Muhammad Hanif

Joshua Gunananda Muni

Noora Al-Muhannadi
Mohammed Al Diab
Hala Shadid

ENGL 210-501
Dr. Mary Queen
Technical Report Final Draft
Due Date: 1 April 2023

Greening the desalination process in Qatar

Abstract
In this technical report we will address the environmental impacts of thermal desalination in Qatar. We
will explain the problems that thermal desalination causes and discuss which of the existing solutions we
discovered is the most effective for Qatar. Thermal desalination is an energy intensive process of turning
seawater into potable water. Like many countries in the MENA region, Qatar relies on thermal
desalination to satisfy their need for potable water. Their abundant fossil fuel reservoirs make it feasible
for them to conduct the process when vaporizing the seawater. However, the waste from thermal
desalination, such as greenhouse gasses and brine, are harmful to the environment. If these are not
addressed as soon as possible, they can prove to Qatar’s environment. The research done for this report
was mainly through primary and secondary research methods. We found four solutions that could reduce
the environmental impacts of thermal desalination in Qatar and they are:
1. Using solar power in the desalination process
2. Pre-treating the brine
3. Implementing energy efficiency improvements
4. Extract valuable resources from the waste

Four criteria were then constructed to rank the solutions we found and it was concluded that using solar
energy for thermal desalination would be the recommended solution for Qatar because it is the most
sustainable and feasible to implement.

1. Introduction
Qatar is one of the most polluted countries in the world (Hussain, 2020); the Qatar 2030 vision
entails a goal for the country to achieve a 25% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2030 (Qatar
national vision 2030, 2016). With this in mind, the country is currently undergoing several
infrastructural changes to meet this goal, which includes finding much more sustainable and
cleaner ways to provide clean drinking water to the population of Qatar. Sustainability issues
within a country are challenging to solve due to the extensive impacts they may have. Qatar’s
heavy reliance on fossil fuels to power the majority of the infrastructure within the country, and
the energy shift that the country will have to take will have a lot of obstacles. However, our team
has narrowed down the problem to desalination plants. Thermal desalination is the currently
popular method utilized by the State of Qatar to provide 60% of the Qatar population with clean
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 2

drinking water (Naishadham, 2022). The current thermal desalination process relies on a
Multi-Stage flash to heat water to remove salts from seawater in multiple stages. The steam of the
water is then condensed and collected for use, while the brine leftover is discharged into the
ocean. In Qatar, this process is coupled with a power plant, where it also utilizes steam to produce
electricity. This process requires 3.5 to 4.5 kilowatt hours of electricity to desalinate 1000L of
water (Naishadham, 2022). Projecting this value to meet the Qatar population deems the process
very energy intensive, utilizing more fossil fuels in the process.

Further research conducted by the team led to the discovery of alternative methods to reduce
pollution from desalination plants. Out of the pool of possible solutions researched using a
decision matrix, the most optimal and viable solution was solar desalination. Solar desalination is
a process that utilizes infrared radiation from the sun to generate sufficient energy to evaporate
water, separating it from brine. This process eliminates the need for fossil fuels for thermal
desalination, producing 80% lower CO2 emissions than conventional methods.It is an innovative
and promising solution to the environmental impacts of thermal desalination in Qatar. It is a clean
and sustainable technology that utilizes renewable energy from the sun. Solar desalination plants
require minimal energy inputs, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and environmental impacts.
This technology is particularly suitable for Qatar, which has a high level of solar irradiance
throughout the year, making it an abundant and reliable energy source. Additionally, solar
desalination has the potential to increase water security and improve access to clean drinking
water in remote and rural areas, where access to electricity and water resources is limited. With its
numerous benefits, solar desalination is becoming an increasingly popular alternative to thermal
desalination in many countries, including Qatar.

2. Methodology
To determine the most effective solution for Qatar, regarding the environmental impacts of
thermal desalination in Qatar, we constructed a set of criteria that would be used to rank the
solutions that we found during the research period. This helped us narrow down all the possible
solutions and ensure that the recommended solution is the best for Qatar.

Since our mission was to research existing solutions that Qatar can use and not create a new one,
we relied on primary and secondary research to find potential solutions. We focused on
interviewing Dr. Abdulwahab, and had some questions to be asked to know what is the best
solution for Qatar.

2.1. Primary research

For primary research, our team interviewed Dr AbdelWahab, a Chemical engineering
professor at Texas A&M at Qatar. He is an esteemed faculty member who has over 25
years of experience in environmental engineering teaching, research and consulting. He is
also the co-founder of the Qatar Sustainable Water and Energy Utilization Initiative
(QWE). Given Dr. Abdelwahab’s expertise, experience and titles, our team was confident
that his input to our research would be a source of invaluable information when
discussing the solutions which Qatar can use.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 3

2.2. Secondary research

For secondary research, we analyzed countless scholarly articles, newspaper articles and
government websites. We spent more time doing secondary research because the
information is readily available on the TAMU library and it was more efficient to collect
when compared to primary research. An example of a government that was used for our
secondary research was the Hukoomi website. We are confident that it is a credible
source because it has been reviewed by the government and constantly updated. From the
website we were able to distinguish the percentage of the potable water in Qatar that is
from desalination, annual reports of desalinated water statistics and links to other
government websites that proved to be useful in giving us the required information about
our topic. The other main source of secondary data were the scholarly articles that were
accessible through the TAMU library database. Scholarly articles are amazing sources for
secondary research because they are both credible and thorough in what they present as
the authors have to truthfully document every information that they put in the article.

2.3. Decision Matrix and Criteria

To determine which potential solution is the most effective for Qatar, we set five criteria
and used a numbering system to rank the solutions. To select the appropriate criteria that
will be used in the decision matrix, we first had to identify the solutions and understand
them within the context of Qatar. Using the mentioned methods of research, we compiled
over four potential solutions for Qatar regarding the environmental impacts of thermal
desalination.

The criteria we used to judge the potential solutions were; costs, implementation,
eco-friendliness, and longevity.These criteria will be explained in the following
paragraph.

Costs relate to how much it will cost financially for Qatar to implement the solution. In
this criteria the more inexpensive solution is favored. Implementation refers to how easy
or hard the solution can be implemented regarding the resources and time needed.
Effectiveness revolves around the effect of the solutions with respect to Qatar’s
environment. This can be the after effect of implementing the solution or during
implementation. The last criteria is longevity. Longevity talks about the life-span of the
solution and how long Qatar can maintain it.

Additionally, our team used a numbering system from 1 (worst) - 4 (best) to rank the
solutions with respect to the four criteria. We then constructed a decision matrix using a
combination of the numbering system and criteria. Figure 1 shows the decision matrix
rubric that was used to determine the best out of the four potential solutions.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 4

Fig 1: Decision matrix rubric

 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 5

3. Research Findings
Analyzing the various factors for desalination in Qatar, such social, economic and environmental
factors, four solutions were researched to help aid Qatar achieve their 2030 visions. The solutions
were based around CO2 emissions from desalination plants and also the environmental impacts of
brine released into the ocean. Through research findings below are the four solutions decided on
which would be the most effective for Qatar to focus on.
1. Solar desalination
2. Convert waste into valuable resources
3. Pre-treating the brine
4. Implementing energy efficiency improvements

3.1. Solar Desalination

3.2.
David L. Chandler from MIT states that “Passive solar evaporation system could offer a
route to inexpensive desalination” (Chandler, 2022). Solar desalination is the process of
removing salt from water through a device called a solar collector. This would use the
solar energy from the sun to evaporate seawater and capture the resulting steam which is
condensed and bottled as freshwater (EarthTalk, 2015).

Fig 2: Solar desalination system designed by MIT researchers proved to be more efficient and less
expensive than existing solutions (Chandler, 2022).

The leftover brine is then discharged after diluting with seawater, back into the ocean.
With Qatar utilizing the multi-stage flash process for the majority of its desalination
plants, the solar collectors, that line the solar desalination unit, can be coupled with the
multi-stage flash process as shown in Figure 3. The figure below shows the multi-stage
flash process in which solar collectors have replaced a boiler from a thermal desalination
plant.
Being able to convert current facilities into solar desalination will reduce Qatar’s reliance
on fossil fuels, therefore reducing the greenhouse gas emissions from desalination plants.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 6

Fig 3: Solar Desalination coupled with the Multi-Stage Flash process (Zheng et al., 2021).

The multi stage flash desalination(MSF) process has been adapted for current
thermal desalination plants in Qatar. MSF operates by passing hot brine through a
series of vacuum stages, where brine undergoes sudden evaporation called
“flashing” (Alsehli et al., 2017). The vapors from the flashing process condenses
on the surface of preheating tubes, which is able to produce drinkable water but
also transfer heat to incoming seawater through tubes.

Solar desalination MSF, follows a similar process to thermal desalination MSF,

but the fossil fuel intensive process will now be replaced with alternative
processes that utilize renewable energy to allow the processes to function.

3.3. Implementing energy efficiency improvements

Greenhouse gas emissions have been increasingly causing damage, especially in recent
years. Since the start of the Industrial Revolution in the 1800s, carbon dioxide
concentration has increased by 50%, alongside methane and nitrous oxide. These gasses
retain heat in the atmosphere, causing climate change, thus a big negative impact on the
weather, multiple ecosystems, and even human health.

Solutions are needed. And using more efficient heat exchangers can absorb and transfer
the waste heat instead of releasing it into an already damaged atmosphere. So these heat
exchangers will not only reduce the gas emissions but also transfer the heat in a natural
process from systems where heat is not needed to other systems that need heat to re-use it
in an efficient way. And by doing so, energy reliance will be lower.

Implementing the new heat exchangers has a high cost. And it will not be easy as
significant modifications are needed to the existing plants to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions. But, they are still considered cost-efficient, as building totally new plants will
be even more expensive.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 7

3.4. Convert waste into valuable resources

The solution of converting waste into valuable resources targets the pollution from brine
which is a waste product of the desalination process, as it has high salinity, of around
70,000 mg/L dissolved solids, and contains various chemicals such as antiscalants from
the cleaning process. The release of such high concentrations of brine into the ocean will
lead to increasing Ph of water, posing a threat to marine life.

A solution Qatar is currently implementing is diluting the brine with seawater using
additional pumps to decrease the concentration of brine released into the ocean.

The motivation behind the solution of converting the waste brine into marketable
resources is the mineral-rich brine that is left after the desalination process that can be
utilized to meet the increasing demands of the growing world population (Mavukkandy
et al., 2019). Some useful minerals are rare and expensive to extract through land
mining. Therefore being able to recover such minerals through this method will alleviate
mineral scarcity in the region, and also result in the cost of desalinated drinking water to
reduce. This adds an added economic value to the companies that maintain and operate
the facilities.

There are numerous resources that can be extracted from seawater brine. One of the most
useful would be NaCl, which is salt used in day-to-day human consumption (food). The
process of extracting pure salts from seawater is a Eutectic freeze crystallization
technology, which has relatively low energy demands in comparison to conventional
evaporation methods. The low cost of the process allows an inexpensive alternative to
treating brine which poses a risk to marine life (Mavukkandy et al., 2019).

Fig 4: Applications of minerals extracted from seawater brine (Ihsanullah et al., 2022).
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 8

Figure 4 shows the numerous advantages and applications of extracting resources from
waste seawater brine. These prove that desalination companies will be able to find an
additional source of income, therefore reducing the production cost of desalination plants,
moreover minimizing the environmental damages of brine discharge into the ocean.

3.5. Pre-treating the brine

Releasing the brine at sea can have drastic consequences on the marine ecosystem. This
release will approximately double the salt concentration, affecting the aquatic organisms’
needs for oxygen, and their capacity to absorb nutrients, which will result in slower
growth and affect the richness of species. And it will also augment the pH of the seawater
increasing its alkalinity and thus, augmenting the toxicity of other substances like
ammonia, which could lead to the death of marine life. As well as other different metals
like magnesium, calcium, and lithium, which in high concentrations, are more detrimental
than beneficial.

So pre-treating the brine is a crucial step to reduce the effect on aquatic animals, plants,
and microorganisms. And this can be done in multiple ways by adding different
chemicals to the brine, like chlorine, citric acid, and hydrochloric acid to reduce the
alkaline effect of the brine and others. which will increase the operational complexity, as
a close control of the new chemical waste and by-products resulting from pre-treating the
brine is also needed. But accurate and delicate treatment will give good results in the long
run and it is a lot more eco-friendly than releasing the brine at sea or even in the sewage,
as risks of contaminating groundwater are high.

4. Analysis
As mentioned in the Methodology section, our team assessed the potential solutions we found
during our research period, under four criteria which were: Cost, Implementation,
Eco-friendliness, and Longevity.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 9

Fig 5: Decision Matrix

Also, since our scope is Qatar, we had to bear in mind that the solutions may affect the economic,
social and environmental sectors differently when compared to if the solution was implemented
elsewhere. In this section we will analyze each potential solution and explain why we chose solar
desalination as our recommended solution and not the other three solutions.

4.1. Extracting valuable resources from waste produced during thermal desalination
The expense of setting up a mechanism for recovering valuable resources from the waste
produced during thermal desalination will rely on various aspects, such as the scope of
the undertaking, the kind of system employed, and the necessary equipment. The system
may involve techniques such as evaporation, crystallization, or electrodialysis to obtain
minerals and metals from the waste stream. The cost will differ depending on the quantity
and type of equipment required, as well as the expenses of operation and maintenance.
Nevertheless, the worth of the extracted resources could counterbalance some of the
expenses, potentially producing income.

The simplicity of introducing a mechanism to retrieve valuable resources from the waste
generated during thermal desalination will hinge on the intricacy of the system and the
accessibility of resources and expertise. Depending on the type of system employed,
specific equipment or expertise may be needed to implement it. Moreover, incorporating
the system into the current thermal desalination plant may entail modifying the
infrastructure. Thus, the selection of the system and its compatibility with the existing
infrastructure should be cautiously planned and examined.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 10

The efficiency of a mechanism to obtain valuable resources from the waste produced
during thermal desalination will be determined by the kind of system employed and its
capability to efficiently extract minerals and metals from the waste stream. The system
must be capable of retrieving valuable resources while reducing adverse environmental
effects. The efficiency will also be contingent on the quality and accessibility of the waste
stream, as well as the expandability and continuous enhancement of the system.

Several factors can impact the sustainability of a system designed to extract valuable
resources from waste produced during thermal desalination, including the quality and
availability of the waste stream, system effectiveness, scalability, and continuous
development. If the system can extract resources efficiently, it can sustainably operate
over the long term. Proper management and monitoring of environmental impacts are
also crucial to ensure the system's longevity.

4.2. Pre-treating the brine

The cost of pre-treating brine solution before releasing it into the ocean can depend on
various factors, such as the project's size, pre-treatment system type, and equipment
needs. Pre-treatment systems involve different methods like filtration, sedimentation, and
chemical treatments, and the cost can differ based on the amount and type of chemicals
used and the expenses related to operation and maintenance. Moreover, modifications in
infrastructure may be necessary to incorporate the pre-treatment system with the existing
thermal desalination plant. However, the cost of pre-treatment can be balanced out by
reducing harmful environmental impacts and avoiding potential regulatory penalties.

The ease of implementing a pre-treatment system into the existing thermal desalination
plant can be challenging and may require specialized expertise, such as chemical
engineering or water treatment knowledge, to ensure successful implementation. Careful
planning and consideration should be given to the type of pre-treatment system used and
its compatibility with the existing infrastructure.

The ability of a pre-treatment system to function effectively will be determined by the

specific system employed and its capacity to efficiently eliminate impurities and
minimize salt levels. Besides extracting valuable resources, it should also have the
capability to decrease adverse environmental effects, like pollution and ocean
acidification. Furthermore, the pre-treatment system's efficiency will be influenced by the
quality and accessibility of the waste stream and the system's scalability and continuous
enhancement.

The longevity of a pre-treatment system will depend on several factors, including the
availability and quality of the waste stream, the effectiveness of the pre-treatment system,
and the scalability and continuous improvement of the system.

4.3. Implementing energy efficiency improvements

 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 11

Introducing energy efficiency improvements to the desalination plants in Qatar would

decrease the fossil fuel consumption that is currently being utilized for thermal
desalination, which therefore decreases the CO2 emissions. Energy efficiency of
desalination plants can be improved by renovating parts of the plant or making a brand
new more advanced plant entirely.

By improving an existing plant, Qatar can save up more cost on making brand new
desalination plants that are more energy efficient. Since Qatar already has three main
desalination plants, this solution can be implemented to those existing plants with a
reasonable amount of time and resources (Water and Desalination, n.d.). By upgrading
the heat exchangers and pumps of the desalination plant, the energy efficiency of the
process can be increased.

However, the cost of implementing new technologies in existing plants may be high
because of the incompatibility of the newer technology compared to the ones in the
existing plants (Shahzad, 2019) . The efficiency of thermal desalination plants is
restricted to the latent heat energy recovery, which limits the possible ways in which the
thermal desalination plants in Qatar can be improved (Lin 2020). Integrating newer
technologies into the thermal desalination process will also require training of the
operators which would increase the resources and time needed. Another way to
implement energy efficiency improvements to the desalination process is to introduce
non-thermal desalination processes such as reverse osmosis (Lin 2020). But this requires
new desalination plants to be constructed which consumes resources and time.

With regards to the effectiveness, implementation of energy efficiency improvements in

existing plants will reduce the energy consumption by 20% (Shahzad, 2019) . While this
will reduce the environmental impacts from CO2 emissions, it is still a relatively low
number considering the high amount of fossil fuels used.This solution does mitigate some
of the CO2 emissions but does not have a significant impact on resolving the issue. As a
result, our team gave this solution a score of 2 for effectiveness.

If the solution were to be implemented, there are many factors that will affect its
longevity. These factors include but are not limited to the quality of improvements, the
maintenance of the plant, and the overall operating conditions. Since there are already
three main thermal desalination plants in Qatar, maintaining newer but similar
technologies will be a familiar task that Qatar has encountered. Operating conditions of
the plants will also be similar. With this in mind, this solution is concluded to have a long
life span as Qatar has experience in maintaining such technologies.

4.4. Solar Desalination

As shown in Fig 5, solar desalination has the highest score, which means that it is the best
solution that we can recommend Qatar to use. Solar desalination is the process in which
the system contains solar collectors, heat storage and various piping in which the solar
collectors collect the sun’s energy as thermal energy (Zheng & Hatzell, 2020). Solar
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 12

energy is used to boil seawater and collect the produced steam to extract fresh drinkable
water, leaving behind salts and other contaminants (EarthTalk, 2015).

With the goal of achieving Qatar’s 2030 vision; Environmental development outcomes, in
which the country finds “a balance between development needs and protecting the
environment” (General Secretariat For Development Planning, 2008), Qatar needs to take
action such as finding alternative solutions to the use of fossil fuels.

Solar desalination is an excellent solution to reduce the environmental impacts of thermal

desalination in Qatar based on cost, ease of implementation, effectiveness and longevity.
Solar-powered desalination plants are cost effective in the long run, as solar energy is a
free and renewable source of energy (Gude et al., 2011). But the upfront cost of
installation can be high because of the need for solar collectors, reinforced tanks, stirring
systems and other equipment (Stefano et al., 2021). Also the cost of solar-powered
desalination plants can vary depending on several factors such as plant size, location, and
solar irradiance.

Secondly , regarding ease of implementation, the location of the country in the middle
east allows it to have access to sunlight most times of the year. Figure 2 shows the
photovoltaic electricity potential map of Qatar, in which a major area of the region has
the potential to deliver more than 5.0 kWh/kWp (Solargis, 2020). Therefore, solar
desalination is a more feasible solution in the region, as daytime lasts for an average of 13
hours. During this period, desalination plants can rely solely on solar energy to produce
the necessary electricity to power desalination plants. Concerns about desalination during
the nighttime can be mitigated by utilizing fossil fuels to provide sufficient power for the
process. This is another leading factor, for 70% reduced CO2 emissions, for solar
desalination plants to be implemented in the region.
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 13

Fig 6: A Photovoltaic Electricity Potential map of Qatar (Solargis, 2020).

Thirdly, in terms of effectiveness, solar desalination cuts direct CO2 emissions

completely. On the other hand, according to the emissions from thermal desalination in
the UAE, thermal desalination produces around 2.988kg per cubic meter for the
multi-stage flash process (Liu et al., 2015). Projecting this to Qatar’s demand of 450
Liters per day, estimating the total CO2 production for one month to be 40.3 kg
(Suleiman, 2023). This makes solar desalination the most effective at reducing the
environmental impacts as shown by the high score given in the decision matrix.

Lastly, for longevity we looked at the lifespan of the solar collectors used for solar
desalination since that is the main component of the solution. Solar collectors have an
average lifespan of 25 years given the appropriate care, which is a long period of time
considering it only costs 1000$ to replace them (Church, 2022). Qatar has a dry and hot
climate which risks dust collecting on the surface of the solar collectors which would
decrease the lifespan and efficiency of the solution. This issue can be resolved by gently
watering down the surface regularly to remove any particulate matter. With this in mind
solar desalination has a long life span which favors the solution.

5. Discussion of Recommendation
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 14

After conducting extensive research and analysis of the potential solutions to reduce the
environmental impacts of thermal desalination in Qatar, our team has concluded that
using solar power for thermal desalination is the most optimal solution. In this section,
we will discuss our selected solution, how it might be implemented, who is involved in
the implementation, and the constraints that must be considered.

Using solar power in thermal desalination is an innovative and sustainable solution that
utilizes renewable energy from the sun. The process involves utilizing infrared radiation
from the sun to generate sufficient energy to evaporate water, separating it from brine.
This eliminates the need for fossil fuels, reducing greenhouse gas emissions and
environmental impacts. The high level of solar irradiance in Qatar makes it an abundant
and reliable energy source for solar desalination. Furthermore, solar desalination plants
require minimal energy inputs, which makes them highly eco-friendly and cost-effective.

The implementation of solar desalination would involve the installation of solar panels in
desalination plants to harness solar energy. The collected energy would then be utilized to
power the thermal desalination process. The implementation process would involve
several stakeholders, including the Qatari government, desalination plant operators, and
renewable energy companies. The Qatari government would play a crucial role in the
implementation process by providing incentives, such as tax breaks and subsidies, to
encourage desalination plant operators to adopt solar power. Renewable energy
companies would provide the necessary equipment and expertise to install and maintain
the solar panels.

Several constraints must be considered during the implementation of solar desalination.

The design of the solar panels must be optimized to ensure maximum efficiency and
durability in the harsh climate conditions of Qatar. The materials used in the construction
of the solar panels must also be selected carefully to ensure their sustainability and
resistance to the effects of saltwater. The users of the desalination plants must be trained
to operate and maintain the solar panels to ensure their longevity and minimize
downtime. Finally, the financial constraints must be taken into account, including the
initial cost of installing the solar panels and the potential savings in the long run from
reduced energy costs.

In conclusion, using solar power in thermal desalination is the most optimal solution to
reduce the environmental impacts of thermal desalination in Qatar. The implementation
of this solution would involve several stakeholders, including the Qatari government,
desalination plant operators, and renewable energy companies. Several constraints, such
as design, materials, users, and financial, must be considered during the implementation
process. However, with proper planning and execution, the implementation of solar
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 15

desalination would provide a sustainable and eco-friendly solution to the water scarcity
crisis in Qatar.

6. Appendices
Questions asked in the interview with Dr. AbdelWahab:
1. What are the most significant sources of CO2 emissions in desalination
plants, and how can these emissions be minimized to reduce the carbon
footprint of the process?
2. How can renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, be
integrated into desalination plant operations to reduce reliance on fossil
fuels and mitigate CO2 emissions?
3. Are there any promising technological advancements or process
modifications that can help reduce CO2 emissions from desalination
plants, such as carbon capture and storage or energy recovery systems?
4. What strategies can be implemented to minimize the release of brine
concentrate back into the ocean, which can lead to environmental
degradation and harm marine life?
5. How can the discharge of brine concentrate be treated to minimize its
impact on the marine environment, and what are the most effective
methods for monitoring and assessing its effects?
6. Can desalination plants be designed to be more energy-efficient, and
what design features or operational practices can be used to achieve this
goal?
7. How can public awareness and education about the environmental
impacts of desalination be increased, and what role can policymakers and
stakeholders play in promoting sustainable desalination practices?
8. What are the most promising new desalination technologies that can help
mitigate the environmental impacts of desalination, such as forward
osmosis, membrane distillation, or electrodialysis?
9. How can desalination plants be integrated into the broader water
management framework, including conservation, recycling, and
alternative water sources, to promote sustainability and reduce the overall
environmental impact of water use?
10. How can the cost-effectiveness of desalination be improved to make it
more accessible to communities and regions that lack access to
freshwater resources while also minimizing its environmental impact?
 Greening the desalination process in Qatar - 16

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