borehole at C = 170m 30m Let D be tne pointin ine AB where the seam is met at the same level as at, |e. 830m Ri. Now, fall from A to B = 870 ~ 705 = 75m fall from A to D = 870 ~ 830 = 40m “8 ‘AB _Fallalong Ato 8 fee “AD Fall along Ato >| cape ABEFal along AtoD —Fairalong Ato = 300%), = 160m Since D is at same level as C, DC represents the strike ine and AE, the line drawn perpendicular to DC represents the true cip rection. In langle ACD, nO 1 3 oe Za8 stant AD wtan ERs tant = 2s In tangle ACE, AE= AC sin ACD #'360'sin 29°58" = 148.21m Now fal from A to E = 870 — 830 = 40m o 76.21 Now, ZDAE= ZECA = 23°58 Direction of tue dip = § 23°68". Hence Amount of aip = = tin 3.686 ‘Example 31, Three boreholes X, Y and Zhave been put_down to @ coal seam; ¥ i= 5 1O'W and Z's 8 S2°W from X. Hortzontal eistance XY = 550 metres and XZ = 270 metres. The surface levels ofthe boreholes are same. The depins o the coal seam at points X, ¥ and (vP AND FAULT PROBLEMS 28 Z are 125m, 175m and 179m respectively. Calculate the direction and rate of ful dip of the ‘seam. Solution. The postions of boreholes X,Y and Z are rough plotted. Fall fromX to Y = 178 ~ 125 = $0 metres. Fall fromX to Z=.170 ~ 125 = $4 metres. dapthi25m x gg 8 sao eer. Ate XE at gh angio i ska nee ee of i. ‘Angle YXZ, 80° - S2°= 20° DY , dey 4, BOY , 850-250 4, 1800-200 Inteangle XY, tan. 2 Y 2 350% 250 2 = %, tan 70% 1.50404 tan 56°23" ‘Angle: D = 56°23" + 76%00'= 132723" ‘Again, in tangle XDE, Z XDE = 180" ~ 132°23'= 47°37 Angle EXD = 90° ~ 47°87" = 4223" Hence the erection of ull dip= $ (52° ~ 4223) .W= S937 W ‘Amount of fll ip: XE-= XD cos 42°23'= 250 x 0.73805 = 184.6628 metres ‘or, Dip along XE is 50m In 184.6828m = 1 in 3.69 Amount of ful dip = 11m 38320 MINE SURVEYING AN LEVELUNG Find by calculation the length of eross-measure dit whicty connects the Bottom of shaft A With the botlom of shaft B. What i te gracient ofthis drt? Solution : From the given data the levels at bottom of the shafts are calculated - ‘hat Surface Level Depth Level at bottom A‘ 27.10A.0.0. 200m 47.10m A 9.0. ‘50m 10.85m A 0.. FAULT PROBLEMS 2 fracture of the strata which has dislocated the criginal ited in the beds being displaced either vertically or Faults may be divided into tree main classes -(a) Nowmalfauits,(b) Reversed faults, and (@) Transcurrent faut Normal Faults : These occur in regions subject to tensional and torsional stresses san NOMMIFaults include: Siep fut, wough tuk, Stepped toughed fu and dpe Reverse Faults : These are produced in regions subject to great lateral compression andin ‘ascociation chiefly with highly folded and deformed rocks. Unlike the normal faults, these hade to the upthrow side. The peculartes found inthis type of fault are- )Dreton: The caso of este along te faut plane fs known ashe cre tion of 2 faut, () Had: The angle between the vertical and the fault plane is known as hade. (4) Throw: The amount of vertical displacement of he bed is known as the throw. (6) Want ; This isthe horizontal displacement ofthe beds leaving some barren ground252 [MINE SURVEYING ANO LEVELLING the extent of which depends on the fiead and he tirow. Wantis also known as shiftor heave. ‘Want = Throw x tangent of hade (0 Exovas : incase ofa reversed ful fault plane hades tothe down upthrow sie and na brexen edge ofthe bed on the down-throw line undemeath thus giving ise to an area of repatiton ofthe bed. This is Known as excess. Both want and excess art lateral shits or heaves. “The most distinguished feature of s normal faut is tha he fault plane hades or slopes ‘towards he deplaced seam or stratum, and Bis gives an incication ofthe direction in which to aren for the continuation of the seam or stratum on the ather side of the fault. Ifa normal Featid ret met within the roof ofthe seam its a downthrow fou and if on the other hand, is met frstin te for tis an uphrow faut true bearing of fault (known as the strike of a faut isthe direction ofa level nthe "a inelcated on a plan. This should nat be confused withthe rection of a fault as “srmine pian. The pian shows the Intersection ofthe faut plane and the seam and section and the strike ofthe fault only colncide when the seam is level or te hade of ‘rtcal orf the strike ofthe faults parallel tothe stke of sear. Galculatons Involving faults are very ofen associated withthe determination of the Jength ofa def or tunnelto be driven through the faut to Intersect the seam on the other sie. (Al aul problems can be solved ether tiganometically or by the method of rate of approach, ‘Ris always prefersble to plot the information glven to scale s0 that a check on the calculated information ie always available. Example 1. A,adway dipping at a gradient of 1 In 8 in the direction of fl dip of a seam ‘Soiket an upltraw fault bearing at right anges there to, The faut is subsequently found to fave throw up the seam a distance of 27 metres, measured from foo to flor onthe hade of the fault, The hade of tre fault is 30° from the vertical. Calculate the length of a cross-meas ace difito win the seam, commencing atthe lower sie ofthe fault and ising at 1 in ia the ‘Solution : The problem is ilustrated in the igure. AB represents the meaurement of 27 metres along the head ofthe fault and the if rising at 1 In 8 is indicated by AE. BAE = 90° ~ (20° + 9927457 = 50° 3245" gle ABE = 180° — (16° 3515" + 503215") = 112° 5290" ne ZIXSNE SPIO ‘Sin 163515"254 MINE SURVEYING AND LEVELLING AB xSin 1270730" ‘Sin 1708" Hence, the length ofthe roadway to meat the seam on other side of faultis 189.24 In wiangle ABE, AE = = 100.24 metres. metres. IMthod 2. Width of the faut, BC = 15 tan 20°= 8.660 metres. 2.980 8 Vertical distance, AD = AC- CO = 15~ 1.083 = 13917m Now, the rate of approach of AE.and OE both dipping on the same direction =" cos = 1.089m, =", + panna AE = 1207748 = 15550 rained ung tant = 8880% 2 sapatt mae, sample. Aroadnydvanon iy of ef Saar Samanta etrrconrtcuth fe tine even are brain tom basen an te Sena Gat Cots ncn eae beta cacunmte ow oe Saud deters ara ‘auey Some no, encounters anormal ec. _AB pp = BEXSNG | H2OxSin290 Sin& Bin ° ‘ina ‘in 1002 = 48870 Throw of fault = 8D = AB xCos 20° = 48.670 xC0s 20° = 46.735m. Width of Barren ground = DA= AB x Sin 20"= 48.670 xSin20°= 16.646m. VP AND FAULT PROBLEMS. 255 of te seam remains unchanged on the olher side of the au. (Survey Comp. 1967) Solution : The glven data are I- wow, ha vere tance batwen the seam an di AD = 144 + 1.098 ss mgt = 15490209, = 472 ts waa «tops mgm ota = 72x U2 = anaat mae, scampi Alo rod ses an tho tt vig anh oof Te va sere ditetasaren wve22 Sarena Penaae vert Parana Seer gainers oa sre omen at inst bet tat ste Be Sa ena end aie Pea be pestnet ve tra prt Chock Syoutngiosanore tan fm Cooney Comp. 8) Solution: The section is shown plotted to a reduced scale inthe adjoining figure, Fist draw ‘AB to represent the level road striking the fault at B. Make the with BD =, of 22.5m = 15 metres and the throw DC (perpendicular to BD at D) = 22.5 metres. Join BC to represent the id ingert the seam on the upthrow side. Now measure back from D to, the plan ‘lone dif, making DA = 5 x22.5= 112.5 metres. ‘The length of rt, AG = NTRS + 22.5 = 11.473 metres.288 [MINE SURVENING ANO LEVELUNG The stating point Ais AD - BD = 1125-15 = 97.6 metres beck from the foul Saft oe 8, CD = 420 meres. Pianlengh of CD= CF =420x 28 «41420648 mates. oF 416.28545 dsr a ZS = 6.047575 metres (2) Vere! espacement of he faul, EB = DD, - OF = 265 ~ 60047575 = fo6.6243 eves ©) PI 80-86, length of the ait = EC + CF = eB a0". + oF 27 M919818 + 41428545 = 62741084 moves, Gradient = tin PANO FAULT PROBLEMS. ys vs YE. 699.67 metres. Incline length of dit = Pian length x > ax ‘the tena of 86 48, eves, ‘ever evercal Brow BD and be 80+ 402040" 20.83 Do =0083xtn a0" 23 10 2140x222 ~ 150 moves. (a) Since ABs ising at tn 3, the length of AB = 148 = 188 -teretor, the dit must be started at A which is 156m beck rom the fut (0) The horizontal lengthot te crit = AF = GB + OC = 48 +23 325, ort x 23% 2474.26 metres, ‘The slope length of the anit = AG= IT x= = 1 Example 8. A roseway advancing on the li Segrees, nersected by an UP from the verveal. From th (rection as tye roadway,