FOUR TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

1.Descriptive Research
 Seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable
 Provide systematic information about a phenomenon
 The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis
 Systematic collection of information requires careful selection of the units studied and careful
measurement of each variable.
 Describes a particular identified variable
 Eg. How 2nd graders spend time during summer
 Eg. How parents feel about COVID-19

2.Correlational Research
 Determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical data
 Relationships between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted
 Does not go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. Cause and
effect is not the basis of this type of observational research. The data, relationships, and
distributions of variables are studied only.
 You are going to think about the relationship of two or more variables using statistics.
 Eg. relationship between breakfast diet and overall test performance.

3. Quasi-Experimental
 Attempts to establish a cause and effect relationship among the variables. These types of
design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences.
 An independent variable is identified, but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects
of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured.
 The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are naturally
formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control groups are exposed to the treated variable
are studied and compared to groups who are not.
 You are not necessarily going to be doing randomized sampling or creating your own groups
 Eg. Is there an effect from preschool attendance on social maturity of first graders or is there
an effect from taking calcium on bone density?
o However you are not going to completely control all of the contextual variables and
in order to be able to create those groups
o You are already kind of working with what you already have

4. Experimental Research
 Uses the scientific method to establish the cause and effect relationship among a group of
variables that make up a study
 The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case;
a laboratory setting has nothing to do with it
 A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control over
all other variables except one.
 An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables.
 Using a scientific method where we try to control all the variables outside of the one that is
being measured in order to try to think about and manipulate, determine the effects of one
variable on another
 Eg. The effect of positive reinforcement on overall attitude of students
 Eg. Effect of teaching in a cooperative group vs. Traditional lecture study

FIVE TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Ethnography
 One of the most popular methods of qualitative research
 Involves the researcher embedding himself or herself into the daily life and routing of the
subject or subjects.
 Either as an active participant or an observer, the researcher experiences their customs,
traditions, mannerisms, reactions to situations, etc. first hand or sometimes, for years
 Geographical constraints could be a hindrance for the researcher

2. Narrative
 The researcher gathers data or facts from one or two subjects through interviews,
documents, etc. over a period of time (chronology based)
 It focuses on the experiences of individuals
 Based on a theme, these are then pierced together (not necessarily in the same sequence) to
derive answers and suggestions
 Eg. Trying to document the journey of ESL students throughout their middle school
experience
 Eg. Studying the journey of a new principal during her first two years on the job

3. Phenomenology
 Used to study an event or activity as it happens from various angles
 Using interviews, videos, onsite visits etc., one can add on to existing information using
perspectives and insights from the participants themselves about the activity or event
 It is primarily on experience or perception-based research method
 Eg. As a classroom teacher, you study to understand how students make choices about the
books they read, about the colleges they apply to, why they engage in particular after-school
activities

4. Grounded Theory
 Start with collecting data in order to answer a particular question
 We use the data set that includes the coding of similar concepts into categories
o We use the data set in order to think about what theories emerge from that and best
support that data in order to be able to verify that again through further analysis in
the field
 This cyclical process is in and of itself grounded in theory
 5. Case Study
 Used to gather in-depth and detailed information about a subject, which could be any entity,
organization, event or something larger like a country
 The nature of this can be explanatory or exploratory
 EG. Understanding the influences students have towards particular instruction or text
selections

RESEARCH DESIGN, DATA COLLECTION, SAMPLING (VIDEO #3)

RESEARCH TYPES

1. Exploratory
 Aims to explore about subjects with little prior knowledge and research
 We want to surface key issues and form basis for further research
 Usually qualitative because there is no need to be precise or accurate
 2. Descriptive
 We already have a certain level of knowledge or understanding, but we still want to know
more
 Aims to describe with higher accuracy and precision
 Usually quantitative, but may be qualitative

3. Explanatory
 “Causal” or “Predictive”
 Cause and effect relationships among variables
 Difficult to perform because causality is difficult to establish and can usually be inferred
 Also, due to the amount of potential predictor variables that are also somehow related to the
DV, it is difficult to establish causality with 100% certainty

RESEARCH DESIGNS

1. Experimental
 Cause and effect relationships
 Aim is to have a control condition vs. experimental condition so that the differences amount
of various conditions can be identified which will enable researchers to infer causality
 Eg, We want to know if a teacher’s attitude has any effect on student performance
o We will need to set up at least two condition
 Control: Teacher teaches with a cool calm collected attitude
 Experimental: The same teacher teaches with much enthusiasm and passion
 After a semester or so, we measure the potential differences in student
performance between the two conditions in order to infer whether causality
exists
 Generally performed in the name of causal or predictive or explanatory research

2. Survey
 Use a standardized instruments to collect standardized data from a large number of
respondents
 Can be based on different media or channel (telephone, soc med)
 We survey people to describe something
 Can be exploratory or causal, but the process itself is descriptive by nature

3. Comparative
 Compare something with something else
 Design itself is descriptive

4. Case Study
 Usually exploratory and qualitative
 Focused on one organization
o Thus, limited generalizability

5. Observational
 Covert or overt
  Quantitative or qualitative
 Observer or participant
 The researcher can choose among these
 May be exploratory, descriptive or explanatory

6.Action Research
 Involves the researcher taking action to implement something
 TRICKY
 May be descriptive and causal
o Describe how the implementation went
o Explain the causality
o We know that causality is hard to establish
 “Live experimental”

7. Mixed-method
 Involves multiple data collection methods
 Involves a combination of above mentioned designs
 Tricky

DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS

- Choose just one instrument
- One study should just be about one thing
o NARROW THINGS DOWN

1. Survey
 Uses different channels
o Phone, internet, questionnaire, etc
 Standardized instrument from standardized data from large number of respondents
 Closed questions (yes/no, mcq, likert)
 Quantitative data
 Descriptive purposes
 Considerations
o Gradations are useful
 To what degree do you agree with a statement?
o Avoid leading or provocative phrasing
o Use common sense

2. Interviewing
 Structures, semi-structured, unstructured
 Qualitative data collection
 Open questions
o What is your opinion regarding research?
 Follow up questions
 We want to discover new information
 Trigger previously unknown perspectives
 Until when no new perspectives surface
 3. Observation
 Covert overt
 Qualitative or quantitative
 Observer or participant
 Lab setting or in the field

4. Projective techniques
 Respondents respond to projected stimulus
 5 main types of usage:
o Associate
 Show a stimulus and ask respondents to associate with something
o Completion
 Show respondents the stimulus that is incomplete and ask them to complete
it
o Construction
 Ask respondents to construct something on the basis of the stimulus shown
o Expressive
 Ask the respondents to express their feelings and emotions on the basis of
the stimulus shown
o Choice ordering
 Ask the respondent to order the show stimulus on the basis of importance or
preference or some other type of criterion

SAMPLING

 Population
 All people about whom we want to draw our conclusions from

 Sample
 Group of people from within that population from who we actually collect data

 Sampling
 Process through which we draw the sample out of the population

TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF SAMPLING PROCEDURES

A. Probability sampling
 Every single subject has equal probability of being chosen
 Difficult to perform

a. Simple random
o Guaranteeing equal probability through a sample procedure
o Form of simplified lottery
o Eg. 100 population > close your eyes > pick 20
 No biases involved
 b. Systematic random
o Usually used on large population or simple sizes
o Calculate skip interval, usually performed by computer software

c. Stratified random
o Used when subgroup distribution in population needs to be retained in the sample
o Create strata, perfom probability sampling

B. Non-probability sampling
 Unequal
a. Convenience sampling
o Sample selected based on considerations of ease and convenience
o Generalizability and representativeness not main concern

b. Judgmental sampling
o List of criteria
o Used when sample needs to fulfill certain requirements

c. Snowball sampling
o Asking a member of the sample to introduce another